Eng 203 Clauses 2020-21

ENG 203 & 204 LECTURE NOTES ON CLAUSES Can GÜR
ENG 203 & 204

ACADEMIC ENGLISH
LECTURE NOTES ON
CLAUSES
* RELATIVE (ADJECTIVE ) CLAUSES

* NOUN CLAUSES
* ADVERB CLAUSES
* INVERSIONS
PREPARED BY CAN GÜR
GAZİ UNIVERSITY
ANKARA, 2020
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CONTENTS
A. RELATIVE (ADJECTIVE) CLAUSE ............................................................................. 3
I. “THAT, WHO, WHOM, WHICH, WHOSE” IN DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES .................................. 3
II. “WHO, WHOM, WHICH, AND WHOSE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES............................ 3
III. “WHERE, WHEN AND WHY” IN DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES ................................................ 5
IV. “WHEN AND WHERE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES................................................. 6
V. “QUANTITY WORDS + OF WHICH / WHOM / WHOSE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES ....... 6
VI. THE POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS IN RELATIVE CLAUSES ...................................................... 7
VII. REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES................................................................................. 8
VIII. CLEFT SENTENCES (RELATIVE CLAUSES USED FOR EMPHASIS) ........................................... 9
B. NOUN CLAUSE ....................................................................................................... 10
I. NOUN CLAUSES DERIVED FROM STATEMENTS ................................................................... 10
A. Position of That-clauses ................................................................................................. 10
B. Functions Of That-clauses ............................................................................................. 11
C. Nouns Which Take That-clauses For Explanation Or As Subject Complement ............. 11
II. NOUN CLAUSES DERIVED FROM QUESTIONS .................................................................... 12
A. Yes/No Questions.......................................................................................................... 12
1. Formation .......................................................................................................... 12
2. Functions of Whether-Clauses ........................................................................... 12
B. Question–word Question (Wh- Clauses) ........................................................................ 12
1. Formation .......................................................................................................... 12
2. Functions of Wh-clauses .................................................................................... 13
III. USING “IT” AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE .............................................................. 14
IV. REDUCTION OF NOUN CLAUSES ..................................................................................... 16
C. ADVERBIAL CLAUSE .............................................................................................. 17
I. TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES....................................................................................... 17
II. POSITION AND PUNCTUATION ......................................................................................... 19
III. REDUCTION OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES ............................................................................. 19
A. Verb “To Be” In Adverbial Clauses ................................................................................ 20
B. Active Constructions ...................................................................................................... 20
1. Actions That Take Place at the Same Time .......................................................... 20
2. Actions That Take Place at Different Times ......................................................... 22
C. Passive Constructions ................................................................................................... 23
1. Actions That Take Place at The Same Time ......................................................... 23
2. Actions That Take Place at Different Times ......................................................... 25
D. INVERSION ............................................................................................................ 26
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A. RELATIVE (ADJECTIVE) CLAUSE

An adjective clause is a dependent clause which is used to describe and modify nouns.
There are basically two kinds of adjective clauses: defining and non-defining.
I. “THAT, WHO, WHOM, WHICH, WHOSE” IN DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
 You use defining relative clauses to say exactly which person or thing you are talking
about.
 Defining relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun such as “that”
“which”, “who”, “whom”, or “whose”.
 A defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun, and needs a main clause to
make a complete sentence.
You use defining relative clauses to give information that helps to identify the person or
thing you are talking about. The relative pronouns “that”, “which”, “who”, and whose + N”
can be both in the subject position and in the object position. “Whom” is used only in the
object position.
1. Relative pronouns in the subject position
a. He is the man. He bought my house.

He is the man that/who bought my house.
b. The car belonged to Paul. It crashed into me.
The car which/that crashed into me belonged to Paul.
c. The woman is my brother’s ex-wife. Her hair is long and curly.
The woman whose hair is long and curly is my brother’s ex-wife.
2. Relative pronouns in the object position
a. The children enjoyed the tale. Their grandmother told it.

The children enjoyed the tale (that/which) their grandmother told.
b. The man was my brother. You met him yesterday.
The man (who/whom/that) you met yesterday was my brother.
c. The student was congratulated by his friends. The teacher praised his paper.
The student whose paper the teacher praised was congratulated by his friends.
Note : Who, which, whom, and that used in the object position in defining clauses can be
omitted.
II. “WHO, WHOM, WHICH, AND WHOSE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

 You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing
you are talking about. They are specifically used in the following cases:
1. When the antecedent (= the noun phrase that the relative pronoun is used for)
has been previously identified:
J. Robert Oppenheimer met some brilliant scientists in Germany and England. These
scientists, who would later feature prominently in his life, included Edward Teller and
Leo Szilar.
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2. When the antecedent is a proper noun:
Istanbul, which is the biggest city in Turkey, is a place where the East meets the
West.
3. When the antecedent is one -of- a -kind noun:

The sun, which gives us light, is a big star.
 Non-defining relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun such as

'which', who', 'whom', or 'whose'.
 A non-defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun and needs a main
clause to make a complete sentence.
SPECIAL NOTE
1. Note that in written English, a non-defining relative clause is separated from the main
clause by a comma or commas whichever is appropriate.
a. I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.

b. Neil Armstrong, who is the first man to set foot on the moon, is known by everybody.
2. You can also use a non-defining relative clause beginning with “which” to say
something about the whole situation described in a main clause.
a. I never met Mr. Özdemir again, which was a pity.

b. She was a little tense, which was understandable.
c. Small computers need only small amounts of power, which means that they will run
on small batteries.
3. You do not use “that” in non-defining relative clauses.
4. If you change a defining relative clause into a non-defining relative clause, the meaning
changes.
a. The students who did not come to class yesterday explained their absence to the
teacher. (Which students? some of the students)
b. The students, who did not come to class yesterday, explained their absence to the
teacher. (Which students? all the students)
Exercise - 1
Join the sentences below using “who, whom, whose, or which”, putting commas where
necessary. Make sure that relative clause goes next to the word it gives extra information
about.
1. I met Jane’s father. He works at the university.

I met Jane’s father, who works at the university.
2. Peter is studying French and German. He has never been abroad.
Peter, who has never been abroad, is studying French and German.
3. She is the novelist. Her book won first prize.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Michael Wood is one of my oldest friends. He has just gone to live in Canada.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Manchester is in the northwest. It is one of England’s fastest growing towns.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
6. This is David. We stayed in David’s house for our holidays.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Exercise - 2
In the following sentences, add commas where necessary and change the adjective
clause pronoun to that if possible.
1. The geologist who lectured last night predicted another earthquake.
2. The pizza which we had for lunch yesterday was very good.
3. Rice which is grown in many countries is an important food throughout the world.
4. The workers who didn’t come to work yesterday explained their absence to the boss.
5. The elephant which is the earth’s largest land mammal has few natural enemies other
than human beings.
6. One of the elephants which we saw at the zoo had only one tusk.
III. “WHERE, WHEN AND WHY” IN DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
You can use “when”, “where”, and “why” in defining relative clauses after certain nouns.
You use when after “time” or time words such as “day” or “year”. You use where after
“place” or place words such as “room” or “street”. You use why after “reason”
There had been a time when she hated all men.

This is the year when profits should increase.
He showed me the place where they work.

That was the room where I did my homework.
There are several reasons why I cannot do that.

I know the reason why he decided to study at Gazi.
Note : Defining relative clauses that modify a place, a time or reason can also be used as in
the following sentences.
1. I don’t remember the day. She came on that day.

I don’t remember the day which she came on.
I don’t remember the day on which she came.
I don’t remember the day when she came.
I don’t remember the day that she came.
I don’t remember the day she came.
2. The reason is unknown. Jane left home because of this reason.

The reason why Jane left home is unknown.
The reason Jane left home is unknown.
3. The restaurant was cheap. We ate fish in that restaurant.

The restaurant which we ate fish in was cheap.
The restaurant in which we ate fish was cheap.
The restaurant where we ate fish was cheap.
The restaurant that we ate fish in was cheap.
The restaurant we ate fish in was cheap.
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IV. “WHEN AND WHERE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
You can use “when” and “where” in non-defining relative clauses after expressions of
specific time or specific place.
This happened in 1957, when I was still a baby.
She has just come back from a holiday in Crete, where Alex and I went last year.
Notes :
1. You can replace when or where by which, adding an appropriate preposition to the
relative clause. For example:
He arrived last Monday, when/ on which I was sick.
METU, where/ at which he studies, is an English-medium university.
2. You cannot replace “when” or “where” with that.

3. You cannot use non-defining relative clauses without any relative pronoun, which is
possible in defining clauses. The only alternatives are those given above in 1.
Exercise - 3
Complete these sentences by adding when, where, or why and putting commas
where necessary. Then check to see if there are other ways to rewrite the relative clauses.
1. This is definitely the place where I left it.
2. Do you remember the time ____________________ we got lost?
3. There must be a good reason _________________ he’s late.
4. Sheila quit the job last June, ____________________ she had an operation.
5. They are building a hospital on the street ______________________ we live.
6. I’d love to go to Paris, __________________ I can visit several museums, theaters and cafes.
V. “QUANTITY WORDS + OF WHICH / WHOM / WHOSE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE

CLAUSES
When you talk about a group of people or things and want to add some extra information
regarding all, none or a part of them, you can use the following expressions.
Many/some/both whose
Most/a few/all of which
None/two-three whom
Examples
a. They were all friends, many of whom had known each other for years.
b. He talked about several interesting people, some of whom he was still in contact with.
c. I did physics exercises, all of which were quite difficult.
d. He has two daughters, both of whom are married.
e. Yaşar Kemal, several of whose books have been translated into many languages, is an
internationally recognized Turkish author.
Exercise – 4
Rewrite these sentences using phrases with “of which” or “of whom” or “of whose”.
e.g. I got four books for my birthday. I had read three of them before.
I got four books for my birthday, three of which I had read before.
1. I was attacked by two men. I had met neither of them before.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
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2. He had a lot to say about his new computer. None of it interested me very much.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. There were some noisy people in the audience. One of them kept interrupting the
speaker.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. She made all kinds of suggestions. I could not understand most of them.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5. The man was very happy. Both of his children survived the air crash.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
VI. The Position Of Prepositions In Relative Clauses
1. She is the woman. I told you about her.

a) She is the woman about whom I told you. In very formal English, the
preposition comes at the
b) She is the woman who(m) I told you about.
beginning of the adjective clause,
c) She is the woman that I told you about. as in (a) and (e). Usually, however,
d) She is the woman  I told you about. in everyday usage, the preposition
comes after the subject and verb
2. The music was good. We listened to it last night. of the adjective clause, as in the
examples.
e) The music to which we listened last night was good.
f) The music which we listened to last night was good.
Note : If the preposition comes at
g) The music that we listened to last night was good.
the beginning of the adjective
h) The music  we listened to last night was good.
clause, only whom or which may
be used. A preposition is never
immediately followed by that or
who.
Exercise - 5 Join the following sentences as in the example.
e.g. ‘The house is on the corner”. “Mr. Wilson lives in it.”
a. The house in which Mr. Wilson lives is on the corner.

b. The house that Mr. Wilson lives in is on the corner.
c. The house Mr. Wilson lives in is on the corner.
1. Here’s the book. You and I were talking about it yesterday.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. The speaker mentioned that matter. We listened to the speaker.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. I am grateful to the man. I borrowed some money from him.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. This is a particularly difficult exercise. The students might have trouble with it.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. You are reading short stories and plays. You will be able to improve and expand your
vocabulary through them.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. It was a shocking experience to discover she had ruined the map. I had spent so much
time on it.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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VII. REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
Full sentence Reduced sentence

Those who want to join the trip are my friends.
Those wanting to join the trip are my
friends.
Active verbs become Present Participle (V-ing)
The house that is painted / was painted / The house painted belongs to Joe
has (had) been painted belongs to Joe Adams. Adams.
Passive verbs become Past Participle (V3)
The car which is/ was being repaired is very The car being repaired is very expensive.
expensive.
Continuous Passive verbs become Present Participle Passive (being V3)
She is the first / second / last / oldest / only

She is the first / second / last / oldest /
woman who won the Nobel Prize for literature. only woman to win the Nobel Prize for
literature.
Verbs become To + Infinitives
John failed his exam, which greatly John failed his exam, greatly
disappointed his parents. disappointing his parents.
Active verbs become Present Participle (V-ing)
INFINITIVE
Present Perfect
Active (not) to V (not) to have V3
Passive (not) to be V3 (not) to have been V3
PARTICIPLES (Verbal Adjectives)
Present Past Perfect

Active (not) V-ing (not) having V3
Passive (not) being V3 (not) V3 (not) having been V3
SPECIAL NOTE
In non-defining relative clauses, the reduced clause may be used before the main clause:
Examples
1.a. Tarsus, which is located between Adana and Mersin, is the place where St Paul
lived.
1.b. Tarsus, located between Adana and Mersin, is the place where St Paul lived.
1.c. Located between Adana and Mersin, Tarsus is the place where St Paul lived.
2.a. Charles Lindbergh, who was the first person who flew across the Atlantic alone, is
regarded as one of the pioneers of aviation.
2.b. Charles Lindbergh, the first person to fly across the Atlantic alone, is regarded as
one of the pioneers of aviation.
2.c. The first person to fly across the Atlantic alone, Charles Lindbergh is regarded as
one of the pioneers of aviation.
3.a. Ankara, which is the capital of Turkey, is located in Central Anatolia.

3.b. Ankara, the capital of Turkey, is located in Central Anatolia.
3.c. The capital of Turkey, Ankara is located in Central Anatolia.
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Exercise - 6 Rewrite the following sentences using the short forms of adjective clauses.
1. The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. This book, which is available in all major book shops, is a best seller.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Ara Güler’s photographs, which were published in the newspaper, were extraordinary.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. The Bosphorus Bridge, which was built in 1973, is the fourth longest suspension bridge
in the world.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. The issue which is being discussed at the moment concerns all of us.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Michael was the first student who reacted to the new teacher’s strict rules.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made important discoveries.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
VIII. CLEFT SENTENCES (RELATIVE CLAUSES USED FOR EMPHASIS)
When a certain word or phrase (usually a It is this complexity that man can now
noun or a pronoun) in a statement needs to interfere with.
be emphasized, or if the point is to be made It is your brother who started the fight.
more strongly, the structure on the right It is money that we need.
hand column can be used. It is Jack who is to blame.
Exercise - 7
Change the following sentences as in the example. (Do not change the original
meaning)
e.g. Helen met Jack in London last summer.
It was Helen who met Jack in London last summer.

It was Jack who(m) Helen met in London last summer.
It was in London that Helen met Jack last summer.
It was last summer that Helen met Jack in London.
1. DNA carries the genetic code.

It is DNA _____________________________________________________________________________
It is the genetic code__________________________________________________________________
2. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.

It was Alexander Fleming ______________________________________________________________
It was penicillin _______________________________________________________________________
It was in 1928 ________________________________________________________________________
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B. NOUN CLAUSE
A noun clause is a dependent clause which is used in the same way as a noun or noun
phrase. Noun clauses may function as object, or subject of a sentence as well as subject
complement, adjective complement, appositive, and object of a preposition.
Study the following noun/adjective phrases and noun clauses.
FUNCTION NOUN/ ADJ. PHRASE NOUN CLAUSE

a. We believe in his honesty. a. We believe (that) he is honest.
Object b. I didn’t understand his words. b. I didn’t understand what he
said.
c. I know her name. c. I know what her name is.
a. His failure surprised me. a. (The fact) That he failed
surprised me.
b. The winner of the race will receive b. Whoever wins the race will
Subject a prize. receive a prize.
c. His response is unpredictable. c. How he will respond is
unpredictable.
d. Their sincerity is questionable. d. Whether they are sincere is
questionable.
Adjective She is certain of success. She is certain (that) she will
Complement succeed.
Appositive (Used One problem, his incompetence, will One problem, that he is
for Explanation) be hard to deal with. incompetent, will be hard to deal
with.
a. I was worried about his health. a. I was worried about how ill he
Object of a was.
preposition b. Everything depends on his b. Everything depends on
graduation from the university. whether he will be able to
graduate from the university
(or not).
I. NOUN CLAUSES DERIVED FROM STATEMENTS

We use that to form noun clauses from statements.
A. Position of That-clauses
a. That-clauses are used after:

- some verbs : He is going to be late. I know this.
I know (that) he is going to be late.
- some adjectives: He is going to be late. It is obvious.
It’s obvious that he is going to be late.
- some nouns : He is going to be late. It is a pity.
It’s a pity that he is going to be late.
b. A that-clause can also start a sentence, in which case it serves as the subject of the
sentence.
e.g. That he lied to us is unbelievable.
Note : THAT cannot be omitted when it introduces a noun clause used as subject of the
sentence. However, it can often be omitted after verbs and adjectives.
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B. Functions Of That-clauses
Noun clauses introduced by that have various functions. Study the table below.
Function That Clause

Object Everybody knows (that) the earth is round.
Subject That the earth is round is known by everybody.
Subject Complement What is known by everybody is that the earth is round.
Adjective Complement Scientists are confident that the earth is round.
Appositive The fact that the earth is round is known by everybody.
C. Nouns Which Take That-clauses For Explanation Or As Subject Complement

advantage change explanation indication point reason
argument contention fear news possibility rumor
claim fact likelihood opinion prediction trouble
assumption doubt guarantee optimism probability shame
belief evidence idea pity proof view
A that-clause either follows these nouns for explanation or serves as subject complement of
the sentence after the verb to be. Follow the examples:
1. I don’t share your optimism that the new economic measures will bring down inflation.
2. His assumption that the new course material will significantly improve students’ English is
sensible.
3. His assumption is that the new course material will significantly improve students’
English.
4. Her suggestion that we should design a new program should be taken seriously.
5. Her suggestion is that we should design a new program.
6. My personal opinion is that there is nothing to gain from this approach.
7. There is no evidence that he was involved in the bribery scandal.
8. There is no indication that things will improve in the future.
Exercise - 8
Complete these sentences with noun clauses.
1. He feels angry. It’s not surprising (that) he feels angry.

2. John is feeling better. I’m glad _________________________________________________________
3. He has been dismissed. It’s a shame____________________________________________________
4. Bill doesn’t trust us. It’s annoying ______________________________________________________
5. Computers are essential. It has become obvious ________________________________________
6. She is innocent. We believe ____________________________________________________________
Exercise - 9
Form appositive noun clauses as in the examples :
1. He was mistreated. (his claim / has no basis)
His claim that he was mistreated has no basis.
2. Money brings happiness. (belief / absurd)
The belief that money brings happiness is absurd.
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3. We can produce petrol from wood. (idea / interesting)

__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. My best friend was killed in an accident (news/shocked me)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. He was late because he missed the bus. (his explanation/sensible)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Turkey’s Per capita income will reach that of Germany by the year 2020.
(your prediction/overly optimistic)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
II. NOUN CLAUSES DERIVED FROM QUESTIONS
A. Yes/No Questions
1. Formation
We can introduce a Yes/No question as a noun clause after if or whether. We use
reporting verbs like ask, tell me, want to know, inquire and other verbs like investigate,
wonder, find out, don’t know, remain to be seen, depend on etc. It should be noted that the
word order changes back to subject + verb and we don’t use a question mark to form
indirect questions from direct questions as in reported or indirect speech:
Examples
1a Has he signed the contract? We don’t know this.
1b. We don’t know whether he has signed the contract (or not)
1c. We don’t know if he has signed the contract.
2a. Can he win the race? I wonder this.

2b. I wonder if he can win the race.
2c. I wonder whether he can win the race.
2. Functions of Whether-Clauses
Noun clauses introduced by whether function as :
FUNCTION WHETHER-CLAUSE
Object We don’t know whether (if) he really needs money (or not)
Subject Whether he really needs money is not known.
Adjective Complement I’m not sure whether he really needs money.
Object of a preposition I have some doubts about whether he really needs money.
Subject Complement The question is whether he really needs money.
Note : Whether can be replaced by if in object and adjective complement positions.

However, it cannot normally be replaced by if in other positions.
B. Question–word Question (Wh- Clauses)
1. Formation
We can introduce a direct question beginning with a question words an indirect

question or a noun clause after tell me, ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, find out, remain
to be seen etc. The word order changes back to subject + verb and we don’t use a question
mark. In other words, we change a direct question to an indirect question as in the reported
speech:
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Examples
When did he sign the contract? I wonder this.
I wonder when he signed the contract.
What did he say? I don’t remember it.

I don’t remember what he said.
2. Functions of Wh-clauses
The following table illustrates the functions of Wh-clauses.
Function Wh-Clause
how much money he needs.
Object You know what he need.
why he needs money.
When he was born
Subject How long he stayed in England does not concern me.
Where he lives now
Adjective what he really means.
Complement It’s not clear why he did such a thing.
when he intends to resign.
Object of a how he managed to secure credit.
preposition I’m interested in what else he has got to say.
how long the project will last.
Subject The question is what happened to him.
Complement
Exercise - 10
Complete these sentences with noun clauses.
1. Why did he leave early? He didn’t tell me ______________________________________________

2. What does he intend to do? This should concern you more than anybody else.
What _______________________________________________________________________________
3. Can these problems be solved? The question is ________________________________________
4. Are they determined to pursue this policy? We wonder _________________________________
5. Where is he hiding? This is not known. Where __________________________________________
6. When did the incident take place? This is of crucial importance.
When ________________________________________________________________________________
7. How did he manage to escape from the prison? This remains a mystery.
How __________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise - 11
Change the nouns or noun phrases printed in italics to noun clauses.
1. Her reasons for being angry surprised me.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. He noticed her nervousness.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The date of the wedding ceremony will be announced soon.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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4. Our discussion was private.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. I’m convinced of his innocence.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. What worries me is the inadequacy of our food supplies.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. His reluctance to cooperate with people around him is annoying.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
8. A lot depends on his assessment of the situation.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise - 12
Combine the following sentences by using a noun clause to replace the underlined
nouns, pronouns or phrases.
1. What did she say? I have forgotten it.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Can you help us with the painting? We need to know this.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Any student who fails this exam will be dismissed. The administration announced this.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. John said something. Did you hear it?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. How did Alexander Graham Bell invent the telephone? Does anyone know this?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. He will succeed. I strongly believe this.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Was he involved in the financial scandal? The police will investigate this.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
8. How long will he stay in England? Nobody seems to know this.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
III. USING “IT” AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
If a noun clause in the subject position is moved to end of the sentence the pronoun “it” is
used as an empty subject. Follow the examples:
a. That-Clauses
(The fact) That she married John is surprising. It is surprising that she married John.
That he is a liar is a fact. It is a fact that he is a liar.
b. Whether-clauses
Whether they have accomplished the mission is unknown.
It is unknown whether (if) they have accomplished the mission.
c. Wh-Clauses
How he obtained those files is being investigated.
It is being investigated how he obtained those files.
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Exercise - 13
Complete the following sentences by adding noun clauses in subject position. Begin the
noun clauses with the words given, and use the questions as a guide to form the noun
clause.
1. How old was the girl when the incident in the supermarket happened?
How old the girl was when the incident happened was not mentioned.
2. Did the child misbehave in the supermarket?

Yes, probably, but how ________________________________________ was not discussed.
3. What did the mother tell the child on the way home?
What ___________________________________________________ was that she was no good.
4. Did the mother have any knowledge of the child’s fantasy?

Whether _________________________________________________ was not clearly explained.
5. What did the child imagine the angry mother to be?

What _______________________________________________________ was an evil Martian.
Exercise - 14
Rewrite the following sentences starting with “it” if possible.
Example
That we need much more practice in English is clear.
It is clear that we need much more practice in English.
1. That he should fail to conduct the investigation seems very strange.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Whoever lived through that period will never forget that event.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How the company should promote the new product has not been decided yet.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. The fact that there may be life on other planets is now generally accepted.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Why she decided to invest in an unstable currency is a mystery to me.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. That the water has become polluted is a matter of grave concern.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
15 / 27
IV. REDUCTION OF NOUN CLAUSES
Note how the following noun clauses can be reduced to infinitive (to V) and gerund (V-ing)
phrases. If the subjects of the clauses are same, the subject of the noun clause is omitted.
If the subjects of the clauses are different, the object form of the noun clause’s subject is
used.
Full sentence Reduced sentence
It’s essential that she change her job. It’s essential for her to change her job.
I’m glad that I have been selected. I’m glad to have been selected.
He’s happy that he is here. He’s happy to be here.
I believe that he is honest. I believe him to be honest.
We don’t know what we have to do. We don’t know what to do.
She doesn’t know when she should She doesn’t know when to leave.
leave.
Could you tell me how I can get to the Could you tell me how to get to the station?
station?
My mother told me where I could find My mother told me where to find second hand
second hand books. books.
I can’t decide whether I should change I can’t decide whether to change my plan or (to)
my plan or stick to it. stick to it.
He denied that he had stolen the money. He denied having stolen the money.
She acknowledged that she had made a She acknowledged having made a mistake.
mistake.
INFINITIVE
Present Perfect
Active (not) to V (not) to have V3
Passive (not) to be V3 (not) to have been V3
GERUNDS (Verbal Nouns)
Present Perfect
Passive (not) being V3 (not) having been V3
Exercise - 15
Rewrite the following sentences by using infinitives or gerunds.
1. He told me when I should come. (He told me when to come )

2. She admitted that she had lied to me.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The plumber told me how I could fix the leak in the sink.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Please tell me where I should meet you.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Elizabeth can’t decide whether she should publish her new book or not.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
16 / 27
C. ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions,
such as although, because, when, since, as, whereas, as if, if etc... The kind of conjunction
to be used depends on the relationship between the ideas in the clauses that form the
sentence. The idea in the adverbial clause is less important than that in the main clause.
Study the table below.
I. TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
As/While/I was walking along First Street, I saw two men.

When he became President, he made drastic changes in the
country’s foreign policy.
Whenever I go to Bursa, I visit my uncle, who lives there.
Every time I encounter some difficulties, he offers to help me.
By the time he arrived, she had left the house.
The moment he arrives, I’ll give him your message.
1. TIME She will stay in hospital until she fully recovers from her illness.
As soon as he arrived, he was asked to leave again.
He had no sooner arrived than he was asked to leave again.
He had hardly arrived when he was asked to leave again.
Once you understand this rule, you’ll have no further difficulty.
We haven’t heard from him since he left.
I’ll remember you as long as/so long as I live.
I put the book where I found it.
2. PLACE Wherever he goes, he takes pictures.
You can park your car anywhere you like.
As/Since/Because the demand has increased, the prices are higher.
Now that he has finished his work, he can leave.
The elections were disrupted due to the fact that there were
widespread disturbances throughout the country.
In view of the fact that the number of unemployed is steadily
3. REASON rising, it is essential to create new jobs.
Seeing that we need to arrive by twelve o’clock, we’d better leave
now.
Inasmuch as language is changing, the rules of grammar change,
too.(formal)
He left on the grounds that he was ill. (very formal)
4. CONCESSIVE Although/Though/Even though Bob is lazy, he is intelligent.

CONTRAST Despite/In spite of the fact that he tried hard, he failed.
(Unexpected
Result)
5. DIRECT Whereas/While Bob is lazy, Bill is diligent.

CONTRAST Ali is short and fat, while/whereas Okan is tall and thin.
(Direct
Opposition)
17 / 27
He is so careful that he doesn’t make even a single mistake.

He writes so carefully that he doesn’t make even a single mistake.
He is such a careful student that he doesn’t make even a single
mistake.
6. RESULT He writes with such great care that he doesn’t make even a single
mistake.
She has so many friends in this city that she will never feel lonely.
She has such a lot of friends in this city that she will never feel lonely.
I went there so that/in order that I could see him.
7. PURPOSE I wrote down his phone number in case I forgot it/in case I should
forget it.
I’ll take my umbrella in case it rains/in case it should rain.
The more money you make, the more you spend.
The greater the demand (is), the higher the price (is).
8. PROPORTION As the boy grew older, (so) his understanding developed.
DEGREE Violence increased to the extent that they were forced to leave their
homes.
We are entering a period of less danger insofar as the danger of
nuclear war is less.
Just as Bill shows great diligence so does Henry.
9. COMPARISON He is as energetic as a teenager.
Antalya is far more beautiful than Prague.
English is not spelled as it is pronounced.
10. MANNER I’ll behave towards them as I would like to be treated.
She treats me as if/as though I were her son.
He looked as if he had seen a ghost.
I’ll visit Bill if I go to London next year.
He’ll never be successful unless he works hard.
He is unlikely to be promoted whether he works hard or not.
He is unlikely to be promoted even if he works hard.
You must call the police in the event that these students cause
trouble.
11. CONDITION You can stay in the dormitory as long as you obey the regulations.
You can stay in the dormitory provided (that) you obey the
regulations.
Suppose you failed the exam, what would you do?
SPECIAL NOTE
The conjunction because needs special emphasis as it is often wrongly used by many
students. Note the following points about its usage:
1. “Because” As an Answer to “Why”? :

When we state only the reason in response to a question with why, we start the response
involving because with a capital letter as in the following dialog:
Mehmet : “Why did you stay at home yesterday?”
Ahmet : “Because I was ill.”
18 / 27
2. “Because” As a Conjunction:
On the other hand, if we want to state both the reason (cause) and the result (effect) in
response to a similar question, we start with the main or result clause, so we can’t capitalize
the first letter of because.
Follow the example:
Mehmet: “Hello Ahmet! You were absent yesterday. Were you at home?”
Ahmet: “Yes, I stayed at home because I was ill.”
*** Thus, it should be noted that when the result clause comes before the adverbial
clause of reason or cause, we do not capitalize the first letter of because:
John was disappointed because he failed the exam. (Acceptable)
John was disappointed. Because he failed the exam. (Not acceptable)
3. Because of vs. Because

While because is followed by a complete sentence, because of is normally followed by a
noun phrase:
Because he failed the exam, John was disappointed.
Because of his failure in the exam, John was disappointed.
4. Note that for (meaning because of) is the preferred form before the word reason:
I decided to study at METU for two main reasons.
There are two main reasons why I decided to study at METU.
II. POSITION AND PUNCTUATION

Note the position and punctuation of adverbial clauses below (in italics)
Example Note
1a. Because he was ill, he did not go to Position of Clause
work. The adverbial clause can occur in initial
2a.Although she was innocent, she was position as in sentences 1a, 2a and 3a or
punished. after the main clause as in sentences 1b, 2b
3a.Whereas Bill is optimistic, Jane is and 3b.
pessimistic.
1b. He did not go to work because he was Punctuation of Clause
ill. Place a comma after an adverb clause in
2b.She was punished although she was initial position as in sentences 1a-3a. No
innocent. comma is necessary in sentences 1b and
3b. Jane is pessimistic, whereas Bill is 2b, but a comma is often used before
optimistic. whereas and while which follow the main
clause, as in 3b.
III. REDUCTION OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
If the two clauses that form the sentence have same subjects, we can omit one of the
subjects. However, if the two clauses that form the sentence have different subjects, we
must use both of the subjects.
19 / 27
A. Verb “To Be” In Adverbial Clauses

Most kinds of adverbial clauses that contain a form of verb to be can be shortened by
deleting the subject and the verb to be after a conjunction.
Full Sentence Reduced Sentence

Where it is necessary, Where necessary, improvements will be made.
improvements will be made.
When he was in London, he visited When in London, he visited the British museum.
the British museum.
While she was at college, Sheila While at college, Sheila wrote a novel.
wrote a novel.
He acted as if he was certain of He acted as if certain of success.
success.
You can change the sentence You can change the sentence structure if necessary.
structure if it is necessary.
Though he is an old person now, Though an old person now, my uncle still feels
my uncle still feels young. young.
Although she was happy in the Although happy in the nursing home, Mrs. Brown
nursing home, Mrs. Brown missed missed her house.
her house.
B. Active Constructions
Active verbs in most adverbial clauses are reduced V-ing phrases after the conjunction:
1. Actions That Take Place at the Same Time

If the two actions in the adverbial clause and the main clause take place at the same time,
we use Present Participle (= V-ing). Follow the examples:
Present Perfect
1. a. While he was traveling around the world, John met interesting people.
b. While traveling around the world, John met very interesting people.
c. Traveling around the world, John met very interesting people.
2. a. While he was visiting some friends in Istanbul, he had a heart attack.

b. While visiting some friends in Istanbul, he had a heart attack.
c. Visiting some friends in Istanbul, he had a heart attack.
* Note that the subject of the main clause and the while clause must be the same for the
reduction to be made. For instance, 2d below cannot be reduced:
d. While he was visiting some friends in Istanbul, his illness became worse.
3. a. When John heard about his mother’s heart attack, he rushed to the hospital.
b. When hearing about his mother’s heart attack, John rushed to the hospital.
c. Upon hearing about his mother’s heart attack, John rushed to the hospital.
c. On hearing about his mother’s heart attack, John rushed to the hospital.
4. a. Although he was living many miles away, he came to the meeting.

b. Although living many miles away, he came to the meeting.
20 / 27
5. a. She hesitated as though she was hunting for words and ways of putting them.
b. She hesitated as though hunting for word and ways of putting them.
6. a. After she graduated from the university, she got a job in a bank.
b. After graduating from the university, she got a job in a bank.
c. After having graduated from the university, she got a job in a bank.
7. a. The president has held his second press conference since he took office.
b. The president has held his second press conference since taking office.
SPECIAL NOTE:
* In the reduction of adverbial clauses of reason, the conjunction as, because and since are
deleted :
8. a. As she was too tired to do any more work, she stopped working.
b. Being too tired to do any more work, she stopped working.
c. Too tired to do any more work, she stopped working.
* If the two clauses that form the sentence have different subjects, we must use both of
them in the sentence:
9. a. Because it was sunny, we decided to go for a picnic.

b. It being sunny, we decided to go for a picnic.
10. a. Since there was nobody else in the whole building. I felt rather uncomfortable.
b. There being nobody else in the whole building, I felt rather uncomfortable.
* We can use the present participle (V-ing) in place of and, so etc.
11. a. He went to his room and (he) closed the door behind him.
b. He went to his room, closing the door behind him.
12. a. It was a holiday, so there were thousands of cars on the road.

b. Because it was a holiday, there were thousands of cars on the road.
c. It being a holiday, there were thousands of cars on the road.
* To make a participle phrase negative, we put not in front of it:
13. a. We were not in a hurry, so we took a long leisurely stroll along the river bank.
b. Since we were not in a hurry, we took a long leisurely stroll along the river bank.
b. Not being in a hurry, we took a long leisurely stroll along the river bank.
14. a. Because he did not have a watch, he did not know the exact time.
b. Not having a watch, he did not know the exact time.
21 / 27
* Present participles (V-ing) can also indicate manner, answering a question about how
something is or was done:
15. a. John used a ruler. He measured the length of the table.

b. Using a ruler, John measured the length of the table.
c. John, using a ruler, measured the length of table.
d. John measured the length of the table, using a ruler.
Exercise - 16
Rewrite the following, using V-ing participle, and making any necessary changes.
1. They broke this window when they tried to get into the house.
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Though he refused to eat, he admitted he was hungry.
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. After we had dinner, we watched television.
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. While I agree you may be right, I still object to your argument.
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. You shouldn’t get into an argument before you check the facts.
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Since we arrived here, we have made many new friends.
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. There was no one in, so I left a message.
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. There were no questions and the meeting ended quickly.
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. It was a holiday, so there were thousands of cars on the road.
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. I didn’t hear what he said and asked him to repeat.
______________________________________________________________________________________
11. The police opened fire on the demonstrators and killed three people.
______________________________________________________________________________________
12. She got very worried and thought you had an accident.
______________________________________________________________________________________
13. I’m not lawyer, so I cannot give you the advice you are looking for.
______________________________________________________________________________________
14. I was short of money, so I couldn’t afford to buy it.
______________________________________________________________________________________
15. Food Prices have risen considerably, and this has made living conditions even harder
for many people.
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Actions That Take Place at Different Times
If the two actions in the adverbial clause and the main clause take place at different times,
we use the active form of Perfect Participle (= having+ V3). Follow the examples:
Present Perfect
22 / 27
1. a. As he had lost his money, he was literally penniless.

b. Having lost his money, he was literally penniless.
2. a. After/ When she had finished her work, she left the office.
b. Having finished her work, she left the office.
c. Finishing her work, she left the office.
3. a. Since Bill had married Jane, Bob had to find another girl.
b. Bill having married Jane, Bob had to find another girl.
4. a. As the rain had stopped, we decided to go out.

b. The rain having stopped, we decided to go out.
C. Passive Constructions
Subject and verb to be are omitted and the Past Participle (= V3) is used after the
conjunction.

1. Actions That Take Place at the Same Time
1. Although
Although he was exhausted, he went to bed very late.
Although exhausted, he went to bed very late.
2. As
As it is shown in the graph, there is a dramatic increase in alcohol consumption.
As shown in the graph, there is a dramatic increase in alcohol consumption.
3. When
When he was asked whether he would run for presidency, he said he might.
When asked whether he would run for presidency, he said he might.
Asked whether he would run for presidency, he said he might.
4. If
If the drug is kept in the fridge, it should remain effective for at least three months.
If kept in the fridge, the drug should remain effective for at least three months.
Kept in the fridge, the drug should remain effective for at least three months.
5. Unless
You should follow this procedure unless you are otherwise instructed.
You should follow this procedure unless otherwise instructed.
6. As if
He lay on the ground as if he was exhausted from the long march.
He lay on the ground as if exhausted from the long march.
*Note how adverbial clauses of reason are reduced:
7. Because/ since/ as
Because she was surprised at what she had seen, she did not know what to say
Surprised at what she had seen, she did not know what to say.
23 / 27
Exercise - 17
Reduce the following adverbial clauses, using past participles.
1. If you are accepted for the job, you will be informed soon.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Although the meat was cooked for more than an hour, it was still tough.
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. When the poem is read aloud, it is very effective.
___________________________________________________________________________________
4. If the picture is seen from this angle, it looks rather good.
___________________________________________________________________________________
5. When metals are heated, they expand.
___________________________________________________________________________________
6. If he is found guilty, he will be sentenced to two years in prison.
___________________________________________________________________________________
7. Though it was written for children, the book is popular among adults as well.
___________________________________________________________________________________
8. Once the project is completed, it will create a substantial number of new jobs.
___________________________________________________________________________________
9. Because he is seriously injured, John will have to stay in hospital for a long time.
___________________________________________________________________________________
10. As it was stated above, this technique is used in many different countries.
___________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise - 18
Rewrite the following participial phrases as adverbial clauses. Follow the examples.
E.g. 1. a. Although published in 1970, the book wasn’t a success until much later.
b. Although it was published in 1970, the book wasn’t a success until much later.
a. Sentenced to hard labor, he regretted his crime.

b. When he was sentenced to hard labor, he regretted his crime.
a. Disappointed with the result, George felt very unhappy.

b. As he was disappointed with the result, George felt very unhappy.
1. Painted white, the house looks much more beautiful.

______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Published in 1985, the book was an instant success.
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Not permitted to smoke in the building, they went outside.
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Told they had to be quiet, they left angrily.
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Elected to office, he kept all his campaign promises.
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Questioned about the robbery, the policeman had no comment.

______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Informed of his promotion, Howard couldn’t say a word.
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Taken in excessive doses, vitamins can be harmful.
______________________________________________________________________________________
24 / 27
2. Actions That Take Place at Different Times
If the two actions in the adverbial clause and the main clause take place in different times,
we use the passive form of Perfect Participle (= having been +V3). Follow the examples:

a. After we were given a map of the city, we knew how to find our way.
b. Having been given a map of the city, we knew how to find our way.
a. As he had been dismissed from his job, John had to look for another one.
b. Having been dismissed from his job, John had to look for another one.
c. Dismissed from his job, John had to look for another one.
Exercise - 19
Combine the two sentences, using participial phrases. Follow the example:
Example
The children had nothing to do. They were bored.
Having nothing to do, the children were bored.
1. I heard that Judy was in the hospital. I called her family to find out what was wrong.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. The little boy was trying his best not to cry. He swallowed hard and began to speak.
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. I did not want to inconvenience my friend by asking her to drive me to the airport. I
decided to take a taxi.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. I was sitting on a large rock at the edge of a mountain stream. I felt at peace with the
world.
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. John had run a red traffic light. The police officer arrested him.
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. I am a married man. I have many responsibilities.
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. I was reading the paper last night. I saw an article on solar energy.
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. I had not understood what he said. I asked him to repeat the directions.
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. Ann was convinced that she could never learn to play the piano. She stopped taking
lessons.
______________________________________________________________________________________
10. I saw Paris. I was able to tell everyone at home about it.
______________________________________________________________________________________
11. I was in Paris. I was able to attend the exhibition.
______________________________________________________________________________________
12. I did not see the letter. I did not know what it was about.
______________________________________________________________________________________
13. Joe is not a teacher. He cannot answer these questions.
______________________________________________________________________________________
14. There was someone in the next room. Jane did not want to go in.
______________________________________________________________________________________
25 / 27
15. There was no chance of a peace settlement. The Government broke off negotiations.
______________________________________________________________________________________
16. George did not want to make any mistakes. He paid careful attention.
______________________________________________________________________________________
D. INVERSION
If a sentence starts with certain adverbs, adverbial phrases or conjunctions, it is essential to
have inversion, i.e. to use the question word order. The following table illustrates important
structures that require inversion in initial position.
TYPES OF NORMAL WORD ORDER INVERTED WORD ORDER

STRUCTURES
Prepositional Several old photographs were In the box were several old
Phrases in the box. photographs.
Showing An armchair is to the left of
Location the table. To the left of the table is an armchair.
I have never seen such a thing Never have I seen such a thing before.
before.
She hardly ever goes to the Hardly ever does she go to the cinema.
cinema.
Negative He is neither rich nor poor. Neither is he rich nor is he poor.
Adverbs The show had hardly/scarcely Hardly/Scarcely had the show started
started when the fire broke when the fire broke out.
out.
He realized his fatal mistake Only much later did he realize his fatal
only much later. mistake.
If you should change your Should you change your plans, please
plans, please let me know. let me know.
If she were not ill, we would Were she not ill, we would go on a trip
go on a trip to Europe. to Europe.
Conditionals If he had taken my advice, he Had he taken my advice, he wouldn’t
wouldn’t have had so much have had so much trouble.
trouble.
Adverbial He felt so depressed that So depressed did he feel that nothing

Clauses nothing would cheer him up. would cheer him up.
of Result We had such a bad time that Such a bad time did we have that we’ll
we’ll never forget it. never forget it.
Important negative adverbs, which require inversion in initial position are listed
below:
Barely Never Not until... when Only

Hardly ever On no account No sooner ... than Seldom
Nowhere Neither … nor Not once Little
Rarely
Hardly/ Scarcely ... when Not only .. but also
Under no circumstances
26 / 27
Note : Inversion can also be used with the following structures.
1. As showing manner The camel developed in North

America as did the horse.
2. Just as…. so Just as John prefers classical
music so does his wife.
Exercise- 20
Rewrite the following sentences using the clues in bold type given. The first one is done
for you.
1. Her surprise was so great that she almost fainted.
So great was her surprise that she almost fainted.
2. He had no sooner left the cafeteria than it began to rain.
No sooner ____________________________________________________________________________
3. His manner was so absurd that everybody stared at him.
So ___________________________________________________________________________________
4. It was not until I got home that I realized that I had lost my keys.
Not until _____________________________________________________________________________
5. A policeman can use his gun only in exceptional circumstances.
Only__________________________________________________________________________________
6. She rarely complains about her work.
Rarely________________________________________________________________________________
7. You mustn’t contact the police under any circumstances.
Under no circumstances _____________________________________________________________
8. If I had not made some silly mistakes, I would not have failed the exam.
Had___________________________________________________________________________________
9. If we were to withdraw our support, they would justifiably be angry.
Were_________________________________________________________________________________
10. If you should change your plan, please let me know.
Should_______________________________________________________________________________
27 / 27

Eng 203 Clauses 2020-21

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ENG 203 & 204 LECTURE NOTES ON CLAUSES Can GÜR

ENG 203 & 204

* RELATIVE (ADJECTIVE ) CLAUSES

PREPARED BY CAN GÜR

A. RELATIVE (ADJECTIVE) CLAUSE

I. “THAT, WHO, WHOM, WHICH, WHOSE” IN DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

1. Relative pronouns in the subject position

a. He is the man. He bought my house.

2. Relative pronouns in the object position

a. The children enjoyed the tale. Their grandmother told it.

II. “WHO, WHOM, WHICH, AND WHOSE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

2. When the antecedent is a proper noun:

3. When the antecedent is one -of- a -kind noun:

 Non-defining relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun such as

a. I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.

a. I never met Mr. Özdemir again, which was a pity.

3. You do not use “that” in non-defining relative clauses.

1. I met Jane’s father. He works at the university.

III. “WHERE, WHEN AND WHY” IN DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

There had been a time when she hated all men.

He showed me the place where they work.

There are several reasons why I cannot do that.

1. I don’t remember the day. She came on that day.

2. The reason is unknown. Jane left home because of this reason.

3. The restaurant was cheap. We ate fish in that restaurant.

IV. “WHEN AND WHERE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

2. You cannot replace “when” or “where” with that.

V. “QUANTITY WORDS + OF WHICH / WHOM / WHOSE” IN NON-DEFINING RELATIVE

1. I was attacked by two men. I had met neither of them before.

VI. The Position Of Prepositions In Relative Clauses

1. She is the woman. I told you about her.

Exercise - 5 Join the following sentences as in the example.

e.g. ‘The house is on the corner”. “Mr. Wilson lives in it.”

a. The house in which Mr. Wilson lives is on the corner.

1. Here’s the book. You and I were talking about it yesterday.

VII. REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

Full sentence Reduced sentence

She is the first / second / last / oldest / only

PARTICIPLES (Verbal Adjectives)

Present Past Perfect

3.a. Ankara, which is the capital of Turkey, is located in Central Anatolia.

1. The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood.

VIII. CLEFT SENTENCES (RELATIVE CLAUSES USED FOR EMPHASIS)

It was Helen who met Jack in London last summer.

1. DNA carries the genetic code.

2. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.

FUNCTION NOUN/ ADJ. PHRASE NOUN CLAUSE

I. NOUN CLAUSES DERIVED FROM STATEMENTS

a. That-clauses are used after:

Function That Clause

C. Nouns Which Take That-clauses For Explanation Or As Subject Complement

1. He feels angry. It’s not surprising (that) he feels angry.

3. We can produce petrol from wood. (idea / interesting)

II. NOUN CLAUSES DERIVED FROM QUESTIONS

2a. Can he win the race? I wonder this.

Note : Whether can be replaced by if in object and adjective complement positions.

B. Question–word Question (Wh- Clauses)

We can introduce a direct question beginning with a question words an indirect

What did he say? I don’t remember it.

The following table illustrates the functions of Wh-clauses.

1. Why did he leave early? He didn’t tell me ______________________________________________

1. Her reasons for being angry surprised me.