Trang Bi Dien Dien Tu - Linh Kien Ban Dan - English

Ho Chi Minh City National University
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

Faculty of Mechanics Engineering
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
Subject:
Electrical & Electronic Equipment for Industrial Machinery
Semiconductor Components
Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

Contents
▪ Introduction
▪ Basic semiconductor concept
▪ Diodes and diode circuits
▪ Diode circuit problems

Introduction
Analog System Versus Digital System
► Analog signals take a continuum of amplitude values. Digital signals

take a few discrete amplitudes

Conversion of Signals from Analog to Digital
► An analog signal is converted to an ► Quantization error occurs when an

approximate digital equivalent by analog signal is reconstructed from its
sampling. Each sample value is digital form.
represented by a 3-bit code word.
(Practical converters use longer code
words)
Relative Advantages of Analog & Digital System
► After noise is added, the original amplitudes of a digital signal can be determined.
This is not true for an analog signal.
The Design Process
► System Design ► Circuit Design

Typical flowchart for design of electronic Flowchart of the circuit-design
systems process.

Basic Laws from Circuit Theory
► Ohm Law
A resistance R, the current i through it and the If the Ohm law is valid, the resistor is
voltage v across it. linear
Nonlinear resistor: the voltage is not

proportional to the current. For it

Kirchhoff Current Law
The algebraic sum of all currents, flowing through the branches,

connected to the same node, is 0.

Kirchhoff Voltage Law
The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop is 0

Basic Amplifier Concepts
► Ideally an amplifier
produces an output signal
with the same wave shape as
the input signal, but with a
larger amplitude
Av is the voltage gain of the

amplifier.

► Non-inverting amplifier: Av > 0

► Inverting amplifier: Av < 0
► The Common Ground Node

Often, one of the amplifier input terminals and one of the output
terminals are connected to a common ground.

► A certain noninverting amplifier has a voltage gain magnitude of 50.

The input voltage is vi(t)=0.1sin(2000πt)
(a) Find a expression for the output voltage vo(t) .
(b) Repeat Part (a) for an inverting amplifier

The Voltage-Amplifier Model
► Input resistance: equivalent

resistance when looking into the
input terminals
► Input impedance: a combination of input resistance, input

capacitance and input inductance.
► Output resistance: equivalent resistance when looking into the output
terminals.
► Open-circuit voltage gain Avo: the voltage gain when the output is an
open circuit (RL = ∞). Then

The Voltage-Amplifier Model
► Current gain: ► Power gain:

Using Voltage-Amplifier Model
► A source with internal voltage Vs = 1mV rms and internal resistance of

Rs = 1MΩ is connected to the input terminal of an amplifier having an
open-circuit voltage gain of Avo=104 , and input resistance of Ri=2MΩ ,
and an output resistance of Ro= 2Ω. The load resistance is RL = 8Ω. Find
the voltage gains Avs=Vo/Vs and Av = Vo/Vi . Also, find the current gain
and power gain.

Using Voltage-Amplifier Model
► We can apply the voltage - divider

principle to the input circuit to write
► The voltage - controlled source

gives

Cascaded Amplifiers
Cascade connection of two amplifiers

Analysis of a Cascaded-Amplifier
► Consider the cascade connection of two amplifiers. Find the current

gain, voltage gain, and power gain of each stage and for the overall
cascade connection.

Analysis of a Cascaded-Amplifier
► Considering loading by the input

resistance of the second stage that
the voltage gain of the first stage is
► For the second stage
► The overall voltage gain is

Power Supplies and Efficiency
The power supply

delivers power to the
amplifier from several
constant voltage
sources
► Total power, delivered from the power supplies

Power Supplies and Efficiency
► In fact the amplifier converts the dc power, taken from the power
supplies into ac power of the output signal in the load
► Power Efficiency: Power efficiency = (output signal power to load) /

(power from the power supply)

Basic Semiconductor Concepts
Intrinsic Silicon Crystal
Bohr model of the silicon atom:
► 14 electrons surround the
nucleus;
► Electron orbits grouped in
shells
► Outermost orbit contains 4
electrons – valence shell
► Atoms are arranged in
crystalline lattice
► Each pair of neighbor atoms
Crystalline lattice of intrinsic silicon in the lattice form a covalent
in the space
bond
► The covalent bond consists from 2 electrons that orbit around the
both atoms. Each atom contributes one electron in the pair
Intrinsic Silicon Crystal
Simplified intrinsic silicon crystal Thermal energy can break a bond,

creating a vacancy and a free electron
► Free electrons appear at room temperature due to breaking of the

covalent bonds. Only one per 1.4x1013 bonds is broken
Conduction by Holes
► After breaking the bond, the

atom is positive charged and the
vacancy of the electron is called
hole
► In the intrinsic silicon, the
concentration of the electron ni is
equal to the concentration of the
hole pi :
As electrons move to left to fill a hole,
ni = pi
the hole moves to the right

n-Type Semiconductor Material
► Extrinsic semiconductor:
silicon with small concentration of
impurities, which change its
conductivity
► Donor atom: atom of 5th
valence (Ex: phosphorus)
► Majority carriers in n-type
silicon: electrons
► Minority carriers in n-type
n-type silicon is created by adding
valence five impurity atoms silicon: hole

p-Type Semiconductor Material
► Acceptor: atom of 3rd valence

(Ex: boron)
► Majority carriers in p-type
silicon: holes
► Minority carriers in p-type
silicon: electrons
p-type silicon is created by adding

valence three impurity atoms

Physics of Junction Diode
The Unbiased pn Junction
► If a pn junction could be formed by joining a p-type crystal to an n-

type crystal, a sharp gradient of hole concentration and electron
concentration would exist at the junction immediately after joining the
crystals
Depletion
► The field of depletion region prevents the flow of majority carriers

► A built-in barrier potential exists for them due to depletion region

The pn Junction with Reverse Bias
► Reverse bias: when the

external voltage has the same
polarity as the field of the
depletion region
► Reversed biasing extends
the depletion region and fully
stops the current through the
Under reverse bias, the depletion diode
region becomes wider

The pn Junction with Forward Bias
► Forward bias: when the

external voltage has opposite
polarity to the field of the
depletion region
► Forward biasing narrows the
depletion region and reduces
the barrier potential. When the
barrier potential is reduced to
0, a significant current flows
Carrier concentration versus distance through the diode
for a forward biased pn junction

Diodes and Diode Circuits
Diode Characteristics
►Small-Signal Diodes
Diode: a semiconductor device,
which conduct the current in one
direction only.
-Two terminals: anode and cathode.
-When the positive polarity is at the
anode – the diode is forward biased
and is conducting.
-When the positive polarity is at the
cathode – the diode is reversed
biased and is not conducting.
-If the reverse-biasing voltage is
sufficiently large the diode is in
reverse-breakdown region and large
current flows though it.
Breakdown voltage.

Diode Characteristics
-Voltage drop across the diode when

forward biased: Vthrehold = 0.7V for Silic
or Vthrehold = 0.3V for Germanium.
-The current though the diode when
reversed biased: ~ 1nA (10-9A)
-Temperature dependence:
•As the temperature increases,
the voltage of the knee decreases by
2mV/K.
•The reverse current doubles for
each 10K increase in the temperature.
Volt-ampere characteristic for a typical
small-signal silicon diode at a temperature
of 300 K. Notice the changes of scale.

Diode Characteristics (Ideal)
- Bias conditions
- Forward bias: vd > 0, current can flow and id > 0
- Reverse bias: vd < 0, current can not flow and id = 0

Diode Characteristics (Ideal)
► Ideal diode:
• perfect conductor with zero voltage drop when the diode is
forward biased;
• open circuit, when the diode is reversed biased.

Diode Characteristics (Real)
Take a closer look at the characteristic around the turning point.

The i-v characteristic is an exponential function
Id: diode current

IS: reverse bias saturation current
VD: voltage across the diode
VT: thermal voltage
m: ideality factor
(1 ≤ m ≤ 2)
Also, the diode can only stand the negative

voltage up to a certain threshold VBD,
beyond which the diode conducts reverse
current (breakdown).

Zener Diode
► Zener diodes: doides intended to operate in breakdown region, made

by refractory material that retains its strength at high temperature, good
at heat dissipation.
If breakdown voltage > 6V: avalanche breakdown.
If breakdown voltage < 6V: tunneling mechanism of breakdown.

Diode Circuit Problems
A Nonlinear Circuit Problem
► Suppose we wish to find vd, given that the external voltage VS is not
large enough to validate the use of the ideal diode model.

Step 1: Locating the Operating Points
► Recall: The characteristic curve / line for a device actually defines

where the point (v, i) can lie.
► We know
The operating point (vd, The operating point (vR, iR)

id) is somewhere on the is somewhere on the
diode characteristic curve resistor characteristic curve

Step 2: KVL & KCL Constraints
► We also know
From KCL: id = iR AND From KVL: vd + vR = VS

Step 3: Enforcing KVL & KCL
► Method: Flip the resistor curve horizontally and push the two curves
together horizontally until the y-axes are VS apart

Solution: Load-line
► The flipped resistor line is called the LOAD LINE

Assumed States for Analysis of Ideal-Diode Circuits
► Analyze the circuit illustrated in below figure using the ideal - diode
model.

► Step 1. We start by assuming that D1 is off and D2 is on.

► Step 2. The equivalent circuit is shown in below figure. iD2=0.5mA
and vD1=7V.
► Step 3. We have vD1=+7V, which is not consistent with our
assumption.

Another Assumption
► Step 1. We assume that D1 is on and D2 is off.
► Step 2. The equivalent circuit is shown in below figure. iD1=1 mA
and vD2= -3 V.
► Step 3. These conditions are consistent with the assumption.

Rectifier Circuits
► Rectifiers: circuits, which convert ac power into dc power.
Half - Wave Rectifier Circuits

Half-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
► Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): across the diode: a parameter, which

defines the choice of the diode

Half-Wave Battery Charger
► Consider the battery charging circuit in below figure with Vm = 20V,

R = 10Ω and VB = 14V. Find the peak current assuming an ideal diode.
Also, find the percentage of each cycle in which the diode is in on state.
Sketch vs(t) and i(t) to scale against time.

Half-Wave Battery Charger

Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits

Voltage – Regulator Circuits
A simple regulator circuit that provides a nearly In the voltage regulator the zener-diode operates in
constant output voltage from a variable supply the breakdown region, which ensures
voltage approximately constant voltage across it.

Linear Small – Signal Equivalent Circuits
Dynamic Resistance

Linear Small – Signal Equivalent Circuits
The Shockley Equation

The End
57

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Ho Chi Minh City National University

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

▪ Basic semiconductor concept

▪ Diodes and diode circuits

▪ Diode circuit problems

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Analog signals take a continuum of amplitude values. Digital signals

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► An analog signal is converted to an ► Quantization error occurs when an

► System Design ► Circuit Design

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

Nonlinear resistor: the voltage is not

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

The algebraic sum of all currents, flowing through the branches,

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop is 0

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

Av is the voltage gain of the

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Non-inverting amplifier: Av > 0

► The Common Ground Node

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► A certain noninverting amplifier has a voltage gain magnitude of 50.

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Input resistance: equivalent

► Input impedance: a combination of input resistance, input

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Current gain: ► Power gain:

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► A source with internal voltage Vs = 1mV rms and internal resistance of

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► We can apply the voltage - divider

► The voltage - controlled source

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

Cascade connection of two amplifiers

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Consider the cascade connection of two amplifiers. Find the current

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Considering loading by the input

► For the second stage

► The overall voltage gain is

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

The power supply

► Total power, delivered from the power supplies

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Power Efficiency: Power efficiency = (output signal power to load) /

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

Simplified intrinsic silicon crystal Thermal energy can break a bond,

► Free electrons appear at room temperature due to breaking of the

► After breaking the bond, the

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Acceptor: atom of 3rd valence

p-type silicon is created by adding

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► If a pn junction could be formed by joining a p-type crystal to an n-

► The field of depletion region prevents the flow of majority carriers

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Reverse bias: when the

Associate Prof. Dr. Ngo Ha Quang Thinh, nhqthinh@hcmut.edu.vn

► Forward bias: when the