Biotechnology: the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products.

Biotechnology based on: the manipulation of DNA in vitro

Under suitable conditions: the bacterial clone will make the protein encoded by the foreign gene

The potential uses of cloned genes:1-produce a protein product.2-o prepare many copies of the gene
itself.

Most protein-coding genes exist in only one copy per genome.

restriction enzymes: that cut DNA molecules at specific locations.

bacteria use restriction enzymes to: protect themselves against phages or other bacteria.

Bacteria protect their own DNA by: methylating

Each restriction enzyme cleaves a specific sequence of bases or restriction site.

Restriction enzymes: cut covalent sugar-phosphate backbones of both strands

These DNA fusions can be made permanent by: DNA ligase by catalyzing the formation of
covalent bonds to close up the sugar-phosphate backbone.

:
cloning vector The original plasmid used to produce recombinant DNA

Bacterial plasmids are widely used as cloning vectors: ?‫بسبب‬1-They can be easily isolated from bacteria.

2-manipulated to form recombinant plasmids by in vitro insertion of foreign DNA.

3-reintroduced into bacterial cells.

This plasmid carries two useful genes :1-ampR 2-lacZ

lacZ encoding the enzyme ß galactosidase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of suga r
genomic library. The library can be saved and used as a source of other genes or for gene
mapping

:
bacteriophages are also common cloning vectors for making genomic libraries.

phage as vectors is that phage can carry larger DNA inserts than plasmids can.

the essentials of a eukaryotic chromosome 1-origin site for replication

2-centromere, 3-two telomeres.
 1-electroporation
Several techniques facilitate entry of foreign DNA into eukaryotic cells

2-microscopically thin needles