02-Relay Operating Principles

09/09/2023
EE 466
Power System Protection
Relay Operating Principles
Updated by: Dr. Suhail Shaik

Credit to Prof. Mohamed Abido for preparing the original slides 1
Outlines
• Fault Detection
• Relay designs
• Electromechanical relays
• Solid-state relays
• Computer relays
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How to detect the fault?

• The most common parameters which reflect the
presence of a fault are the voltages and currents.
• In general, a relay can be designed to respond to
any observable parameter or effect.
• The fundamental problem in power system
protection is to define the quantities that can
differentiate between normal and abnormal
conditions.
• What are the normal and abnormal conditions in
the protection context?
3
• In the protection sense, ‘normal’ means that

the disturbance is outside the protection zone
of the relay, while ‘abnormal’ means that the
disturbance is inside the protection zone.
• This aspect is of the greatest significance in

designing a secure relaying system and
dominates the design of all protection systems.
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Example 1 F1
• The relay should see F1 as ……

abnormal F2
• The relay should see F2 as ……

normal R
• Is there a difference between the fault currents IF1 and IF2?

No, IF1 = IF2.
Conclusion
• If the relay responds to current magnitude, it would be
impossible to differentiate between normal and abnormal
conditions.
• The relay should have different operating principle!
5

During short circuits: -
• Currents increase in magnitudes
• Voltages decrease in magnitudes
• Changes in phase angles of V & I phasors,
• Change in frequency,
• Change in harmonic contents,
• Change in P and Q
• ….
• ….
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Relays Operating Principles
Relay Operating Principles
• Level detection
Level
• Magnitude comparison detection
Frequency Magnitude
• Differential comparison sensing comparison
• Phase angle comparison

Harmonic Relay operating Differential
• Distance measurement content principles comparison
• Pilot relaying
Pilot Phase angle
• Harmonic content relaying comparison
Distance
measurement
• Frequency sensing
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Relay Operating Principles: Level Detection

• Simplest operating principle.
instantaneous
• Based on the fact IF >> Iload
• A pickup current Ip must be set. TDOC
• Pickup setting is the level above

which the relay operates.
• For all currents above the pickup
setting ( I > Ip or I/Ip > 1.0 ) the
relay operates.
• The characteristics of instantaneous overcurrent and time-
delay overcurrent (TDOC) relays are shown.
• It is of course possible to reverse the logic and arrange the
relay to operate for values smaller than the pickup value.
• An undervoltage relay is an example of such a relay. 9
Example 2
For the system shown, design the relay (set
the pickup value).
Solution
Normal load current can be calculated as
𝑃𝑖𝑛 (𝑊) 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑘𝑊)
𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = =
3 × 𝑉 × 𝑝𝑓 3 × 𝑉(𝑘𝑉) × 𝑝𝑓 × 𝜂
𝐻𝑃 × 0.746 𝐻𝑃
= ≈ = 288 𝐴
3 × 𝑉(𝑘𝑉) × 𝑝𝑓 × 𝜂 3 × 𝑉 𝑘𝑉
Allow for 25% overloading, then
Ip = 1.25  288 = 360 A
For any current > 360 A, relay operates.
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Relay Operating Principles: Magnitude Comparison
• A current balance relay

may compare IA and IB
which are equal under
normal operating
conditions.
• If |IA |> |IB |+∈ , and Line B is not open, the relay will
operate as there is a fault in line A.
• If |IB |> |IA |+∈ , and Line A is not open, the relay will
operate as there is a fault in line B.
• This relay can be used if a machine has two identical
parallel sub-windings per phase. 11
Relay Operating Principles: Differential Comparison

• Differential comparison is
one of the most sensitive
and effective methods of
protection.
• As the winding is intact,
𝐼1′ = 𝐼2′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
• In normal operation the relay current (I1 – I2) = 0.
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Relay Operating Principles: Differential Comparison

• Differential comparison is
one of the most sensitive
and effective methods of IF
protection.
• As the winding is intact, (I1 + I2)
𝐼1′ = 𝐼2′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

• In normal operation the relay current (I1 – I2) = 0.
• In fault condition, I1 ≠ I2 and the relay current is I1 + I2
• An OC relay can be used to detect the fault with simple logic of
“If the relay current ≥ , then initiate the trip signal”.
• The only drawback is that it requires currents from the both ends
of the protection zone.
• This restricts its application to power apparatus, such as
transformers, generators, motors, buses, capacitors and reactors.13
Relay Operating Principles: Phase Angle Comparison

• This relay compares the relative
phase angle between two AC
quantities (V & I).
• Phase angle comparison is used
to determine the direction of a
current with respect to a
reference quantity.
• In normal operation, phase angle  between V & I is within 30.
• When power flows in the opposite direction, this angle becomes
(180  30) .
• During the fault, the impedance angle  becomes very close 90 .
• This difference in phase relationships created by a fault or
reverse power is exploited by making relays which respond to
phase angle differences. 14
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Relay Operating Principles: Distance Measurement

• A distance relay, as its name implies, has the ability to
detect a fault within a pre-set distance along a
transmission line or power cable from its location.
• Z = V/I  distance
• Unlike differential protection, this relay principle
compares the local current with the local voltage.
15
Relay Operating Principles: Pilot Relaying

• The relay action is based on information obtained from
remote location.
• Information is usually in the form of contact status –
either open or closed.
• Information is sent over a communication channel such
as power line carrier, microwave, or telephone circuits.
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Relay Operating Principles: Harmonic Content

• In normal operation, V and I are sinusoidal waveforms
with fundamental frequency.
• Abnormal conditions, such as transformer saturation
and transformer energization, can be detected by
sensing the harmonic content through filters or by
calculation in digital relays.
Voltage waveforms due to transformer core saturation 17
Relay Operating Principles: Harmonic Content

Severe voltage and current distortion
18
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Harmonics analysis
19
Relay Operating Principles: Frequency Sensing
• Normal frequency is 50 or 60 Hz. Any deviation

indicates an abnormal condition.
• Frequency can be measured by counting of zero
crossings in a unit of time.
• Frequency-sensing relays (over-frequency and under-
frequency) may be used to take corrective actions to
bring the frequency back to normal such as load
shedding & machinery under/overspeed protection.
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Device Numbers and Functions

Purpose
– Device function number is used to identify
the function of each device
– These numbers used in drawings, connection
diagrams, instruction books, publications and
specifications
– Refer to ANSI C37.2-1991.
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Device Numbers and Function
DEVICE
DEFINITION / FUNCTION
NUMBER
Synchronizing or synchronism – check device – a device that when two AC

25 circuits are within the desired limits of frequency phase angle, or voltage, to
permit or to cause the paralleling of these two circuits.
27 Undervoltage relay – a relay which functions on a given value of undervoltage.
Phase balance current relay – a relay that functions on current unbalance,

46
reverse phase-sequence, or negative sequence.
Phase sequence voltage relay – a relay that functions on polyphase voltage

47
unbalance, reverse phase-sequence, or negative sequence.
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DEVICE
NUMBER
Machine or transformer thermal relay – a relay that functions when the

49
temperature of a load carrying winding exceeds a predetermined value.
Instantaneous overcurrent relay – a relay that functions instantaneously

50
on an excessive value of current.
AC time overcurrent relay – a relay that functions on a given value of

51
current.
AC circuit breaker – a device used to close or interrupt an AC power

52
circuit under normal or fault conditions.
23
DEVICE
NUMBER
59 Overvoltage relay – a relay that functions on a given value of overvoltage.
Time delay relay – a relay that serves in conjunction with another relay to
62
shutdown, stop, or open an automatic sequence.
Pressure switch (sudden pressure relay) – a switch that operates on given

63
values or on a given rate of change of pressure.
AC directional overcurrent relay – a relay that functions on a desired value

67
of AC current flowing in a predetermined direction.
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DEVICE
NUMBER
74 Alarm relay – a relay that operates a visual or audible alarm.
81 Frequency relay – a relay that functions on a predetermined value of frequency.
Locking-out relay – a relay that functions to shut down and hold equipment out
86
of service
Differential protective relay – a relay that functions on a percentage or other

87
quantitative difference of two electrical currents.
25
Fuses
26
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Fuses
Characteristics
• It is the oldest and simplest level detector
protective device.
• It acts as both sensor and interrupting device
• It is installed series with the equipment.
• It operates by melting a fusible element (I2Rt)
• Melting time  1/I2.
• It is particularly used for low voltage installations
and radial distribution feeders. 27
Fuses
Disadvantages
• Its single-shot feature that is the blown fuse must
be replaced before service restoration.
• This results in: -
– a delay
– a need to have spare fuses
– a need to have qualified maintenance personnel who
must go and replace the fuses in the field.
• It causes system unbalance with unsymmetrical

faults (SLG, LL, LLG). This results in excessive
heating and vibration of motors. 28
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Fuses
Solutions
• It is possible to provide a multiple-shot feature
by installing a number of fuses in parallel and
provide a mechanical triggering mechanism so
that blowing of one fuse automatically
transfers another in its place.
• Segregating the fault detection function from
the interruption function was a most
significant advance
Fuse = Relay + Circuit Breaker
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Relays Designs
1- Electromechanical
2- Solid-State
3- Numerical/Digital
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Relays Designs
a) Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
b) Electromagnetic Induction Relays
2- Solid-State
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Electromechanical Relays
• The early relay designs utilized actuating forces that were
produced by electromagnetic interaction between currents and
fluxes, much as in a motor.
• Some relays were also based upon the forces created by
expansion of metals caused by a temperature rise due to a flow
of current.
• In electromechanical relays, the actuating forces were created
by a combination of the input signals, stored energy in springs
and dashpots.
• The attraction-type relays are usually driven by a single
actuating quantity.
• The induction-type relays may be activated by single or
multiple inputs. 32
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Electromechanical Relays: Attraction-type

• The electromagnetic attraction relay is the
simplest type of relay
• It includes a plunger (or solenoid), hinged
armature, or balanced armature.
• In this relay, the armature is attracted to
the electromagnet.
Plunger
33
Balanced Beam Hinged Armature
SPRING
34
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35

• The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is
proportional to the square of the current flow (Fem = kI2).
• At normal operation, the armature is balanced and Fem = Fspring.
• During the fault, I increases and Fem > Fspring and the armature
start moving.
• The value of the current at which the armature just begins to
move is known as the pickup setting (Ip).
• The armature travels some distance, before it closes its contacts.
• The pickup current Ip can be adjusted over a wide range by: -
– Having several taps on the winding of the actuating coil. An OC relay may
be available with tap settings of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 A.
– Adjusting the air gap.
– Adjusting the spring force. 36
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• The operating time can be controlled by adjusting the distance the
armature travel from moving contacts to reach the fixed contacts.
• The attraction-type relay responds to both AC and DC currents.
• The general shape of the relay characteristic, i.e. its operating time
vs. the current through the coil, is as shown.
Relay 51
Operating
Time
Inverse
Very inverse
50 Extremely inverse
Pickup or Ampere Tap Setting
Normalized Current Input (I/Ip)

1.0 pu 37
Electromechanical Relays: Induction-type

• These relays are based upon the principle of operation of a single-
phase AC motor and cannot be used for DC currents.
• Two variants of these relays are fairly standard:
– Induction disc
– Induction cup
• The moving element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the
induction motor.
38
Induction cup relay Induction disc relay
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39
40
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• Induction-type relays require two sources of alternating magnetic
flux in which the moving element may turn.
• The two fluxes must have a phase difference; otherwise, no
operating torque, Tem, is produced.
𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑚1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑖2 = 𝐼𝑚2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑇𝑒𝑚 = 𝑘𝐼𝑚1 𝐼𝑚2 sin𝜃
• Shading rings mounted on pole faces may be used to provide one

of the two fluxes to produce motor action.
• Permanent magnets may be used to provide special damping
characteristics.
• The disc or cup start rotating if Tem > Tspring for angle φ to close the
contacts 41

• The induction-type relay is a very versatile device. By choice the
source of the two coil currents, this relay could be made a level
detector, directional, or ratio relay.
• For example, by using the same current through the two coils,
one could make a level detector by producing a phase shift by
placing an impedance in parallel with one of the coils.
𝑇𝑒𝑚 = 𝑘𝐼 2
Phase shift for torque production 42
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Example 3
Consider an induction disc relay, designed as
overcurrent relay. The spring torque is 0.001
Nm and the pickup current is 10 A. The
constant of torque proportionality k is 10-5.
The inertia of the disc is 10−4 kg m2. If the
total travel angle is φ rad., find the relay
operating time in terms of the normalized
operating current.
𝐴𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑚 = 𝑇𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘𝐼𝑝2 → 𝑘 = 10−5
43
Example 3
Solution
Assume the normalized current is I (pu), the pickup current is Ip (A)
and the operating current is Iop (A), then
𝐼𝑜𝑝
𝐼= then Iop = Ip  I = 10I , 2
𝑇𝑒𝑚 = 𝑘𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 𝑘(10𝐼)2
𝐼𝑝
𝑇𝑒𝑚 = 10−5 × (10𝐼)2 = 0.001 × 𝐼 2

The accelerating torque, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.001(𝐼 2 − 1)
The equation of motion of the disc, 𝐽𝛿ሷ = 0.001(𝐼 2 − 1),
Where  is the angle of rotation ranges from 0 to ϕ, then
t
10−4 𝛿ሷ = 0.001(𝐼 2 − 1) ,
Integrating the equation of motion twice gives
𝜑
𝜑 = 5 𝐼2 − 1 𝑡 2 this gives 𝑡= I
5 𝐼 2 −1 1.0 pu 44
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• Induction disc- or cup-
type relays may be Relay
energized from voltage Operating 27 59
sources to produce under- Time
or overvoltage relays as
shown.
Pickup Voltage
1.0 pu Voltage (pu)
• If one coil is supplied by I and the other coil with V, the relay
responds to Tem  VI sin( + ), where  is the angle between
V&I and  is the angle between V and the current in the voltage
coil (voltage coil impedance angle).  +  gives the angle I
between the currents in both coils.  V

Iv 45

• If all of combinations of energizing quantities are applied to
several coils, the expression for the composite accelerating
torque is
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾1 𝐼 2 + 𝐾2 𝑉 2 + 𝐾3 𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 − 𝑇𝑠
• By selecting appropriate values for the various constants, a very

wide range of relay characteristics can be obtained such as:
– Impedance (ohm) Relay
– Directional Relay
– Admittance (mho) Relay
46
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Impedance (ohm) Relay
• If K3 = 0 and Ts is negligible, when the relay is on the verge of
operation (i.e. at its balance point) T = 0, and, if the voltage-
induced torque is arranged to be in the opposite direction to
that produced by the current (i.e. replacing K2 by −K2), then
𝑉 𝐾1
𝑍 = =
𝐼 𝐾2
• This is equation of a circle in the R–X plane.
• The torque is greater than this pickup value when the ratio V/I
(or Z) lies inside the operative circle.
47


𝑉 𝐾1
𝑍 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼 𝐾2
48
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• Adding a current-carrying coil for a current
proportional to the voltage, the torque equation at the
balance point , T = 0, is
0 = 𝐾1 𝐼 2 − 𝐾2 (𝑉 + 𝐾4 𝐼)2
• Dividing by I2, it gives
𝐾1
𝑍 + 𝐾4 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐾2
• This is equation of a circle in the R–X plane with its
center offset by a constant. 49

Directional Relay
• If K1 = K2 = 0 and Ts is negligible, at balance point T = 0,
𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0
𝑍𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0
𝑍𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 0
𝑋𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 0
• This is equation of a straight line in the R–X plane,
passing through the origin, and at an angle of −ϕ to
the R-axis.
• This is the characteristic of a directional relay. 50
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Directional Relay
𝑍𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0
51

Admittance (mho) Relay
• If K1 = 0 and Ts is negligible, reversing the sign of the torque
produced by VI term, torque equation at balance point becomes
𝐾2 𝑉 2 − 𝐾3 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
𝑍 = 𝐾3 sin 𝜃 + 𝜑 , then, 𝑍 = 𝐾3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝐾3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
2 2 2
𝑋 𝐾3 𝑅 𝐾3
𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
|𝑍| 𝐾2 |𝑍| 𝐾2
𝐾3 𝐾3
𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 = 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝐾2 𝐾2
52
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• This is equation of a circle passing through the
origin in the R–X plane with a diameter of K3/K2
1𝐾 1𝐾
and a center of ( 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑, 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑)
2 𝐾2 2 𝐾2
• The diameter passing through the origin makes

an angle of maximum torque of −ϕ with the X-
axis.
• This is known as an admittance or mho relay
characteristic. 53

𝐾2 𝑉 2 − 𝐾3 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0
𝐾3
𝑍 = sin 𝜃 + 𝜑
𝐾2
The operating torque (𝐾3 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 ) is developed by

flux interaction of poles 3, 2, and 4 and the
controlling torque (𝐾2 𝑉 2) is due to poles 1, 2 and 4. 54
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Relays Designs
2- Solid-State
55
Solid-State (Static) Relays

• The growing complexity of modern power systems have brought a
need for protective relays with a higher level of performance and
more sophisticated characteristics.
• This has been made possible by the development of
semiconductors.
• All of the functions and characteristics available with
electromechanical relays can be performed by solid-state devices.
Disadvantages
• Solid-state relays use low-power components with rather limited
capability to tolerate extremes of temperature and humidity, or
overvoltages and overcurrents.
• This introduces concerns about the survivability of solid-state
relays in the hostile substation environment.
56
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Solid-State (Static) Relays

Advantages
• There are performance and economic advantages associated with
the flexibility and reduced size of solid-state devices.
• Solid-state relays are more accurate and their settings are more
repeatable and hold to closer tolerances.
• Solid-state relays are not affected by vibration or dust, and often
require less mounting space, and need not be mounted in a
particular orientation.
• There is a great variety of circuit arrangements which would
produce a desired relaying characteristic.
• Example of circuit which can provide desired solid-state
instantaneous overcurrent relay characteristics will be discussed.
57
Solid-State Relays: instantaneous overcurrent
The input current I is passed through the resistive shunt R
I is full-wave rectified by the bridge rectifier B

Filtered to remove the ripple by the R–C filter and applied
to a high-gain summing amplifier A
The other input of the amplifier is supplied with an
adjustable reference voltage er. When e2 > er, the amplifier
output goes high.
The step change is delayed by a time-delay circuit, in order

to provide immunity against spurious transient signals in the
input circuit.
By making the time-delay circuit adjustable and dependent on
the input current magnitude, a time-delay overcurrent relay
58
characteristic can be obtained.
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Relays Designs
2- Solid-State
59
Computer (Digital, Numerical) Relays

• Digital protection relays introduced a step change in technology.
• Microprocessors and microcontrollers replaced analogue circuits
used in static relays to implement relay functions.
• Digital relays introduce A/D conversion of all measured analogue
quantities and use a microprocessor to implement the protection
algorithm.
• Additional functionality compared to that provided by an
electromechanical or static relay is usually available, typically
taking the form of
– wider range of settings, and
– greater accuracy.
• A communications link to a remote computer may be provided.
• A single item of hardware is used to provide a range of functions.
(‘one-box solution’ approach) 60
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Numerical Relays: Advantages

• Cost
– The cost has steadily declined; at the same time their
computational power has increased substantially.
– The cost of conventional (analog) relays has steadily increased
because of design improvements and a relatively low volume of
production and sales.
• Self-checking and reliability
– A computer relay can be programmed to monitor its hardware and
software subsystems continuously.
– It can be designed to fail in a safe mode – i.e. take itself out of
service if a failure is detected – and send a service request alarm to
the system center.
– The relay component failures can be detected soon, and could be
repaired before they have a chance to mis-operate.
61

• System integration and digital environment
– Many of CTs and VTs are in the process of becoming digital systems.
– Fiber optic links are likely to become the medium of signal transmission.
– They will fit in very naturally. They accept digital signals obtained from
newer transducers and fiber optic channels, and become integrated with
the computer based control and monitoring systems of a substation.
• Functional flexibility and adaptive relaying
With the programmability and communication capability, it is a simple
matter to do many other substation tasks. For example,
– Metering: I, V, P, Q, f, power factor, harmonics, symmetrical components,
min-max values with date and time stamp, …etc
– Recording: Sequence of events, fault, demand Interval, …etc
– Waveform Capturing
– Breaker Health Monitoring
– Decreased wiring and panel space
– Setting of system remotely and supervision
– Ability to change relay characteristics (settings). (adaptive relaying) 62
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Numerical Relay
63
Microprocessor-
Based Relay
Old Electromechanical
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Numerical Relays: Hardware
65
Numerical Relays: Operation

• The I & V signals from the power system are processed by signal
conditioners consisting of analog circuits, such as
– Transducers: CTs and VTs
– Surge suppression circuits: Suppress the surges due to fault and switching
– Anti-aliasing filters: Low-pass analog filters
• The input signals are sampled and converted to digital form by
A/D converter.
• The sampling clock provides pulses at sampling frequency
between 8 and 32 times fundamental power system frequency.
• The relaying algorithm processes the sampled data to produce a
digital output.
66
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Relay Comparisons
Characteristic El. Mech. Relay Static Relay Digital Relay
Tech. Standard 1st generation relays. 2nd gen. Present gen.

microprocessor.
In this relays Within built
They use principle of
Operating Principle transistors and IC’s software with
electromagnetic principle.
been used predefined
values
Induction disc, R, L, C, transistors, Microprocessors,
Measuring
electromagnets, induction analogue ICs digital ICs, digital
elements/ Hardware
cup, balance beam comparators processors
Level detects,
A/D conversion,
Electrical qtys converted comparison with
numerical
Measuring method into mechanical force, reference in
algorithm
torque analogue
techniques
comparator
Depend upon gravitation
There value may
Surrounding and the value changes to
vary with respect to Not affected
Environment the surrounding magnetic
temperature also.
fields also. 67
Relay Comparisons
Relay Size Bulky Small Small
Speed of Response Slow Fast Fast
Mechanical clock
Timing function Static timers Counter
works, dashpot
Time of Accuracy Temp. dependent Temp. dependent Stable
Reliability High Low High
Vibration Proof No Yes Yes
Characteristics Limited Wide Wide
Requirement of Draw
Required Required Not required
Out
CT Burden High (8-10 VA) Low (1.0 VA) Low (<0.5 VA)
68
34
09/09/2023
Relay Comparisons
Range of settings Limited Wide Wide
Function Single function Single function Multi function
Maintenance Frequent Frequent Low
Relay Programming No Partially Programmable
Fault Disturbance
Not possible Not possible Possible
Recording
Self monitoring No Yes Yes
Keypad for
Plug setting, dial Thumb wheel, dual
Parameter setting numeric values,
setting in line switches
through computer
69
Recap Construction
Electromechanical
Solid state
Numerical or digital
Non-electric (thermal, pressure, etc.)
Current
Voltage
Power
Protection relays Incoming signal Frequency
Temperature
Pressure
Speed
Overcurrent
Directional overcurrent
Distance
Function
Overvoltage
Differential
Reverse power
70
35
09/09/2023
EFHARISTO
DANKIE
CHOUKRANE
STRENGTH
SHUKRAN
SUKRIA
TODA
PALDIES
‫شكرا جزيال‬
OBRIGADO
धन्यवाद SPASIBO
XIE XIE DEKUJI
GRATIAS TIBI
DO JEH
ধন্যবাদ MERCIGRAZIE MAHALO

SALAMAT PO
DEKUJI
TERIMA KASISH
Shukran
FALEMINDERIT
NGIYABONGA
DANK U
TRUGERE
71
36

02-Relay Operating Principles

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02-Relay Operating Principles

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09/09/2023

Updated by: Dr. Suhail Shaik

How to detect the fault?

How to detect the fault?

• In the protection sense, ‘normal’ means that

• This aspect is of the greatest significance in

How to detect the fault?

• The relay should see F1 as ……

• The relay should see F2 as ……

• Is there a difference between the fault currents IF1 and IF2?

How to detect the fault?

Relays Operating Principles

Relay Operating Principles

• Phase angle comparison

Relay Operating Principles: Level Detection

• Pickup setting is the level above

Relay Operating Principles: Magnitude Comparison

• A current balance relay

Relay Operating Principles: Differential Comparison

• In normal operation the relay current (I1 – I2) = 0.

Relay Operating Principles: Differential Comparison

𝐼1′ = 𝐼2′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

Relay Operating Principles: Phase Angle Comparison

Relay Operating Principles: Distance Measurement

Relay Operating Principles: Pilot Relaying

Relay Operating Principles: Harmonic Content

Voltage waveforms due to transformer core saturation 17

Relay Operating Principles: Harmonic Content

Relay Operating Principles: Frequency Sensing

• Normal frequency is 50 or 60 Hz. Any deviation

Device Numbers and Functions

Device Numbers and Function

Synchronizing or synchronism – check device – a device that when two AC

27 Undervoltage relay – a relay which functions on a given value of undervoltage.

Phase balance current relay – a relay that functions on current unbalance,

Phase sequence voltage relay – a relay that functions on polyphase voltage

Device Numbers and Function

Machine or transformer thermal relay – a relay that functions when the

Instantaneous overcurrent relay – a relay that functions instantaneously

AC time overcurrent relay – a relay that functions on a given value of

AC circuit breaker – a device used to close or interrupt an AC power

Device Numbers and Function

59 Overvoltage relay – a relay that functions on a given value of overvoltage.

Pressure switch (sudden pressure relay) – a switch that operates on given

AC directional overcurrent relay – a relay that functions on a desired value

Device Numbers and Function

74 Alarm relay – a relay that operates a visual or audible alarm.

81 Frequency relay – a relay that functions on a predetermined value of frequency.

Differential protective relay – a relay that functions on a percentage or other

• It causes system unbalance with unsymmetrical

Electromechanical Relays: Attraction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Attraction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Attraction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Attraction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Attraction-type

Pickup or Ampere Tap Setting

Normalized Current Input (I/Ip)

Electromechanical Relays: Induction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Induction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Induction-type

Electromechanical Relays: Induction-type

• Shading rings mounted on pole faces may be used to provide one

Electromechanical Relays: Induction-type