Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU)

To
Department of Mining Engineering

Geology for Mining Engineers I (MnEg2102)

Year 2; Semester II

Compiled By: Assnake Bekele

(MSc in Economic Geology)
Email: assnake.bekele@aastu.edu.et
Introduction to Geology for Mining Engineers I

CPB DPB

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 Introduction
1. Definition of Geology and Branch of Geology
What is Geology?
The word Geology comes from two Greek words geo and logos,
Geo means Earth and Logos means study.
Geology: is the science that deals with the study of earth as a
whole and its surrounding.

Specifically it studies about the:-

 Origin,
 Age,
 Structure of the earth and compositions,
 Evolution or progress,
 Modification,
 Extinction of surface and subsurface features;
 Various natural dynamic and physiochemical processes operating on
and in the earth, and
 The agents, forces involved and evolved in such processes.
 Geology:
• A scientific study of the structure and origin of the Earth,
and the process that have formed it over time.

• It deals with the physical, chemical and biological

processes that formed and modified the Earth, the
material (mineral and rocks) that constitutes the Earth and
the structure and composition that makes up of the Earth.

• Geology covers the whole spectrum of the Earth (Ocean and

continents) from the surface (crust) to the center of the
earth (core).

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 The major objectives of Geology
 Describe and interpret the surface of physical
features and explain their mode of origin.

 Decipher and elucidate the history of the Earth’s

evolution and its past life record on rocks.

 Study the material, and the processes on the globe.

 Study & locate the material which are economic

important.
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 The major objectives of Geology Cont’d.

• Extract natural resources (oil, coal,

water, economic minerals and rocks) and
use the sustainably.

• Study natural earth process (Earthquakes,

Volcanism) and their influence on human
welfare and study the influences human to
natural Earth material and processes.

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 Why is Geology important?
 Geologists investigate processes that operate at and below
the surface of the Earth, and the materials in which these
processes occur.

 Geologists not only look at the present-day processes, but

they examine the historic record of geologic events
preserved in the rock record.

 Geology is all around us - not just in the mountains or

oceans, but we actually see geology and depend on geologic
resources in our every day lives.
 For example, if you wanted to construct a building, you
would need geologic materials for construction such as
gypsum, limestone, clay, sand, gravel, to name a few.
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 Classification of Geology/ Fields of Geology
There are two sub divisions of geology, Pure geology and Applied geology.

1) Pure Geology:- is a sub 2) Applied Geology:- is a

division which enable us to subdivision which enable us to
understand about the Earth and
to formulate geological Principles apply the geological principles in
and laws. the Exploration & Exploitation of
Mineralogy earth resources.
Petrology Economic Geology
Historical Geology Mining Geology
(Paleontology, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology
Paleoclimatology, etc) Engineering Geology
Physical Geology Geochemistry
(Geomorphology) Geophysics
Structural Geology and Remote sensing & GIS
Tectonics
Environmental Geology
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 Geology and Its Main Branches
1.Physical Geology
 It is the study of the process and agents which
brings about the changes on the earth.
2.Mineralogy
 It is the study of the minerals
3.Petrology
 It is the study of the composition, origin, occurrence
and types of the Rocks
4.Geomorphology
 The study of the origin of landforms and their
modification by dynamic processes

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5.Oceanography
 Study of the ocean and their basin
6.Geophysics
 This branch of geology deals with the application of
principle of physics to the study of earth.
7.Geochemistry
 It concerned with composition of earth materials
and the chemical changes that occur within the
earth and on its surface
8.Paleantology
 The study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric
or geologic times as represented by the fossils of
plants, animals and other organisms 12
9.Stratigraphy
 The study of rock strata, especially the distribution,
deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks
10.Structural Geology
 The study of the forces that deform the earth's rocks
and the description and mapping of deformed rock
bodies
11.Economic Geology
 It involves the commercial and industrial uses of the
earth resources.
12.Hydrology
 It is the study of the surface and subsurface water.
13.Petroleum Geology
 It is the study of the origin and occurrence of oil and
gas.
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14.Engineering Geology
 Application of geology in the solving the
engineering problems

15.Mining Geology
 It is the structure of the exploration and extraction
of metallic and nonmetallic ores.

16. Historical Geology

 Historical geology deals with the historical
development of the earth from the study of its
rocks and fossils.

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The Planet Earth: Origin
 The Earth in Space
• Earth is part of solar sytem, which is in turns a avery
small part of the whole universe.
• The origin of universe has been and still is under
considerable debate.

• So, the earth is a unique planet, and it is not possible to

discuss the origin Earth Without considering the
origin of The Universe and The Solar system.

• Many theories tried to explain the origin of Universe, the

Big Bang Theory is the most popular among the
scientists in the field.

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 How do geologists / others understand Earth Systems?

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 Planets and dwarf planets

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 The Big Bang Theory
• Roughly 12 Billion years ago, a fireball in which all
matter and energy was concentrated, exploded (Big
Banged) due to which matter and energy spread
outward in all direction.

• Then the material cooled and condensed into hydrogen

clouds which were latter changed into the present day
Galaxies.

• The evidences for the big bang hypothesis are the ever
expanding nature of the universe.

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• Early time the earth considered to be the center
of the Solar System. (Geocentric model)

• But now the sun is the center of the Solar

System (Holiocenteric model), so earth like
other planetary bodies which revolves around
the Sun.

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 Origin of the Earth
• The Earth is a slightly flattened sphere with an average radius
of 6731 Km.

• The Earth is orbiting approximately 150 million km from the

sun.

• The formation of the earth is linked to the formation of the

Solar System. However, there has been intense debate.

• Currently most work on the origin of the solar system is from a

refinement of the Nebular Hypothesis.

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 Extraterrestrial (Jovian) Planets:
• The outer groups of large planets (Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.)

• Much is not know about these planets, but

composed of volatile which condense to
form ices, and very cold.

• They are voluminous but lighter.

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 Extraterrestrial (Jovian) Planets:

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 Terestrial Planets:
• The inner group of smaller planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars).

• Have small radius but large density.

• Which are condensed at high temprature, dut to their close

proximity to the sun.

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 The Earth: Early Differentiation and Age

• Early Earth was undifferentiated, homogeneous material and

hot.

• Late differentiated into different layers. Then inner most part

(core) was formed as molten iron separted from molten
silicates and sink to the center of the planet due to its high
density.
• Soon after core formation, a Marse-sized body collides with
molten Earth spraying materials that will became the Moon
into Earth orbits.

• Slowly the formation of crust, ocean and atmosphere

happened.
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Some facts about the Age of the Earth
Earth is considered to be ~4.6 to 4.5 Ga (Billion
year old), equivalentto the formation of Solar
System.
The earlies terrestrail mineral dated so far are ~
4.4 Ga Zircon, west Australia).
Oldest surving rock on Earth ~ 4.0 Ga old Acasta
gneiss-northern Candada).
Ealiest fossil evidence of life (single celled
organism) are of ~3.5 Ga old.

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  Structure and Composition of the Earth
• Earth is not composed • Based on this simple evidences, the
of homogeneous Earth was modelled with three
mixture of materials. layers of different density
• This material are • From the surface to 40 km depth:
arranged in a series of
– Composition light silicate minerals.
concentric layers of
different nature. – Dominantly K, Na, and Ca Silicate
material
• It is impossible to
– an average density of 2.7 – 3.0 g/cc.
access the interior of
the Earth, therefore, • From 40 km – 3000 Km depth:
indirect methods have – Dominantly Fe and Mg Silicates
been used to study the – Composition heavy silicate rocks
interior structures – an average density of 6 – 7 g/cc.
and composition of
• From about 3000 Km to the center:
the Earth.
– Composed of Fe-Ni alloys & average
density of 10-13 g/cc.
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How do we know the interior of the Earth
 It is not possible to get a direct evidence to the
interior of the earth. The deepest part of the Earth
that can be directly processed so far is <15km.
 So indirect methods have been used to study the
interior of the Earth. These are;

 Simple mathematical model

 Meteoritic evidence
 Xenoliths (volcanic evidence)
 Seismic wave
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Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth

1 Mathematical Computation

• The average density of Earth is determined to

be 5.52 g/cm3 While rocks in the surface have
an average density of 2.7 g/cm3.

• This implies that the interior of the Earth

should be composed of materials which are
denser than the crustal materials.

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Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth

2 Meteoritic Evidence
 Are representatives of Asteroids w/c are similar
to inner planets.

 There are 3 types of meteorites:

a. Stony :composed of silicates, similar to crust
b. Iron-stony: both silicate & Fe-Ni alloys, represents
the intermediate part of Asteroids
c. Iron Meteorites: Fe-Ni alloys, interior of asteroids.

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Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth

3Xenoliths (Volcanic Evidences)

 Xenoliths : fragmented materials which are

enclosed with in magma.

 Comes from the depth due to volcanic eruptions

from 100kms due to volcanic eruption.

 They are having heavy minerals of Mg, Fe that way

we say that mantle is composed of heavy minerals
like Mg and Fe
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Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth

4Seismic waves (waves associated with earthquakes)

 P waves – is Primary/ pressure/ compressional waves, arrive
first, pass through solid, liquid and gas, oscillate in the
direction of propagation.

 S waves – is Secondary, ‘side-to-side’ or shear waves, arrive

second, cannot pass through liquid, pass through solid,
oscillate in the direction transverse to propagation.

Compiled By: Assnake

Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth

Q. What are seismic discontinuities? And

What do they reveal about Earth’s
interior?

 Evidence that supports the idea that Earth has

layers comes from the way seismic waves behave
as they encounter different material inside Earth
and as the material is either liquid or solid

Compiled By: Assnake

 Seismic wave velocity discontinuities
 In geology the word "discontinuity" is used for a
surface at which suddenly change in seismic wave
velocity.

 Seismic wave velocity discontinuities are observed

when there is sudden change in
- physical properties of the earth
or
- chemical composition of the Earth.

 Seismic tomography indicates the structure of Earth’s

interior from estimates of the propagating velocities of
P waves and S waves
Compiled By: Assnake
Compiled By: Assnake
Compiled By: Assnake
 Seismic discontinuities
 Three seismic discontinuities divide the Earth into crust,
mantle and core:
1) The Mohorovic discontinuity, that separate crust and
mantle. At this discontinuity, Seismic wave velocity sharply
increased due to change in compositions.

2) The core-mantle interface at 2900 km is called Gutenberg

discontinuity. At this discontinuity seismic wave velocity
(both s and p wave) is sharply decrease due to change in
composition & physical states.

3) The inner core/outer core interface at about 5200 km is

Bullen Discontinuity. At this depth the velocity of seismic
waves are sharply increased due to change in physical state
(solid to liquid).
 Mohorovic
discontinuity

Gutenberg
discontinuity

Bullen
Discontinuity
Compiled By: Assnake
 Composition of the Earth
• More than 99% of the whole earth is made up of only 8
elements

(Fe, O, Si, Mg, Ni, S, Ca, Al)

• 99% of the bulk composition of the earth’s crust constituted by

only 8 elements

(O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, K, Na)

• However these elements form more than 3000 mineral phases

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 Most common elements in the crust

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 Anatomy of the Earth

Internal layering of the Internal layering based on Chemical Composition

Earth is divided in to
three big layers based on
Chemical Composition:

1) Crust

2) Mantle

3) Core
 1) Crust
 The Crust, or lithosphere, is the rigid outer-most layer.
 It is cool, solid, brittle, thin outer most layer of the earth.
 It is made up of light weight materials (light silicate rocks).
 Outermost layer
 Average thickness is 35-40 km
thick
 Continental crust is 30-70km
thick, is made up of older (up
to 3.8 Ga) granitic rocks.
 Oceanic crust is 3-15km thick,
made up of young (<180Ma)
basaltic rocks

 Made of Oxygen, Silicon,

Aluminum
 There are two types crusts: - Continental crust
- Oceanic crust
What are the main differences between oceanic and continental
crust?
Continental crust Oceanic crust

Thickness: 40 - 70 km Thickness: about 8 km

Composition: granitic rock Composition: basaltic rocks
Density: about 2.7 g/cm3  Density: about 3.0 g/cm3
 Geologically older Geologically younger

Compiled By: Assnake

 2) Mantle
The Mantle is the layer surrounding the core. The upper mantle is
partially molten and called the asthenosphere.
 It extends from 40km -2900km
in depth.
 It comprises about 82% by
volume and 68% the Earth’s by
mass.
 It has low velocity zone
Asthenosphere.
 Has more iron and
magnesium and less aluminum
and silicon than the crust.
 Its density varies from 3.2
g/cm3 in its upper part to
nearly 5 g/cm3 near its contact
with the core.
 3) Core
 It is a central part of the earth & about 6370 km in diameter.

 It is divided into an inner and outer core.

 It extends from 2900km-to
the center of the Earth.

 The outer core is liquid & the

inner core is solid.
 Average density is about 10.8
g/cm3.
 Makes up only 16% of
Earth’s volume, but, because
of its high density, it accounts
for 32% of Earth’s mass.
 It is composed of iron and
nickel alloys.
Summary Table Showing the Chemical Properties of the earth’s layer

Layer Chemical Properties

Continental Crust Composed Primary of granitic
Density= 2.7g/cm3
Oceanic Crust Composed Primary of basalt
Density= ~2.9 g/cm3
Mantle Composed Primary of silicon,
oxygen, iron & magnesium
Density= 4.5 g/cm3
Core Composed Primary of iron
Density= 13 g/cm3

Compiled By: Assnake

 Internal layering of the earth based on Chemical Composition are:
Crust, Mantle & Core

Compiled By: Assnake

 Internal layering of the Earth based on physical
properties
 Layers of the earth based on physical properties (rheology-
how easily rock flow) are:
 Lithosphere
 Asthenosphere
 Mesosphere
 Outer core
 Inner core

Compiled By: Assnake

 Earth’s layered structure according to mechanical
behavior of rocks ranges from very rigid to
deformable.
1. Lithosphere: rigid surface shell that includes upper
mantle and crust (here is where ‘plate tectonics’
work), cool layer.
-means rocky layer (litho: rock, sphere: layer).
-It is solid, strong and rigid outer part of the Earth.
-It extends from surface to 100 km depth.

2. Asthenosphere: layer below lithosphere, part of the

mantle, weak and deformable (ductile, deforms as
plates move), partial melting of material happens here,
hotter layer. Compiled By: Assnake
2. Asthenosphere, Cont’d

 Beneath the lithospheric plates lies a layer semi-molten rock

called the asthenosphere.
 It is weak and easily deformed part of the mantle.

The outermost
Layers of the
earth.

Compiled By: Assnake

 The rocks lose much of their strength and become
soft plastic and flow .

 This zone of easily deformed mantle is called

weak sphere.

 It extends from 100 km depth to 350 km.

The asthenosphere is denser than both continental

and oceanic lithosphere, this means that the plates
are floating on top of the asthenosphere.

 Asthenosphere acts as a “lubricant” for the

tectonic plates to slide/float over.
Compiled By: Assnake
The lithosphere float over the asthenosphere

Compiled By: Assnake

 3. Mesosphere

 Beneath the asthenosphere is the mesosphere,

another strong layer.

 It is stronger and much rigid than the asthenosphere.

Why?  because the high pressure at this depth
offsets the effect of high temperature.

 This is the region b/n the asthenosphere and the

core.

 It extends from 350 to 2900 km.

Compiled By: Assnake

 On the basis of mechanical behavior alone, the core
has two distinct parts:
 liquid outer core
 solid inner core

 The outer core is liquid and extends from 2900 to

5200km beneath the mantle, at Temp of 3200°C.

 The inner core is solid and extends from 5200 to

6400 km beneath the outer core, at Temp of 4000-
5500°C.

Compiled By: Assnake

Summary table showing the layers of the earth based on Physical
Properties

Layer Physical Properties

Lithosphere Cool, rigid, outer layer

Asthenosphere Hot, partially melted layer

which flows slowly
Mantle Denser and more slowly flowing
than the asthenosphere
Outer Core Dense, viscous liquid layer,
extremely hot
Inner Core Solid, very dense and
extremely hot
Compiled By: Assnake
 Part II Will Continued

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