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Physics-project - This is a detailed study on electromagnetic

spectrum.
BFTech-8 (National Institute of Fashion Technology)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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PHYSICS PROJECT

ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM

NAME: SATAKSHI GUPTA CLASS: 12 C

ROLLNO.: 27

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CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

• RELATION BETWEEN

CONDUCTION CURRENT AND

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
• MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

• RELATION BETWEEN MAGNITUDES

OF E AND B IN FREE SPACE

• ENERGY DENSITY IN

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• CHARACTERISTICS OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• TRANSVERSE NATURE OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM •

REGIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM

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INTRODUCTION

The waves in which electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally in mutually
perpendicular directions and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave. Such waves which can actually propagate in space even without any
material medium are called electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.00 x 108 ms in vacuum.

-1

They are neither deflected by the electric field nor by the magnetic field. However,
they are capable of showing interference or diffraction. An electromagnetic wave
is a transverse wave, that is, they are measured by their amplitude and
wavelength. Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged particles
undergoing acceleration and these waves can subsequently interact with other
charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy, momentum
and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those
quantities to matter with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is
associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ("radiate")
without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them,
because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges.

lectromagnetic waves

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DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field. The quantitative relationship

between the current I(t) and the magnetic field B is given by Ampere's circuital
law , which states that then line integral of the magnetic field B around any
closed loop is equal to µ times the net current I(t) threading through the area
0

enclosed by the loop. Mathematically,

∮B.dl = µ I(t) .....(i)
0

where µ is magnetic permeability of free space.

0

The law, however in its present form is not applicable to all situations. There are
situations where there is not the conduction current but magnetic field is found
to be developed.
We consider the charging of a capacitor by connecting it to a battery. As the
current flows from the battery, the capacitor plates are charged and an electric
field is developed between the plates. The current in the circuit changes (initially
it is maximum and then decreases as the p.d. between capacitor plates increases),
the electric field between the plates also changes.
At any instant, let the current in the circuit is I(t).We consider the point P (Fig) at a
1

distance r from the connecting wire. To apply Ampere's law for magnetic field at P 1

closed loop, S is drawn. Applying Ampere's law

1

B.(2πr) = µ I(t) .....(ii)

0

If we consider a point P between the capacitor plates and draw the similar loop
2

S , we will have
2

B.(2πr) = µ x 0 = 0 .....(iii)
0

It means Ampere's circuital law does not predict magnetic field at P . But when we 2

put a compass needle at P , a magnetic field is found to exist. This shows the
2

inconsistency of Ampere's circuital law.

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The magnetic field at P is due to the change of electric field with time during
2

charging of capacitor.The current equivalent of this rate of change of electric flux

producing magnetic field at P is called displacement current.
2

If the plates of the capacitor have an area A and during the charging of capacitor q
is the charge on the capacitor plates at any instant.Then,instantaneous electric
field between the plates is,
E = q/ε A 0

It is perpendicular to surface S . Hence ,electric flux passing through the surface S

2 2

Φ = E.A = 1/ ε (q/A)(A) = q/ε ....(iv)

E 0 0

If the charge q on the capacitor plates changes with time , there is a current I =
(dq/dt) so that using eq.(iv) , we have
dΦ /dt = d/dt(q/ε0) = 1/ε0 . dq/dt = I/ε0
E

ε0= (dΦ /dt) = I .....(v)

E

The current carried by the conductors due to flow of charges is called conduction
current I . The current due to changing electric field is called displacement current
c

or Maxwell's displacement current I . The total current I is the sum of conduction

d

current I and displacement current I Hence , we have

c d.

I = I + I = I + ε0 (dΦ /dt)
c d c E

Displacement current

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RELATION BETWEEN
CONDUCTION CURRENT (I ) AND c

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT (I ) d

Let the area of each capacitor plate is A. At any instant during charging the charge
on capacitor plate is q.
The conduction current in the wires at this instant
I = dq/dt .....(i)
c

At this instant electric field between the plates

E = σ/ε = q/ε A
0 0

Electric flux passing thriught the area between the capacitor

plates Φ = EA = q/ε A . A = q/ε A
E 0 0

Displacement current between the plates

I = ε .dΦ /dt = ε .d/dt(q/ε A)= dq/dt = I
d 0 E 0 0 c

Thus, during charging of capacitor , the conduction current in the connecting

wires is equal to the displacement current between capacitor plates.

Relation between Inductance current and Displacement current

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MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
Maxwell formulated the basic laws of electricity and magnetism in the form of
four fundamental equations, known as Maxwell's equations. These equations
bear the same relation to electromagnetism that Newton's law of motion do to
mechanics.
In the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material, the four basuc laws of
electricity and magnetism,that is, Gauss' law of electricity. Gauss'law of electricity,
Gauss' law of magnetism, Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction and
Ampere-Maxwell's circuital law are expressed by Maxwell's equations. These
equations give complete description of all electromagnetic interactions.
Maxwell,on the basis of his equations, predicted the existence of electromagnetic
waves :
(1) GAUSS' LAW OF ELECTRICITY : It states that the electric flux through any
closed surface is equal to 1/ε0 times the 'net' charge enclosed by the
surface.Mathematically,
∮ E.dS = q/ε A .....(i)
0

This equation is called Maxwell's first equation. In this equation q is source of E.

The equation is true for both stationary and moving charges.

Gauss’ law of Electricity

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(2) GAUSS' LAW OF MAGNETISM : It states that the magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero. Mathematically,
∮ B.dS = 0 ......(ii)
This equation is called Maxwell's second equation. It signifies that free magnetic
poles do not exist. Any volume enclosed by a surface will contain equal and
opposite magnetic poles leading to a net magnetic pole-strength zero (On the
other hand, free electric charges do exist). This equation also signifies that
magnetic lines of force cannot start from a point nor end at a point, that is, they
are closed surfaces.

Gauss’ law of Magnetism

(3) FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION : It states that an

induced emf set up in a circuit is equal to the negative rate of change og
magnetic flux through the circuit. Mathematically,
e = -(dΦ /dt)
B

Since, emf can be defined as the line intergral of electric field, the above relation
may be expressed as
∮ E.d I = -(dΦ /dt) ....(iii)
B

Thus, the law states that the line integral of electric field along a closed path is
equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the surface bounded by
that closed path.
Eq.(iii) is called Maxwell's third equation. It signifies that an electric field is
produced by a changing magnetic field.

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Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction

(4) AMPERE-MAXWELL'S CIRCUITAL LAW : Ampere's circuital law was extended

by Maxwell on considerations of current continuity. It states that the line integral
of magnetic field along a closed path is equal to μ times the total current (that
0

is, sum of conduction current and displacement current) linked with the surface
bounded by that closed path. Mathematically,
∮ B.d I = μ (I + I ) ....(iv)
0 d

This equation is called Maxwell's fourth equation. It signifies that a conduction

current, as well as a changing electric field, produces a magnetic field. Thus, I as
well as dΦ /dt are sources B.
E

Ampere-Maxwell’s Circuital Law

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RELATION BETWEEN
MAGNITUDES OF E AND B IN
FREE SPACE
Suppose that a sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space along
the positive direction of X-axis with wave number k and angular frequency ω.
Then the magnitudes of E and B, acting along Y- and Z-axis respectively, vary with
x and t and can be written as
E= E sin (ωt - kx) ...(i)
0

B = B sin (ωt - kx) ...(ii)

0

where E and B are the maximum values of E and B respectively. Now,

0 0

k = 2π/λ and ω = 2πv,

where λ is wavelength and v is frequency of the wave.

Therefore, ω/k = 2πv/2π/λ = vλ = c,
where c is the speed of the electromagnetic wave, which is the speed of light in
free space. Now, from eq.(i), we have
∂E/∂x = - kE cos(ωt - kx) 0

and from eq.(ii) we have

∂B/∂t = ωB cos(ωt - kx) 0

Making these substitutions in the relation ∂E/∂x= -∂B∂/t , we have

kE cos(ωt - kx) = ωB cos(ωt - kx)
0 0

or E /B = ω/k = c .
0 0

Since E and B are in phase, we can write

E/B = c,

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at any point in space. Thus, the ratio of the magnitudes of electric and magnetic
fields equals the speed of light in free space.
The velocity of electromagnetic wave in any medium is where µ and ε are the
permeability and permittivity of the medium.
v = 1/(µε) -1/2

Relationship between magnitudes o0f E and B in free space

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ENERGY DENSITY IN
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The energy density (energy per unit volume) in an electric field E in vaccum is
1/2(ε E ), and that in a magnetic field B is 1/2(B /µ ). Thus, the energy density
0
2 2
0

associated with an electromagnetic wave is

u = 1/2(ε E ) + 1/2(B /µ ).
0
2 2
0

For a sinusoidal e.m. wave propagating along +X-axis, the magnitudes of E and B,
acting along Y- and Z-axis respectively can be written as
E = E sin(ωt - kx) and B = B sin(ωt - kx)
0 0

where E and B are the magnitudes of E and B respectively. Making, these

0 0

substitutions in eq.(i), we have

u = 1/2(ε E sin (ωt - kx)) + 1/2(B /µ )sin (ωt - kx) .

0 0
2 2 2
0
2

The time average of sin over any whole number of cycles is 1/2. Therefore, the
2

average energy density of an e.m. wave is

u = 1/4(ε E ) + 1/4(B /µ ) .
0 0
2 2
0

In this expression, 1/4(ε E ) is the average electric energy density (u ) 0 0

2
e

and 1/4(B /µ ) is the average magnetic energy density (u ). That is

2
0 m

u = 1/4(ε E ) + 1/4(B /µ ) .
0 0
2 2
0

We can see that the average electric energy density and the average magnetic
energy density are equal :
ue = 1/4(ε E ) = 1/4(ε c B ) [ E /B = c]
0 0 0
2
0
2
0 0

= 1/4(ε )1/µ .ε ) B
0 0 0 02

= 1/4(B /µ ) = u .
0
2
0 m

Hence, we may express the average energy density in e.m. waves as :

u = 1/2(ε E ) = 1/2(B /µ ) .
0 0
2
0
2
0

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• The electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charge. • These
waves do not require any material medium to propagation. • These waves
travel in free space with the speed of light (3.0 x 108 ms ), -1

given by the relation c = 1/(µ ε ) . Light waves are electromagnetic. • The

0 0
-1/2

directions of variations of electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to

each other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Thus,
electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. • The variations in electric
and magnetic fields occur simultaneously and the fields acquire their
maximum values E and B at the same place and at the same time.
0 0

• In free space the magnitudes of electric and magnetic fields in

electromagnetic waves are related by E/B = c.

• The energy in electromagnetic waves is divided, on the average, equally

between electric and magnetic fields.

u=u e m

• Theenergy density (energy per unit volume) in an electric field E in vacuum is

1/2(ε E ), and that in magnetic field B is 1/2(B /µ ). Energy associated with
0 0
2
0
2
0

an electromagnetic wave is

u = 1/2(ε E ) + 1/2(B /µ ).
0 0
2
0
2
0

• The electric field vector is responsible for the optical effects of an

electromagnetic wave and is called the 'light vector'.
• Electromagnetic waves, being uncharged, are not deflected by electric and

magnetic fields.
• The electromagnetic wave like other waves carries energy and momentum.

Since it carries momentum, an electromagnetic wave also exerts pressure

called 'radiation pressure'.
p = u/c
Light carried energy from the sun to earth, thus making life possible on the earth.

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TRANSVERSE NATURE OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Let us consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along X-axis. The
wavefront will be a plane one parallel to YZ plane. For any position of the
wavefront, the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, will be zero to the right of
the wavefront, while to the left of it the values of E and B will depend on x and t
(but not upon y and z because we are considering a plane wave).
To establish transverse nature of electromagnetic waves, we shall show that E
and B are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Let us consider an elementary parallelopiped ABCDEFGH with sides dx, dy and dz
parallel to X-, Y- and Z-axis respectively. Suppose the wavefront reaches the face
EFGH at any time t. The fields of E and B are zero to the right of EFGH, while to
the left of EFGH, their values vary with x only.
Since the parallelopiped does not enclose any charge, according to Gauss' law for
electricity, the total electric flux through its six faces is zero, that is,
∮ E.d A = 0
or ∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA +∫ E.dA = 0
ABCD EFGH BCGF ADHE ABFE DCGH

Since E does not vary with y, the electric flux through the faces BCGF and ADHE
(normal to Y-axis) are equal and opposite and hence the contributions of third
and fourth integrals and mutually cancel. Similarly, the contributions of fifth and
sixth integrals mutually cancel because E does not vary with z also. Hence the last
equation reduces to
∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA = 0
ABCD EFGH

If E and E ' be the values of the x-components of E at the faces ABCD and EFGH
x x

respectively, then we have

∫ E.dA = -E (dy dz) and ∫ E.dA = E (dy dz)

ABCD x EFGH x
'

where dy dz is the area of each face. The minus sign arises from the negative
direction (along X-axis) of the outward normal to the face ABCD. Thus, eq.(i)
becomes

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-E (dy dz) + E (dy dz) = 0
x
’
x
'

or E - E = 0 x
'
x

Now, there are two possibilities:

(i) E is equal to E
x
'
x

(ii) Both E and E are separately zero.

x
'
x

The possibility E = E means that the electric field is static. But a static field cannot
x
'
x

propagate a wave of finite wavelength. Hence this possibility is ruled out and we
conclude that
E = 0 and E = 0.
x x
'

It means that the electric field E has no component parallel to the direction of
propagation. A similar argument holds for the magnetic field B.
Hence, we conclude that in an electromagnetic wave, both the electric and the
magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, that is,
electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.

Transverse nature of Electromagnetic Waves

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The sunlight visible spectrum, discovered by Newton, extends in wavelength
roughly from 4 x 10 m in the violet region to 8 x 10 m in the red region. After
-7 -7

Newton, it was found that sun's spectrum is not limited from violet to red region,
but is considerably spread below the violet region and also above the red region.
These parts of the spectrum are not vidible by our eye; so they are called 'invisible
spectra' of sun. The part of the smaller wavelengths below violet is called the
'ultraviolet spectrum' and that of longer wavelengths above red is called the
'infrared spectrum'.
In 1865, Maxwell formulated the basic laws of electromagnetism in four
equations, known as Maxwell's equations, and predicted that light is an
electromagnetic wave. Thus, in Maxwell's time, visible light and ultraviolet and
infrared radiations were the only electromagnetic radiations known. After
Maxwell's death, in 1888, Hertz for the first time generated and detected
electromagnetic waves experimentally . These waves were about 6m in
wavelength and were called 'radiowaves'.
Later on were discovered X-rays and gamma rays. These were also found to travel
in free space with the speed of light, and thus of electromagnetic nature. The
range of wavelengths of all these radiations is very large and on this basis they
have been given an order. This order is called the electromagnetic spectrum. It
ranges from very small gamma rays to very long radiowaves, with overlapping
regions and no gaps in between The visible spectrum is only a very small part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

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REGIONS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
1. GAMMA RAYS
Wavelength range : 1 x 10 to 1 x 10 m
` -10

Frequency range : 3 x 10 to 3 x 10 Hz
22 18

Production : By transitions of atomic nuclei and decay of certain elementary

particles.

Properties : Chemical reaction on photographic plates, fluorescence, ionisation,

diffraction, highly-penetrating, chargeless, harmful to human body.

Uses : Provide information of structure of atomic nuclei.

Gamma rays are produced by transitions of atomic nuclei.

Gamma rays are used in Radiotherapy.

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2. X-RAYS

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Wavelength range : 10 m to 3 x 10 m
-13 -8

Frequency range : 3 x 10 to 1 x 10 Hz
21 16

Production : By sudden deceleration of high-speed electrons at high-atomic

number target, and (with discrete wavelengths) also by electronic transitions
among the innermost orbits of atoms.

Properties : Less-penetrating, harmful to human body, chargeless.

Uses :
In Science : For studying structures of inneratomic electron shells and crystals.
In Surgery : For detection of fractures, diseased organs, formation of bones and
stones, observing the progress of healing bones.
In Engineering : For detecting faults, cracks, flaws and holes in finished metal
products.
In Radio Therapy : To cure untracable skin diseases, in cancer, like diseases.

X-Rays are produced by sudden deceleration of high speed electrons at high atomic number target.

X-Rays are used in the medical field for various purposes.

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3. ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
Wavelength range : 6 x 10 to 4 x 10 m
-10 -7

Frequency range : 5 x 10 to 7 x 10 Hz
17 14

Production : By sun, arc, vacuum spark and ionised gas

Properties : All properties of gamma rays but less penetrating, produce photo
electric effect, absorbed by atmospheric ozone, harmful to human body.

Uses : In detection of invisible writing, forged documents, fingerprints and to

preserve foodstuffs, to destroy bacteria and for sterilizing the surgical
instruments, in burglars alarm, in studying molecular structure.

Ultraviolet rays are produced by the sun

.
Ultraviolet rays are used in detection of fingerprints.

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4. VISIBLE LIGHT
Wavelength range : 4 x 10 to 7 x 10 -7 -7

Frequency range : 7 x 10 to 4 x 10 Hz
14 14

Production : Radiated by excited atoms in gases and incandescent bodies.

Properties : Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarisation, photo
electric effect, photographic action and sensation of sight.

Uses : Reveals the structure of molecules and arrangement of electrons in

external shells of atoms.

Visible light is radiated by executed atoms in gases and incandescent bodies.

Visible rays are used in Fluorescent bulbs.

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5. INFRARED RADIATION
Wavelength range : 8 x 10 to 5 x 10 m
-7 -3

Frequency range : 4 x 10 to 6 x 10 Hz
14 10

Production : From hot bodies, and by rotational and vibrational transitions in

molecules.

Properties : Heating effect on thermopile and bolometer, reflection, refraction,

diffraction, penetration through fog.

Uses : For providing electrical energy to satellites by means of solar cells, for
producing dehydrated fruits, for treating muscular strain, in solar water heaters
and cookers, for weather forecasting through infrared photography, in green
houses to keep the plants warm and in warfare to look through haze, fog or mist.

Infrared rays are produced by hot bodied.

Remote controls use Infrared Light to communicate with other devices.

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6. MICROWAVES
Wavelength range : 1 x 10 to 3 x 10 m
-3 -1

Frequency range : 3 x 10 to 1 x 10 Hz
11 9

Production : By oscillating currents in special vaccum tubes, and by

electromagnetic oscillators in electric circuits.

Properties : Reflection, polarisation.

Uses : In radar system used in aircraft navigation, long-distance wireless
communication via satellites and in microwave ovens.

Microwaves are used in long distance wireless communication.

Microwaves are also used in microwave oven.

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7. RADIO WAVES
Wavelength range : 1 x 10 to 1 x 10 m
-1 4

Frequency range : 3 x 10 to 3 x 10 Hz
9 4

Production : By oscillating electric circuits.

Properties : Reflection, diffraction.
Uses : In radio and T.V. communication systems. Cellular phones use radio waves
to transmit voice communication in ultra high frequency (UHF) band.

Radio Waves are produced by the oscillation of electric circuits.

Radio Waves are used in T.V. and radio communication system.

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8. LONG WAVES
Wavelength range : 5 x 10 to 6 x 10 m
6 6

Frequency range : 60 to 50 Hz
Production : Weak radiation from AC circuits.

Long wave Ultraviolet light

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. From our physics book.
2. From google wikipedia.
3. From www.quora.com

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