EE 466

Power System Protection

Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations

Updated by: Dr. Suhail Shaik

Credit to Prof. Mohamed Abido for preparing the original slides
Contents
• Per Unit System
• Symmetrical Fault Analysis
• Symmetrical Components
• Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis

2
Per Unit Calculations
Per Unit Calculations
• A key problem in analyzing power systems is the
large number of transformers.
• It would be very difficult to continually have
to refer impedances to different sides of
transformers
• This problem is avoided by a normalization of all
variables.
• This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit =
base value of quantity
4
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1φ
1. Pick a 1f VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage
level, VB. Voltage bases are related by
transformer turns ratios. Voltages are line to
neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not the
angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have units
(i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts) 5
Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Select the bases

2. Convert to per unit (pu)
3. Solve
4. Convert back to actual as
necessary
6
Example 1
Solve for the current, load voltage and load
power in the circuit shown below using per unit
analysis with SB of 100 MVA, and VB of 8 kV in
generator side.

Original Circuit 7
 Example 1
Using the turns ratio of transformers, the base voltages are
a) 8 kV in generator side, b) 80 kV in line side, c) 16 kV in load side

82 (kV) 2
Z BLeft = = 0.64
100MVA
802 (kV) 2
Z BMiddle = = 64
100MVA
162 (kV) 2
Z BRight = = 2.56
100MVA
Impedances in per unit are:
j1
Z Left = = j1.56 pu
0.64
j 24
Z Middle = = j 0.375 pu
64
10 + j1
Z Right = = 3.91 + j 0.39 pu Same circuit, with values expressed in pu
2.56 8
 Example 1

1.00
I = = 0.22 − 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.00 − 0.22 − 30.8 
=  −  p.u.
2
VL
SL = = *
VL I L = 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG = 1.00 0.2230.8 = 30.8 p.u.
9
Example 1
To convert back to actual values just multiply
the per unit values by their bases

VLActual
= 0.859 − 30.8 16 kV = 13.7 − 30.8 kV
S LActual = 0.1890 100 MVA = 18.90 MVA
Actual
SG = 0.2230.8 100 MVA = 22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
Middle
IB = = 1250 Amps
80 kV
Actual
I Middle = 0.22 − 30.8 = 275 − 30.8 
10
 Three Phase Per Unit
Procedure is very similar to 1f except we use a
3f VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system, S B3f
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage
level, VB,LL. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base
2 2 2
VB , LL ( 3 VB , LN ) VB , LN
Z B = 3f = 1f
= 1f
SB 3S B SB
Exactly the same impedance bases as single phase using the
corresponding single phase VA base and voltage base! 11
Three Phase Per Unit

4. Calculate the current base, IB

3f 1f 1f
S 3 S S
I B3f = B = B = B = I 1f
B
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit

12
Example 2
Solve for the current, load voltage and load
power in the previous circuit, assuming:
• 3φ power base of 300 MVA,
• Line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV, 138 kV and
27.6 kV (√3 larger than the 1φ example voltages)
• The generator is Y-connected so its line to line
voltage is 13.8 kV.

13
 Example 2
Convert to per unit as before.
13.82 (kV) 2
VBLeft = 13.8 (kV) Z BLeft =
300MVA
= 0.64 Z Left =
j1
= j1.56 pu
0.64
VBMiddle = 138 (kV) Z BMiddle =
1382 (kV) 2
= 64 Z Middle =
j 24
= j 0.375 pu
300MVA 64
VBRight = 27.6 (kV) 27.62 (kV) 2 Z Right =
10 + j1
= 3.91 + j 0.39 pu
Z BRight = = 2.56
300MVA 2.56

Note the system is exactly

the same as single phase!
14
Example 2
1.00
I = = 0.22 − 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.00 − 0.22 − 30.8 
=  −  p.u.
2
VL
SL = = *
VL I L = 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG = 1.00 0.2230.8 = 30.8 p.u.

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

15
 Example 2
Differences appear when we convert back to actual values

VLActual = 0.859 − 30.8 27.6 kV = 23.8 − 30.8 kV

SLActual = 0.1890 300 MVA = 56.70 MVA
SGActual = 0.2230.8 300 MVA = 66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA
I BMiddle = = 1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
Actual
I Middle = 0.22 − 30.8  Amps = 275 − 30.8 

16
Change of Bases
Change of bases and recalculation of the pu impedances
are done very often. To convert pu impedance on one
base to pu impedance on another base.
𝑜𝑙𝑑 be the pu impedance with bases 𝑆 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and 𝑉 𝑜𝑙𝑑
Let 𝑍𝑝𝑢 𝐵 𝐵
old
Z S
Z old
= old = Z   B
pu
ZB (
VBold )
2

𝑛𝑒𝑤 be the pu impedance with bases 𝑆 𝑛𝑒𝑤 and 𝑉 𝑛𝑒𝑤

Let 𝑍𝑝𝑢 𝐵 𝐵

Z S Bnew
Z new
= new = Z  
pu
ZB (
VBnew 2
)
17
Change of Bases
The relationship between the new and the old per-unit
𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝑝𝑢
values is 𝑜𝑙𝑑 , which gives
𝑍𝑝𝑢
2
S new
V old

Z new
pu =Z old
pu  B
old
 B
new

S B V
B 
If the voltage bases are the same,
S Bnew
new
Z pu = Z pu
old
 old
SB
18
 Example 3
The one line-diagram of a three-phase power system is shown in the figure
below. Select a common base of SB = 100 MVA and VB = 11 kV in motor side. The
manufacturer's data for each device is:
G: 100 MVA 22 kV X = 20%
T1: 80 MVA 22/220 kV X = 12%
T2: 50 MVA 220/11 kV X = 8%
T3: 50 MVA 22/110 kV X = 9%
T4: 50 MVA 110/11 kV X = 10%
M: 80 MVA 10.45 kV X = 20%
The three phase load at bus 4 absorbs 50 MVA, 0.8 PF lagging at 10.45 kV.
Line 1 and Line 2 have a reactance of 36.3  and 60.5  respectively.
Draw an impedance diagram with all impedances including the load impedance
marked per-unit. 1
T1 T2
4
2 3
Line 1

G M
T3 T4
5 6
Line 2

Load
19
 Example 3
The voltage bases must be determined for all sections of the power network.

220
VB 3 = 11  = 220 kV = VB 2
11

This fixes the base on the HV side of T1 at VB2 = 220 kV.

22
VB1 = 220  = 22 kV
220

Similarly, the voltage base at buses 5 and 6 are:

110
VB 5 = VB 6 = 22  = 110 kV
22
20
Example 3
Since generator and transformer voltage bases are the same as
their rated values, the per unit reactances on a 100 MVA base are:
 100 
G: X = 0.2    = 0.2 pu
 100 
 100 
T1: X = 0.12    = 0.15 pu
 80 
 100 
T2: X = 0.08    = 0.16 pu
 50 
 100 
T3: X = 0.09    = 0.18 pu
 50 
 100 
T4: X = 0.1    = 0.2 pu
 50 
2
 100  10.45 
M: X = 0.2     = 0.2256 pu
 80  11  21
Example 3
Impedance base for Line 1 and Line 2 are:

Line 1: Z B 2 =
(220 )
2
= 484 
100

Line 2: Z B 5 =
(110 )
2
= 121 
100

Line 1 and Line 2 reactances per unit are:

36.3
Line 1: X = = 0.075 pu
484
60.5
Line 2: X = = 0.5 pu
121
22
 Example 3
The load apparent power at 0.8 PF lagging is:
S L (3f ) = 5036.9 o MVA
VL2− L
ZL = * =
(10.45)
2
= 1.74724 + j1.3104 
S L (3f ) 50 − 36.9 o

The base impedance of the load is:

Z B4 =
(11)
2
= 1.21 
100
Therefore, the load impedance in per unit is:

1.74724 + j1.3104
Z L ( pu ) = = 1.444 + j1.083 pu
1.21
23
Example 3
Shown here is the one line diagram of the power system network
in per-unit system based on selected power and voltage base.

j0.15 j0.075 j0.16

j0.18 j0.5 j0.2

j0.2256
j0.2
1.444

Eg G j1.083 M Em
IL

Per-unit one line diagram power system network 24

Advantages of Per-Unit System
• Per unit values are simpler and more indicative.
• Voltages have same range in per unit in all parts of the
system from EHV system to distribution.
• For circuits connected by transformers, per unit
reactance remains the same, referred to either side of
the transformer. Therefore the various circuits can be
connected in the reactance diagram.
• Since the typical power system contains thousands of
transformers, this is non trivial saving.
• √3 factor in the 3φ circuit calculations is eliminated. 25
Fault Analysis
Objective of Fault Analysis
The goal of fault analysis is to determine the
magnitudes of the currents during the fault. For
this, there’s a need to determine:
• The maximum current to insure devices can survive the
fault
• The maximum current the circuit breakers need to
interrupt to correctly size them
• The currents and voltages under the fault to set the
relays
27
Fault Analysis
• The cause of electric power system faults is
insulation breakdown
• This breakdown can be due to different factors
➢ lightning
➢ wires blowing together in the wind
➢ animals or plants coming in contact with the
wires
➢ salt spray or pollution on insulators
28
Fault Reasons

Lightning Wires blowing in the wind Salt spray or pollution

Animals coming in contact with wires 29

Fault Types

30
Fault Types
• There are two main types of faults
• symmetric faults: system remains balanced; these
faults are relatively rare but easy to analyze.
• unsymmetric faults: system is no longer balanced;
very common, but more difficult to analyze.
• The most common type of fault on a three
phase system by far is the single line-to-ground
(SLG), followed by the line-to-line faults (LL),
double line-to-ground (DLG) faults, and
balanced three phase faults.

31
Fault Types

32
Fault Types
Ia
Ic

Ic

Ia

Ib
Ib
Balanced System Unbalanced System
(Symmetrical faults) (Unsymmetrical faults)
Fault Types

The commonly occurring faults are:

• Line-to-Ground (L-G) faults (70%)
• Line-to-Line (L-L) faults (15%)
• Line-to-Line-to-Ground (L-L-G) faults (10%)
• Three-phase (L-L-L-G) faults (5%)

In general most faults are not balanced. This makes

per phase analysis very difficult.

34
Switching Scenario to Clear the Fault
1. Within one to two cycles (16.67 ms) relays at both
ends of line detect high currents, signaling circuit
breakers to open the line
• nearby locations see decreased voltages
2. Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an
additional one to two cycles
• breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is not a
small feat!
• with line removal, voltages usually return to near normal
3. Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds,
trying to restore faulted line to service
35
Fault Impedance
The terms bolted fault or solid fault are
sometimes used to describe ideal short circuits
(Zero fault impedance). The assumption of bolted
fault is conservative.

Information Available from a Fault Study

• Fault current levels, for sizing breakers or
comparing to existing breakers
• Line currents, voltages, phase angles for relay
settings and fuse selection.
36
RL Circuit Analysis

• To understand fault analysis we need to review

the behavior of an RL circuit

t =0
Vm sin(t +  ) I (t )

Before the switch is closed obviously I(t) = 0.

When the switch is closed at t=0 the current will have
two components:
1) a steady-state value
2) a transient value 37
RL Circuit Analysis
−t
I (t ) = I m sin(t +  −  ) − I m e 
sin( −  )
Subtransient
period
2.0

where Transient period Steady state period

1.0

Im = Vm / Z,
Current

 = L / R, 0.0

 = tan-1(ωL/R) -1.0

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60

Time (s)
Phase current for a faulted machine
38
RL Circuit Analysis
Zero DC component,  = 

Max. DC component,  -  = - / 2

Min. DC component,  -  =  / 2

39
Machine Reactances
3 types of reactances are used to describe the transient
behavior of a faulted machine

x d'' → direct axis sub-transient reactance

xd' → direct axis transient reactance
xd → direct axis synchronous reactance
In fault studies x ''
d or xd' is used.

40
Generator Modeling During Faults
• During a fault the only devices that can contribute fault
current are those with energy storage (G & M)
• Thus the models of generators (and other rotating
machines) are very important since they contribute the
bulk of the fault current.
• Generators can be approximated as a constant voltage
behind a time-varying reactance.
ra x
E I Vt
41
Generator Short Circuit Currents

42
 Network Fault Analysis Simplifications
To simplify fault analysis, these assumptions are considered:
• Transmission lines are represented by series reactances
• Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances
• Synchronous machines are modeled as a constant
voltage behind direct-axis subtransient reactance
• Induction motors are ignored or treated as synchronous
machines
• Other (non spinning) loads are ignored
• Pre-fault voltages are assumed 1.0 pu, otherwise stated.
• Load (pre-fault) currents can be ignored
43
Example 4
For the network shown, assume a fault on the
generator terminal; all data is in pu except the
transmission line reactance, calculate the fault current.

Generator has 1.05

terminal voltage &
supplies 100 MVA
with 0.95 lag pf
44
Example 4
19.5
Convert to per unit: X line = 2
= 0.1 per unit
138
100

Faulted
network per
unit diagram

To determine the fault current we need to first estimate

the internal voltages for the generator and motor
For the generator VT = 1.05, SG = 1.018.2
*
 1.018.2 
I Gen =  = 0.952 − 18.2 E 'a = 1.1037.1
 1.05  45
Example 4

The motor's terminal voltage is then

1.050 - (0.9044 - j 0.2973)  j 0.3 = 1.00 − 15.8
The motor's internal voltage is
1.00 − 15.8 − (0.9044 - j 0.2973)  j 0.2 = 1.008 − 26.6
We can then solve as a linear circuit:
1.1037.1 1.008 − 26.6
If = +
j 0.15 j 0.5
= 7.353 − 82.9 + 2.016 − 116.6 = j 9.09
46
Comments

• Normal prefault load currents are nearly in phase with

the voltage
• Short circuit currents give rise to currents lagging
voltage by ≈ 90˚ (X >> R)
• The magnitudes of short circuit currents exceed those
of load currents by a significant factor (10 times or
more is common)
• One can ignore prefault currents in some studies
• Prefault bus voltages can be approximated to 1.0 pu
47
Balanced Fault Analysis:
Extension to Larger Systems
Assume a balanced fault is applied at an arbitrary bus k.
This implies that we can use per phase analysis. The
network can be modeled at bus k by

k
k
 Z th
Vth

Network Vth is the Thevenin voltage

Zth is the Thevenin impedance
48
Balanced Fault Analysis:
Extension to Larger Systems
Z th = Z kk
Vth = Vk0 (pre-fault voltage), and Zth = Zkk
A fault at bus k with fault impedance Zf can be modeled as

k
0
V
+ 0 Z kk If
If = k
Z kk + Z f
− Vk
Zf

49
Fault Level (Short Circuit Capacity)
For a solid fault, Zf = 0 and If = Vth / Zth
Short Circuit Capacity, SCC = Vth If = Vth2 / Zth
If Vth is in pu then, SCC ≈ 1 / Zth in pu MVA
Comments
• SCC is a measure of voltage stiffness.
• An infinite bus has Zth = 0, i.e. SCC = ∞
• SCC can be used to model a utility network supplying an
industrial plant.
k k

Utility
Industrial  Industrial
Plant Plant
Z th = 1 SCC 50
Symmetrical Components
Analysis of Unsymmetrical Systems

• Except for the balanced 3-phase fault, faults

usually result in an unbalanced system.

• The most common types of faults are SLG (70%)

and LL (15%). Other types are DLG or LLG (10%),
open conductor and balanced 3-phase (5%).

• The easiest method to analyze unbalanced

system is through the use of symmetrical
components

52
 Symmetrical Components
• The key idea of symmetrical component analysis is to
decompose the system into three sequence networks.
• The networks are then coupled only at the point of the
fault
• The three sequence networks are known as the
• positive sequence (1) (this is the one we’ve been using)
• negative sequence (2)
• zero sequence (0)
• Presented in paper by Charles L. Fortescue in 1918
(judged as the most important power paper of 20th century)

Heydt, G. T.; Venkata, S. S.; Balijepalli, N. (October 24, 2000). "High Impact Papers in Power Engineering, 1900-
1999" Proceedings 2000 North American Power Symposium, vol. 1, October 2000. North American Power
53
Symposium (NAPS). Waterloo, Ontario.
Symmetrical Components

Ia
Ic
Ib
I a1
I c1

Ib 2
Ia0
Ib0 Ia2
Ic0 I b1 Ic2

Zero-Sequence Positive-Sequence Negative-Sequence

Single-Phase Balanced Balanced
Symmetrical Components
It is essentially a transformation matrix for
mapping the power system from abc reference
to symmetrical component reference 012 and
vice versa.

Problem in Analysis in
abc Symmetrical
Components
012
55
Symmetrical Components

Three questions must be addressed:

• How to transform voltages and currents

from abc to 012 and vice versa?

• How to represent power system elements

in 012?

• How to analyze the fault in 012?

56
 Positive Sequence Components
• The positive sequence components have three
phase currents/voltages with equal magnitude,
with phase b lagging a by 120°, and c lagging b
by 120°.
• We’ve been studying positive sequence
components 𝐼𝑏1 = 𝐼𝑎1 240
𝐼𝑐1 = 𝐼𝑎1 120
Positive sequence sets
have zero neutral current
𝐼𝑎1 + 𝐼𝑏1 + 𝐼𝑐1 = 𝐼𝑛 = 0
57
 Negative Sequence Components
• The negative sequence components have three phase
currents/voltages with equal magnitude, with phase b
leading a by 120°, and c leading b by 120°.
• Negative sequence components are similar to positive
sequence, except the phase order is reversed

𝐼𝑏2 = 𝐼𝑎2 120

𝐼𝑐2 = 𝐼𝑎2 240
Negative sequence sets
have zero neutral current

𝐼𝑎2 + 𝐼𝑏2 + 𝐼𝑐2 = 𝐼𝑛 = 0

58
Zero Sequence Components
• Zero sequence components have three values
with equal magnitude and angle.
• Zero sequence components have neutral
current

Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0

Ia0
Ib0 In = Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 = 3 Ia0
Ic0

59
Sequence Components Representation
Any arbitrary set of three phasors, say Ia , Ib , Ic
can be represented as a sum of the three
sequence components
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2
I b = I b0 + I b1 + I b 2
I c = I c 0 + I c1 + I c 2
where
I a 0 , I b0 , I c 0 is the zero sequence components
I a1 , I b1 , I c1 is the positive sequence components
I a 2 , I b 2 , I c 2 is the negative sequence components
60
Symmetrical Components

Three questions must be addressed:

• How to transform voltages

and currents from abc to
012 and vice versa?
• How to represent power system elements in 012?
• How to analyze the fault in 012?

61
Conversion from Sequence to Phase

Only three of the sequence values are unique,

I a 0 , I a1 , I a 2 ; the others are determined as follows:
Define:  = 1120,
 = 1240,  = 1,
2 3
 =
4

1+ + = 0 2

I a 0 = I b0 = I c 0 (since by definition they are all equal)

I b1 =  I a1 , I c1 =  I a1 , I b 2 =  I a 2 , I c 2 =  I a 2
2 2

62
Conversion from Sequence to Phase
Since
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2
I b = I b 0 + I b 1 + I b 2 = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2
I c = I c 0 + I c 1 + I c 2 = I a 0 + aI a1 + a 2I a 2
Then
 a
I 1  1   1  1 1 1   I a 0 
 I  = I 1 + I  2  + I    = 1  2    I 
 b  a 0   a1   a 2      a1 
 I c  1    2  1   2   I 
       a 2 
63
Conversion from Sequence to Phase

Define the symmetrical components transformation

matrix
1 1 1
 
A = 1  2

1   2 
 
 a
I  I a 0 
   
Then I abc = I b = A  I a1  = A I s = A I 012
 
 I c   
 I a 2 
64
Conversion from Phase to Sequence

By taking the inverse we can convert from the

phase values to the sequence values
−1
Is = A I
1 1 1
−1 1 2
with A = 1   
3
1  2  
 
Sequence sets can be used with voltages as well
as with currents
65
Example 5

 I a   100 
Let I =  I b  = 10 −  Find Is
   
 I c   10 

66
Example 5
 I a   100 
Let I =  I b  = 10 −  Then
   
 I c   10 
1 1 1   100    
1 2
I s = A I = 1    10 −  = 100 
−1
3    
1  2    10   0 
 
 100   0 
If I = 10 +  → Is =  0 
   
10 −  100 67
Example 6

V a   0 
  
Let V = V b =  
   
V c   −  
Find Vs

68
 Example 6

Va   0 
Let V = Vb  =   
   
Vc   −  
Then
1 1 1   0   0 
1 2
Vs = A V = 1      =  − 
−1
3    
1  2    −    6.12 
 
69
Example 7

 I a 0   100 
  
Let I s = I a1 = −10 
   
 I a 2    
Find Iabc

70
Example 7
 I a 0   100 
Let I s =  I a1  =  −10
   
 I a 2    
Then
1 1 1   100    
 
I abc = AI s = 1  2
  −10 =   
   
1   2      − 
 

71
Symmetrical Components

Three questions must be addressed:

• How to transform voltages and currents from abc to 012 and vice
versa?

• How to represent power

system elements in 012?
• How to analyze the fault in 012?

72
Symmetrical Components

What are the power system elements?

1. Loads (Y or ) (Y-connected loads are

grounded or non-grounded)
2. Transmission lines
3. Machines
4. Transformers

73
Sequence Impedances of Y-Connected Loads

• Consider the following grounded Y-connected load

• It is known that In = Ia + Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0

Va  Van  Vn   Ia   In 

V  = V  + V  = Z I  + Z I 
 b   bn   n  Y  b n  n ZY Zn
Vc  Vcn  Vn   I c   I n  ZY
n
ZY
1
Vabc = ZY I abc + 3Z n I a 0 1
 
1
74
Sequence Impedances of Y-Connected Loads

Then

1
AV012 = ZY AI 012 
+ 3Z n I a 0 1 
 
1
1
−1 −1  
V012 = ZY A AI 012 + 3Z n I a 0 A 1
 
1
75
Sequence Impedances of Y-Connected Loads

Then

Va 0  Ia0  1  ZY + 3Z n 0 0  Ia0 

V  = Z  I  + 3Z I 0 =  0 ZY  
0   I a1  
 a 1 Y   a 1 n a 0   
Va 2   I a 2  0  0 0 ZY   I a 2 
Z 0 0 0  Ia0 

=0 Z1  
0   I a1  
 0 0 Z 2   I a 2 

Note: Z1 = Z2 = ZY and Z0 = ZY + 3 Zn 76
Sequence Impedances of Y-Connected Loads

Then, sequence representation of Y-connected

load

+ + +
I a1 Ia2 I a0
ZY Va 0
Z Y Va1 Va 2 _ ZY
_
n n n
3Z n
_

Va1 = Z y I a1 , Va 2 = Z y I a 2 , Va 0 = ( Z y + 3Z n ) I a 0
77
Sequence Impedances of Y-Connected Loads

• If Y is ungrounded, sequence representation

of Y-connected load is similar to grounded Y
except Zn = ∞. Hence, Z1 = Z2 = ZY and Z0 = ∞

+ +
+ I a0
I a1 Ia2
Z Y Va1
ZY Z Y Va 0 ZY
Va 2 _ n ZY
n
_
n n ZY

Va1 = Z y I a1 , Va 2 = Z y I a 2 , Va 0 = 0
78
Sequence Impedances of -Connected Loads
• Obviously, a Δ-connection can not provide a path
through neutral. Therefore, the line currents flowing into
Δ-connection cannot contain any zero sequence
components.
• Sometimes single-phase circulating
currents can be produced in the Δ-
connected transformers and Z Z
generators by either induction or
zero sequence generated voltages.
Z
Transforming Δ-Y, ZY = ZΔ / 3
79
Sequence Impedances of -Connected Loads

+ + +
I Ia2 I a0
Z  a1 Z Z Va 0
3 Va1 Va 2
3
_
n
_
n n_

Z Z

Z Z
Va1 = I a1 , Va 2 = I a 2 , Va 0 = 0 Z
3 3
80
Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines

Note:
Ia
• Z0 is much larger than Z1 a

and Z2 Ib
b

• Z1 = Z2 = per phase c
Ic
reactance of line In
n
• Z0 is determined
empirically

Z1 Z2 Z0

81
Sequence Diagrams for Generators
+
Zs Ia
Ea Va
Eb
Zs Ib
Zn Z s Ec +
Ic Vb
+
V_c _ _

In
• Key point: generators are balanced and only produce
positive sequence voltages; therefore only the
positive sequence has a voltage source
• During a fault Z+  Z−  Xd”. The zero sequence impedance is
usually substantially smaller. The value of Zn depends on
whether the generator is grounded 82
Sequence Diagrams for Generators

+ + +
Z1 I a1 Z2
Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z0 Va 0
Ea Va 2 _
_
n n n
3Z n
Va0 = – Z0 Ia0
_
Va1 = Ea – Z1 Ia1
Va2 = – Z2 Ia2
83
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
• The positive and negative sequence diagrams for
transformers are equal and similar to transmission lines.
Z1 = Z2 = transformer leakage impedance
• The zero sequence network depends on
✓ Winding type (Δ or Y)
✓ Neutral grounding
✓ What terminal we look into

• No current flows in the primary unless current flows in

the secondary
+ve -ve 84
Zl Zl
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
Case 1: Y-Y Bank, Both Neutrals Grounded
Since both neutrals are
grounded, there is a path for ZN Zn
the zero sequence current to
flow in the primary and
secondary. Hence, the
transformer exhibits the
equivalent leakage
impedance per phase. Z0
Pri Sec
Z0 = Zl + 3ZN + 3Zn
Zl = leakage impedance 85
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
Case 2: Y-Y Bank, One Neutral Grounded

From the primary side,

neutral currents can flow.
However the secondary
acts as open circuit.
Same conclusion can be
obtained by replacing
either ZN or Zn by ∞ in
Case 1 Pri Sec
86
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
Case 3: Y-Δ Bank, Neutral Grounded
• From the grounded Y
side, zero sequence ZN
currents can flow since
they have a path to
ground.
• From the secondary
Z0
side, no zero sequence
current and Δ side acts Pri Sec
as open circuit.
Z0 = Zl + 3ZN 87
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
Case 4: Y-Δ Bank, Neutral Ungrounded

This case is a special

case of Case 3 where
the neutral impedance
ZN = ∞. Therefore, no
zero sequence
currents can flow in
Pri Sec
the transformer
windings.
88
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
Case 5: Δ -Δ Bank

In this configuration, zero

sequence currents can
circulate in Δ-connected
Z0
windings. However, no
Pri Sec
currents can leave Δ
terminals. Therefore, the
transformer acts as open
circuit from both sides. Pri Sec
89
Sequence Diagrams for Transformers
Zero Sequence Equivalent
Case Symbol Connection Diagram
Circuit

Z0
ZN Zn
1 Pri Sec
Z 0 = Z l + 3Z N + 3Z n

2 Pri Sec

ZN
Z0
3 Pri
Z 0 = Z l + 3Z N
Sec

4 Pri Sec

Z0
5 Pri Sec

90
Example 8
• Draw the sequence networks of the system shown
• Find the Thevenin sequence impedances as seen at bus 1
• Calculate the fault current in per unit for a bolted three-
phase fault at bus 1

Element X1 X2 X0
G1 0.10 0.10 0.05
G2 0.10 0.10 0.05
T1 0.25 0.25 0.25
T2 0.25 0.25 0.25
Line 1-2 0.30 0.30 0.50
91
Example 8
Positive sequence network

Negative sequence network

Z2 = Z 1 92
Example 8
Zero sequence network

93
Example 8
For a bolted three-phase fault at bus 1, the fault
current is
1
𝐼𝑓 = 1
𝑧

Note: For a balanced fault, we have only the

positive sequence network
94
Example 9
Draw the zero sequence network of the system shown

R T

AC M N

AC
Q S

Zn

95
Example 9
R
T

N
M

Q S

3Zn

Reference

The zero sequence network of the system shown

96
Example 10
Draw the zero sequence network of the system shown

97
Example 10

The zero sequence network of the system shown

98
Example 11
Draw the zero sequence network of the system
shown

99
Example 11

The zero sequence network of the system shown 100

Unymmetrical Fault
Analysis
Sequence Networks

Three questions must be addressed:

• How to transform voltages and currents from abc to 012 and vice
versa?
• How to represent power system elements in 012?

• How to analyze the fault

in 012?
102
Unbalanced Faults

• Single Line-To-Ground Fault (SLG)

• Line-To-Line Fault (LL)

• Double Line-To-Ground Fault (DLG or LLG)

103
Unbalanced Fault Analysis: General Steps
The procedure to handle the unsymmetrical
faults is as follows: -
1. Check the per unit quantities
2. Represent the system by the 3 sequence
networks
3. Reduce the sequence networks to their
Thevenin equivalents at the point of fault
+ + +
Z1 I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z2 V Z 0 Va 0
a2
V f0 _ _ _
104
Unbalanced Fault Analysis: General Steps
4. Connect sequence networks according to the
fault type
SLG : Connect the equivalents in series
LL : Connect +ve and –ve in parallel
LLG : Connect the equivalents in parallel
5. Solve for the sequence components of fault
currents and voltages at the faulted bus
6. Transform sequence components of fault
currents and voltages to phase values
( 012 abc )
105
 Single Line-To-Ground Fault
Fault Conditions Ia
a
• Va = Zf If
Zf If
• Ib = Ic= 0 b
• If = Ia
c

Ia0  1 1 1  Ia  1 1 1 I f 
  1
I s =  I a1  = 1 a 2   1
a   I b  = 1 a 2
a  0
3 3  
 I a 2  1 a 2  
a   Ic  
1 a
2
a   0 

106
Single Line-To-Ground Fault
Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = If / 3
Va0 = – Z0 Ia0
Va1 = Vf0 – Z1 Ia1
Va2 = – Z2 Ia2
Where Z0, Z1, and Z2 are Thevenin
impedances of the sequence circuits at the
fault location
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = Vf0 – (Z0+Z1+Z2) Ia0
Va = Zf If = 3 Zf Ia0 = Vf0 – (Z0+Z1+Z2) Ia0
107
Single Line-To-Ground Fault
Hence, 0
V
I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2 =
f

Z 1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f
Therefore, sequence networks are connected as shown,

+ + +
Z1 I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z2 V Z 0 Va 0
a2
V f0 _ _ _

3Z f
108
Line-To-Line Fault
Fault Conditions a
• Vb – Vc = Zf If Ib
b If
• Ib = – Ic= If f
Z
• Ia = 0 c
Hence, Ic

Ia0  1 1 1  Ia  1 1 1  0 
  1 2   1 2  
I s =  I a1  = 1 a a   I b  = 1 a a   If 
3 3
 I a 2  1 a 2 a   I c  1 a 2 a  − I f 
 
109
 Line-To-Line Fault
Ia0 = 0, Ia1 = (a – a2)If / 3, Ia2 = (a2 – a)If / 3
i.e., Ia1 = – Ia2
Vb – Vc = (a2 – a)(Va1 – Va2) = Zf If
Va1 = Vf0 – Z1 Ia1
Va2 = – Z2 Ia2
Substitute Va1, Va2, Ia1 = – Ia2
3Zf Ia1/(a – a2) = (a2 – a)[Vf0 – (Z1+Z2) Ia1]

110
Line-To-Line Fault
Solving for Ia1 results in 0
V
I a1 = − I a 2 = f

Z1 + Z 2 + Z f
Therefore, sequence networks are connected as shown

+ +
Z1 I a1 Ia2
Va1 Z2 V
a2
V f0 _ _

Zf 111
 Line-To-Line-To-Ground Fault
Fault Conditions a
• Vb = Vc = Zf If Ib
• I b + I c= I f b
If
• Ia = 0
c
Since Ia + Ib + Ic= 3 Ia0 , Ic Zf
Then If = 3 Ia0
i.e., Vb = Vc = 3 Zf Ia0

Va 0  1 1 1  Va  1 1 1 Va 

  1
V s = Va1  = 1 a 2   1
a  Vb  = 1 a a 2  V 
3 3  b
Va 2  1 a 2 a  Vc  1 a 2 a  Vb 
112
Line-To-Line-To-Ground Fault
Hence, Va1 = Va2
Also Va + Vb + Vc = 3 Va0
Va0 + Va1 + Va2 + 2(3 Zf Ia0) = 3 Va0
Solving for Va1 results in
Va1 = Va0 – 3 Zf Ia0
Hence, Va1 = Va2 = Va0 – 3 Zf Ia0
and, Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 = 0 (Ia = 0)
113
Line-To-Line-To-Ground Fault
Therefore, sequence networks are connected as
shown

+ + +
Z1 I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z2 V Z 0 Va 0
0 a2
V f
_ _ _

3Z f

114
Line-To-Line-To-Ground Fault
From the connection, the sequence currents
can be written as

V f0  Z 0 + 3Z f 
I a1 = Ia2 = − I a1  
 Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f )   Z + Z + 3Z 
Z1 +    2 0 f 
 Z + Z + 3Z 
 2 0 f 

 Z2 
I a 0 = − I a1  
 Z + Z + 3Z 
 2 0 f 
115
Unbalanced Fault Summary
• SLG: Sequence networks are connected in series,
parallel to three times the fault impedance
• LL: Positive and negative sequence networks are
connected in parallel; zero sequence network is
not included since there is no path to ground
• DLG: Positive, negative and zero sequence
networks are connected in parallel, with the zero
sequence network including three times the
fault impedance
116
Example 12
Calculate the fault current in per
unit for
a) A bolted 3-phase fault at bus 1.
b) A bolted SLD fault at bus 1. Element X1 X2 X0
G1 0.10 0.10 0.05
c) A bolted LL fault at bus 1.
G2 0.10 0.10 0.05
d) A bolted DLG fault at bus 1. T 0.25 0.25 0.25
1
T2 0.25 0.25 0.25
Line 1-2 0.30 0.30 0.50

117
Example 12
Positive sequence network

Negative sequence network

Z2 = Z 1 118
Example 12
Zero sequence network

119
Example 12
(a) For a bolted three-phase fault at bus 1, the
fault current is
1
𝐼𝑓 = 1
𝑧

Note: For a balanced fault, we have only the positive

sequence network

120
Example 12
(b) For a bolted SLG fault at bus 1, the fault current is
V f0
I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2 =
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f

+ + +
Z1 I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z2 V Z 0 Va 0
a2
V f0 _ _ _

3Z f
121
Example 12
(c) For a bolted LL fault at bus 1, the fault current is
0
V
I a1 = − I a 2 = f

Z1 + Z 2 + Z f

+ +
Z1 I a1 Ia2
Va1 Z2 V
0 a2
Vf _ _

Zf

122
Example 12
(d) For a bolted LLG fault at bus 1, the fault current is

V f0
I a1 = = − j 3.02767 pu
 Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f ) 
Z1 + 
 Z + Z + 3Z 
 2 0 f  +
Z1 I a1 Ia2
+
I a0
+

 Z 0 + 3Z f  Va1 Z2 V
a2
Z 0 Va 0
= − I a1   = j1.36792 pu
0
Ia2 Vf _ _ _
 Z + Z + 3Z
 2 0 f  3Z f
 Z2 
Ia0 = − I a1   = j1.65975 pu
 Z + Z + 3Z
 2 0 f 

I f = 3I a 0 = j 4.97925 pu
123
124