Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ict Notes
Ict Notes
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT
SUBJECT
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
COURSE OUTLINE
CLASSES: DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING AND AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
TOPIC SUB TOPIC
iii) Data
This refers to a collection of disorganized figures, facts, statistics, opinions or predictions that are
not useful for decision making.
-Also refers to the raw facts which have not been processed
iv) Information
This is processed data which is in a form that is meaningful for decision making
b) Functions of ICT
i) Functions of ICT in an organization
- It increases operational efficiency
- Enhances employee productivity
- Improves customer service
- Increases customer satisfaction
- Promote effective decision making
- Enables development of competitive products
- Enables Strategic Planning for future expansion
- Remote processing
Through time sharing and telecommunication, many persons at different locations can use the
same computer at one location for information processing eg ATM banking or air-time top up.
- Enhance productivity
Productivity increase once workers learn to use computers to perform their duties better and
faster
- Accelerate decision making
Managers can sort issues faster and make better decisions
- Reduce operation costs
Computers help to hold down the costs of labour, energy and paper work
- Reduce storage space
Information can be stored in computer components which occupy smaller space unlike paper
iii) Disadvantages of computers
- High initial costs-requires high initial cost to purchase and install the computers
- Require skilled operators-Training needs to be done for the computer operators
- Cause health problems-use of computers causes health related problems such as neck ache,
eyes
- Reduce employment opportunities-one computer can perform several tasks that could have
been performed by several people hence causes unemployment
- Greater loss of data in case of breakage or system failure
c) Classification of computers
i) Classification by purpose
Analog Computers
These are computers that perform logical operations by measuring changes in physical magnitudes
and convert them to numeric values. These computers process data that is in a continuous form or
measurable quantities/units. Analog data includes physical variables like temperature, pressure,
length, weight, electrical voltages and resistance.
-Analog computers include thermometers, weighing scales, voltmeters and speedometers.
-These computers are used mainly for scientific and engineering purposes because they deal with
quantities that vary constantly.
-They give approximate results and are applied in industries, post office and weather stations
-Handles small volume of data.
Digital Computers
. These computers process data that is represented in the form of discrete or individually distinct
form usually in a binary or two state formats/digits 0 and 1. In the binary system, each 0 and 1 is
called a bit and a group of 8 bits is 1 byte.
Example of these devices include digital clock.
-handles high volume of data and gives accurate information
Hybrid Computers
These are computers that have the combined features of both the digital and analog computers.
Example is where patient’s vital signs like temperature, heart functions etc are measured and
converted to numbers and supplied to the digital components that monitor the patient’s vital signs.
A fluctuation can thus be noticed immediately.
- Main frames
These are large, general purpose computers which can serve 100 or more end users.
They are fast with large storage capacities.
Application
Processing of high-volume batch applications eg in banks
Management of very large centralized databases
To control access, interpret queries and retrieve & update records
Ideal for transaction processing, financial applications, payroll calculations and airline reservations.
- Mini computers
These are computers which are neither too big nor too small in size
They are designed to accommodate more than one user
The are a bit costly than micro computers
Their processing speed is a bit faster than micro computers
They have a large storage capacity than microcomputers and lesser than mainframe computer
- Micro computers
These are computers that are small in size
They are designed for single user
They have low processing speed
They are less costly compared to others
They have small processors
They have small storage capacity
- Desktops
These are a type of microcomputers also called Personal Computers (PCs).
They are compact, powerful and versatile machines
They generally serve a single user
The desktop type may be one integral unit having monitor and CPU or may be separate ( Tower units)
- Laptops
These are powerful portable computers
They are designed for single user
They have low processing speed
They are less costly compared to others
They have small processors
They have small storage capacity
They use battery when not connected to main electricity
- Palm tops/microcontrollers/
Also called hidden, embedded, dedicated computers
They are restricted to perform a restricted number of tasks e.g. calculator
iii) Computer Generations
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product development process.
This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer technology. With each new
generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a
result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory has proportionally increased. New
discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.
Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and
more efficient and reliable devices.
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms.
A magnetic drum, also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on
which data and programs can be stored.
The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located around the circumference of the drum,
forming adjacent circular bands that wind around the drum. A single drum can have up to 200 tracks. As
the drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000 rpm, the device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on
the drum during the write operation and sense these spots during a read operation. This action is similar to
that of a magnetic tape or disk drive.
They were very expensive to operate
They used a great deal of electricity,
Generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve
one problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily
understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist
entirely of numbers. Computer Programmers, therefore, use either high level programming languages or
an assembly language programming. An assembly language contains the same instructions as a machine
language, but the instructions and variables have names instead of being just numbers.
Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, the world's first operational electronic digital
computer, developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. The ENIAC,
weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500
relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945.
They had maintenance problems
They had limited primary memory
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation computer. Transistor is a device
composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at
Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's
latest microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors
They were smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips,
transistors, silicon diodes and other electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure
makes the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed, with other elements,
such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties.
A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material (usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is
embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain millions of electronic components
(transistors). Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards.
There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an entire
processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.
Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials. Semiconductors
make it possible to miniaturize electronic components, such as transistors. Not only does miniaturization
mean that the components take up less space, it also means that they are faster and require less energy.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors.
High reliability
Smaller size
Use parallel processing
Introduction of simpler programming language eg BASIC
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits we
rebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers,
the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and
most workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital
devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second
the processor can execute.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet.
Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices
Introduction of a wide variety of software
They became cheap enough for schools and homes to purchase them
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like
humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Artificial intelligence includes:
Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers
Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example, some
expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human languages
Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical
connections that occur in animal brains
Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli
Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior).
The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. In the area of robotics, computers are
now widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great
difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.
Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would allow people to interact
with computers without needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a computer and
talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to understand natural languages has proved to be more
difficult than originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one human
language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human translators.
There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written words, but they do
not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Even these systems are
quite limited -- you must speak slowly and distinctly.
In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial intelligence and of
computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to expectations. Many expert systems help
human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are
helpful only in special situations.
Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in a
number of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing.
Computer Construction
There are at least ten major categories of requirements which must be addressed by the
analysis and design process:
- Function
- Performance
- Usability
- Reliability, Availability, Serviceability
- Localization
- Portability
- Maintainability
- Security
- Testability
- Extendibility
i) Functional requirements define what data the system must produce and what transformations of
that data the system must be able to do.
ii) Performance requirements describe how fast it must do the transformations, how many it must do
and any limitations on the amount of utilization of the agents used to support the transformation
(e.g., amount of machine time, amount of disk space).
iii) Usability requirements describe the ergonomics of the system (e.g., ease of correctly interpreting
the information on a screen).
iv) Reliability defines the degree of accuracy required in the transforms. In billing this be 100%. In
weather forecasting it could be plus or minus 5% for a short term forecast.
v) Availability defines the amount of time the system is actually up during the time periods it is
supposed to be up. This is usually defined as a percentage, qualified with standard deviations. Mean
time to failure, by type of failure, further defines system availability.
vi) Serviceability addresses how quickly the system can be corrected when it is discovered to be
unreliable or unavailable. This might be expressed as the mean time to fix. Mean time to fix is
usually qualified by the type and severity of the failures.
ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands to the capabilities of the
working population. Effective and successful "fits" assure high productivity, avoidance of illness and
injury risks, and increased satisfaction among the workforce. Although the scope of ergonomics is much
broader, the term here refers to assessing those work-related factors that may pose a risk of
musculoskeletal disorders and recommendations to alleviate them. Common examples of ergonomic risk
factors are found in jobs requiring repetitive, forceful, or prolonged exertions of the hands; frequent or
heavy lifting, pushing, pulling, or carrying of heavy objects; and prolonged awkward postures. Vibration
and cold may add risk to these work conditions. Jobs or working conditions presenting multiple risk
factors will have a higher probability of causing a musculoskeletal problem. The level of risk depends on
the intensity, frequency, and duration of the exposure to these conditions and the individuals' capacity to
meet the force of other job demands that might be involved.
is about making things better. The better the ergonomics the more efficient the tool, task or system is.
That makes for a happier, healthier user, a streamlined system and a lower bottom line. Who doesn't
want some of that?
1. Better Comfort
A core benefit of ergonomics is an increase in the user's comfort. Most often user comfort is seen as the
focus of ergonomics but it is actually a result of improving the ergonomics through a more intuitive design
that supports natural .
2.
Clear communication between the user and whatever is being used is another benefit of ergonomics.
5. Reduce Fatigue
With increased comfort and easier to understand usage come reduction in , another benefit of ergonomics.
6. Increase Accuracy
Ergonomics also benefit your by lessoning the chance of errors. From a system perspective this is one of
the greatest benefits from ergonomics.
8. Lower Cost
The cost of an individual tool may not be lowered. In the case of most specially designed "Ergonomic"
tools they are actually much higher. But the overall cost in terms of time, labor and other inputs (blood,
sweat and tears) come down.
Benefits of ergonomics
1. Increased savings
• Fewer injuries
• More productive and sustainable employees
• Fewer workers’ compensation claims
– The average direct cost of a workers compensation claim.
– The indirect costs involved bring the total average claim cost to well over $32,000
2. Fewer employees experiencing pain
• Implementing ergonomic improvements can reduce the risk factors that lead to discomfort.
3. Increased productivity
• Ergonomic improvements can reduce the primary risk factors for MSDs, so workers are more efficient,
productive, and have greater job satisfaction.
4. Increased morale
• Attention to ergonomics can make employees feel valued because they know their employer is making
their workplace safer.
5. Reduced absenteeism
• Ergonomics leads to healthy and pain-free workers who are more likely to be engaged and productive.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
The system Unit
This is the part that houses the brain of the computer called the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and other
devices called drives. Drives are used to store, record and read data.
a) Input devices
i) Keyboard - Keyboard layout
A standard QWERTY keyboard has about 102 keys grouped into categories;
- Functional keys
- Alphabetic keys
- Special keys
- Cursor movement keys
- Numeric keypad
The following are some functions of important keys on the keyboard
2) The Function Keys (F1- F12)
These keys are used to perform specific tasks eg F1 to activate help menu in MS-Word
3) Alphabetic keys
These are keys with alphabetical letters used for typing letters and words.
4) Special keys
These are keys used either alone or in combination with others to perform a function. Eg
i) Control Keys (Ctrl)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while taping another key eg
Ctrl + C = Copy
Ctrl + S = Save
Ctrl + V = paste
Ctrl + A = Select all
Ctrl + P = Print
Ctrl + Z = Undo
Ctrl + Y = Redo
Ctrl + U = Underline
Ctrl + X = cut
Ctrl + B = Bold
Ctrl + I = italic
Ctrl + N = New window
ii) Alternate Keys (Alt)
They are used as a shortcut to activate a menu or task when held down when typing another key
e.g.
Alt + I = Inset Alt +O = Format
Alt + A = Table
Alt + W = Window
Alt +H = Help
Alt + Y = Yes
Alt + N = No
Alt + F4 = Close window
Alt + F = File
Alt + E = Edit
Alt + V = View
6) Numeric keypad
Enter numbers 0-9
ii) Mouse
It is an input device which lets user move the cursor around the screen. It has at least two buttons.
The left button select icons and commands. The right button brings up a menu.
A mechanical mouse has a rubber or metal ball on it’s under side. When the ball rolls in a certain
direction, electronic circuits in the mouse translated the movement of the mouse into signals that
the computer can process. A mouse pad is a rectangular rubber or a foam pad that provides a better
traction than the top of a desk.
An optical mouse, by contrast, has no moving mechanical parts inside. Instead, it uses devices that
emit and sense light to detect the mouse movement.
A mouse contacts the computer in several ways. Many are attached to a serial port, mouse port or
USB port and system.
a) Point. Moving the mouse pointer to a desired spot on the screen such as over a particular word or
object.
b) Click. Used to select or highlight an object or icon on the screen. Also click is used to position the
cursor for instance in a word processor to indicate where to start inserting text, numbers, pictures or
images. This is done by pressing and releasing quickly, the left mouse button once.
c) Double click is used to open icons on the desktop. This is done by, pressing the left mouse button in
two quick successive clicks.
d) Drag & drop is used to change the position of icons on the desktop. It’s also used to move an icon
from one location to another. This is done by pressing and holding down the left mouse button over an
icon; the mouse pointer is used to move the object to a new location or position and then release it.
e) Right click is used to access shortcut menu. This is done by, pressing the right mouse button once, and
then a pop-up menu appears.
f) Scrolling
This is the process of moving the open window content either upward or downward using vertical
scroll bar or to the left or right using horizontal scroll bar.
vii) Pointing stick looks like a pencil eraser protruding from the keyboard between letters G, H and B.
Trackball
It is commonly found in laptops.
viii) Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle like gearshift lever mounted on a
base with one or two buttons. Joysticks are used in video and computer games.
ix) Touch pad is a small, flat surface which you slide your finger to move the cursor. Touch pads
have sensors used to detect finger movement. They’re also found in laptops.
x) Light pen contains a light sensitive cell on its tip. Light pen is a light-sensitive stylus, or pen like
device connected by a wire to the computer terminal. The user brings the pen to a desired point on
the display screen and presses the pen button, which identifies that screen location to the computer.
Engineers and illustrators use light pens.
xi) The other device is a microphone
Optical readers are input devices used in data processing, which read the data directly from source of
information.
Scanning devices use laser beam and reflected light to translate images, text, drawings, photos and
symbols into digital form.
i). Barcodes are vertical zebra stripped marks that you can see on most manufactured products. For
instance in supermarkets, barcodes are used for the stock control. Barcode readers works on the
principle that a narrow beam light from the reader is reflected back from the patterns of black lines
of various widths on the barcode; and changed into a series of electrical pulses. This enables the
computer to identify the item.
ii). Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) used by banks for handling cheques. Some of the
characters are printed in special magnetic ink.
iii). Optical mark reader (OMR) works on the principle that a beam light is used to read and detect
marks on specially prepared documents e.g. answer sheets for multiple choice in an examination.
iv). Optical character reader (OCR). This is a device used to read printed characters (letters & figures)
in a particular font and concerts them into a digital code. It is used in preparation of gas and
electricity bills.
v). Scanner is a device that translates photos, images, drawings and text into digital form.
A flatbed scanner
b) Output hardware/Devices.
These are devices that translate information processed by the computers into a form that
humans can understand.
The two types of outputs are soft copy such as the one shown on the display screen, and the
hard copy, which is a printout from a printer.
Soft copy refers to data that is shown on the monitor, audio or voice form. This kind of output
is not tangible.
Hard copy is a printout from a printer and these are tangible output.
ii) Printer
A printer can produce a hard copy on paper of any static information that can be
displayed on the computer screen. Printer come in several varieties, but they all fit into
two basic groups: impact printers and nonimpact printers.
v) Display screens.
Display systems convert computer signals into text and pictures and display them on a
television like screen. Display screens use either cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal display
(LCD), plasma or flat panel display.
vi) Speakers.
Speakers are output devices that communicate sound to the user. Speakers produce soft copy output.
viii) Printers.
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols and graphics on a paper or any other hard
copy medium.
1. Impact printers.
2. Non-impact printers.
1) Impact printer forms characters or images by striking on the paper with “hammers” when printing
against an inked ribbon. Therefore the printing head comes into contact with the printing media.
ii).Character printers.
i). Line printers print one line of characters at a time. It prints at a rate of 300 to 3000 lines per
minute.
ii). Character printers. They print one character at a time. They are much slower than the line
printers.
Examples of character printers include daisy wheel and dot matrix printers.
2. Non-impact printers don’t have “hammers”. The printing head does not come into contact with the
printing media. Instead it uses laser beam to produce a printout. Non-impact printers print a page at a
time.
a) Laser printers use a laser beam to create a page printout. It is a high quality printer, which operates at
a high speed.
b) Ink jet printers use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper. Ink is sprayed from tiny holes on the
ink cartridge onto the paper. Print quality is better than impact printers but not as good as laser
printers.
Advantages. Advantages.
They are quiet and fast when printing. They are also quiet & fast when printing.
Disadvantages. Disadvantages.
They are expensive in terms of price They are routinely slow when printing a
and maintenance. coloured document.
Plotters are used for producing technical drawings or even marketing materials such as posters. They can
print on architectural size paper.
The central processing unit is the electronic circuitry that controls the interpretation and execution of
instructions. The computer’s control centre is made up of the processing and main memory devices,
housed in the computer’s system unit. The system unit houses the part of electronic circuitry that does the
actual processing and the main memory that supports processing, which together are called processing
hardware. This is made up of the central processing unit (CPU), the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the
control unit (CU).
A motherboard is the central (PCB) in many modern and holds many of the crucial components of the
system, while providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively
known as the main board, or system board
A motherboard, like a , provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system
communicate, but unlike a backplane, it also connects the central processing unit and hosts other
subsystems and devices
The term main board is archaically applied to devices with a single board and no additional expansions or
capability. In modern terms this would include and controlling boards in televisions, washing machines,
etc. A motherboard specifically refers to a printed circuit with the capability to add/extend its
performance.
computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized and customized motherboards. This is one of the
reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one
laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive
than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated components.
Prior to the advent of the , a computer was usually built in a card-cage case or with components
connected by a consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires
were discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed circuit boards soon became the
standard practice. The , memory and were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into
the backplane.
A typical has its , , and other essential components connected to the motherboard. Other components such
as , controllers for display and , and devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via
cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals
into the motherboard itself.
There are four major functional elements or units in a microprocessor system/CPU, namely: -
i) Arithmetic unit – this performs the calculations such as addition, multiplication, division and
subtraction.
ii) The logic unit – this performs the comparisons such as true or false, greater than, equal to,
less than, etc.
CPU
MAIN MEMORY
External bus
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
2) The control unit. It directs the movement of electronic signals between main memory and the
arithmetic logic unit. It also directs these electronic signals between main memory and the
input/output devices. It processes the instructions and data stored in the computer and transfers
them to the arithmetic logic unit. For every instruction, the control unit carries out four basic
operations known as the- machine cycle. In the machine cycle the CPU (i). Fetches an instruction
(ii). Decodes the instruction (iii). Executes the instruction (iv). Stores the results.
CPU Operation
The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute
a sequence of stored instructions called a program. The program is represented by a series of
numbers that are kept in some kind of . There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their
operation: fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.
i. The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an (which is represented by a number or sequence of
numbers) from program memory. The location in program memory is determined by a (PC),
which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program. In other words, the
program counter keeps track of the CPU's place in the program.
The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do.
ii. In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions
of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the
CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).
However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a micro-program is often used to
assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU. This micro-
program is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes
instructions even after it has been manufactured.
iii. After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various portions
of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation. If, for instance, an addition
operation was requested, an (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs. The
inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the final sum. The ALU
contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs.
iv. The final step, writeback, simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to some form of
memory. Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by
subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, .
Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result
data. These are generally called "jumps" and facilitate behavior like , conditional program
execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and in programs.
After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process
repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because
of the incremented value in the program counter. If the completed instruction was a jump, the
program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to,
and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs than the one described here,
multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously.
3) Registers are special high-speed storage areas. The control unit and the ALU also use registers,
special areas that enhance the computer’s performance. Therefore, registers are high-speed storage
areas that temporarily store data during processing.
They may store program instructions while it is being decoded; stores data while it is being
processed by the ALU or store the results of a calculation.
4) Computer bus. A bus is a set of parallel wires or electronic pathway used to transmit data,
commands/instructions and power between the CPU and other components of the motherboard.
A bus resembles a multilane highway. The more bus lines it has, the faster the data bits can be
transferred.
A bus is a path between components of a computer. There are two main buses in a computer; the
internal (or system) bus and the external (or expansion) bus. The system bus connects all the
internal computer components to the CPU ankind main memory.
When a word or data is transferred between units, all the bits are transferred in parallel over a set
of lines called bus. In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus must have lines for address
and control progress.
All buses consist of two parts; an address bus and a data bus.
The data bus transfers information about the data whereas the address bus transfers information
about where the data should go. The size of a bus determines how much data can be transmitted at
a time.
Every bus has a clock speed measured in Mhz. A fast bus allows the data to be transferred faster.
This makes applications run faster on PCs.
Characteristics of a bus
A bus is characterized by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This amount,
expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data is sent
simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. The term “width” is used
to refer to the number of bits that a bus can transmit at once.
Additionally, the bus speed is also defined by its frequency (ranging from 100-133 Hertz), the
number of data packets sent or received per second. Each time that data is sent or received is called
a cycle. This way, it is possible to find the maximum transfer speed of the bus.
Bus Categories
In reality, each bus is generally constituted of 50 to 100 distinct physical lines, divided into three
subcategories.
i). Address bus
The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses which the
processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a unidirectional bus. It connects only
the CPU and RAM and carries only memory address (Note- each byte in RAM is associated with a
number which is its memory address.
The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a bidirectional bus.
Actually it is a group of parallel wires.
The control bus or (command bus) transfers orders and synchronization signals coming from the
control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It is a bidirectional bus, as it also
transmits response signals from the hardware.
i). System (internal) bus – sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short. Cables from disc
drives and other internal devices are plugged into the bus. The internal bus allows the processor to
communicate with the system’s central memory the RAM. It enables various motherboard
components (USB, serial and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors, hard drives, CD-
ROM and CD- RW drive etc) to communicate with one another.
This connects external devices such as keyboard, mouse, modem, printer and so on to the CPU.
However, it is mainly used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to
the Central Processing Unit.
It has enabled each USB port to support upto 127 different devices. USB or firewire
compliant devices such as key boards, mice, printers and modems can all be plugged into a
single USB port. This has therefore eliminated the need for expansion slots and boards.
It is a 16-bit data bus used in many computers to attach slower devices such as input
devices and modems to the CPU
d) Local Bus
It is an internal system bus that runs between components on the motherboard and is mostly
coupled with one or more kinds of expansion buses.
It is a type of local bus designed for easier integration of new data types such as video, audio
and graphics.
5)Peripherals
These are attachments to the system unit and include keyboard, mouse, speakers etc
A storage device reads and records information on storage media. The computer uses information
stored on the storage media to perform tasks. Popular examples of storage devices includes a
hard disk, floppy drive, CD-Recordable drive and tape drive.
The RAM is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and
data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer’s processor.
RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer,
the hard disc, floppy disc, and CD-ROM. However, the data in RAM stays there only as long
as your computer is running. When you turn off your computer, RAM loses its data. When
you turn on your computer again, your operating system and other files are once again loaded
into RAM usually from the hard disc.
There are two technologies used for RAM memories; static and dynamic.
STATIC RAM
It stores a bit of information with a flip-flop i.e. the contents of a static RAM remains stable
forever, as long as power is available.
DYNAMIC RAM
It stores a bit of information as a charge. Due to the way in which the information is stored
here, the packing density is much higher than for static RAM.
Hard Discs
A hard disc is a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide that can be magnetized to represent data.
Hard discs come in a variety of sizes.
- Hard disc for mainframes and minicomputers may be as large as 14 inches in diameter. Several discs
can be assembled into a disc pack. There are different types of disc packs, with the number of platters
varying by model. Each disc in the pack has top and bottom surfaces on which to record data. Many
disc devices, however, do not record data on the top of the top platter or on the bottom of the bottom
platter.
The mechanism for reading or writing data on a disc is an access arm; it moves a read/write head into
position over a particular track. The read/write head on the end of the access arm hovers just above the
track but does not actually touch the surface. When a read/write head does accidentally touch the disc
surface, this is called a head crash and all data is destroyed. Data can also be destroyed if a read/write
head encounters even minuscule foreign matter on the disc surface.
- Tapes
- The amount of data on a tape is expressed in terms of density, which is the number of characters per
inch (CPI) or bytes per inch (bpi) that can be stored on the tape.
The highest-capacity tape is the digital audio tape, or DAT, which uses a different method of recording
data. Using a method called helical scan recording, DAT wraps around a rotating read/write head that
spins vertically as it moves. This places the data in diagonal bands that run across the tape rather than
down its length. This method produces high density and faster access to data.
Two reels are used, a supply reel and a take-up reel. The supply reel, which has the tape with data on it
or on which data will be recorded, is the reel that is changed. The take-up reel always stays with the
magnetic tape unit. Many cartridges and cassettes have the supply and take-up reels built into the same
case.
Tape now has a limited role because disc has proved the superior storage medium. Disc data is quite
reliable, especially within a sealed module. Furthermore, as we will see, disc data can be accessed
directly, as opposed to data on tape, which can be accessed only by passing by all the data ahead of it
on the tape. Consequently, the primary role of tape today is as an inexpensive backup medium.
- Diskettes
Made of flexible Mylar, a diskette can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface.
Diskettes became popular along with the personal computer.
The older diskette, 5-1/4 inches in diameter, is still in use, but newer computers use the 3-1/2 inch
diskette (Figure 1). The 3-1/2 inch diskette has the protection of a hard plastic jacket, a size to fit
conveniently in a shirt pocket or purse, and the capacity to hold significantly more data than a 5-1/4
inch diskette.
- Flash discs
Personal computer users, who never seem to have enough hard disc storage space, may turn to a
removable hard disc cartridge. Once full, a removable hard disc cartridge can be replaced with a fresh
one. In effect, a removable cartridge is as portable as a diskette, but the disc cartridge holds much
more data. Removable units also are important to businesses concerned with security, because the
units can be used during business hours but hidden away during off hours. A disadvantage of a
removable hard disc is that it takes longer to access data than a built-in hard drive. Also it can be
infected with viruses which delete files.
Optical storage technology is categorized according to its read/write capability. Read-only media are
recorded on by the manufacturer and can be read from but not written to by the user. Such a disc
cannot, obviously, be used for your files, but manufacturers can use it to supply software. Applications
software packages sometimes include a dozen diskettes or more; all these could fit on one optical disc
with plenty of room to spare. The most prominent optical technology is the CD-ROM, for compact
disc read-only memory.
The Compact Disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)
The most prominent optical technology is the CD-ROM, for CD-ROM has a major advantage over
other optical disc designs: The disc format is identical to that of audio compact discs, so the same dust-
free manufacturing plants that are now stamping out digital versions of Mozart or Mary Chapin
Carpenter can easily convert to producing anything from software to an encyclopedia. Furthermore,
CD-ROM storage is large -up to 660 megabytes per disc, the equivalent of over 400 3-1/2 inch
diskettes.
A 4.7 GB side of a DVD can hold 135 minutes top quality video with 6 track stereo. This requires a
transmission rate of 4692 bits per second. The 17 GB disc holds 200 hours top quality music
recording.
Most computer systems use digital or binary system where two voltages low & high are used, 0volts &
+5volts. This voltages are denoted as “0” & “1” respectively.
A computer system’ data/information storage capacity is represented by bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes
(MB), gigabytes (GB), and terabytes (TB).
Roughly a byte = 1 character of data, Kilobyte = 1000 bytes, megabyte = 1 million bytes, gigabyte = 1
billion bytes and terabyte = 1 trillion bytes.
Letters, numbers and special characters are represented within a computer by means of binary coding
schemes. That is, the off and on or “0” and “1” are arranged in such a way that they can be made to
represent characters, digits or other values.
Byte. A group of eight bits forms one byte or one byte consists of eight bits. Bytes are used to measure the
amounts of information a device can store.
A character can be a number, letter or symbol. Therefore, a bit is the smallest unit of information a
computer can process.
Kilobyte (K). This is approximately equal to one page of a double spaced text.
Gigabyte (GB) is approximately equal to 1000 books or a study lined with bookshelves.
1. ASCII. It is pronounced “Ask-ee”. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange and is the binary code most widely used with microcomputers. Besides more conventional
characters, ASCII includes such characters as math symbols and Greek letters.
2. EBCDIC. It is pronounced “Eb-see-dick”. EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Code Decimal
Interchange Code and is a binary code used with large computers such as mainframes.
Computers do not use a decimal numbers system which humans are used to. There are other number
systems apart from decimal number system namely: -
iii). Decimal number system consists of 0-9 digits that a human can understand.
iv). Binary number system is the number system used in digital computers and other digital
applications.
Decimal-binary equivalence.
NB:
Decimal. Binary.
The subscript (2) is used for the binary system.
The subscript (10) is used for the decimal system.
0 0 Binary operations.
i). 0+0=0
2 10 ii). 0+1=1
iii). 1+0=1
3 11
100
4 Therefore, 910 = 10012
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
The binary number system is a weighted code where the value of a digit depends on its position.
The most significant bit is at the left while the least significant bit is at the right. The decimal value of a
binary digit “1” is given by 2k-1 where “K” is the position of the bit counting from right to left.
Example 1.
32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 5010
When converting from decimal to binary, the decimal number is continuously divided by two (2). The
remainder of each subsequent division is written down sequentially. Therefore, the reverse order of
this sequence gives the binary equivalent.
Example 1.
Remainder.
Subscript. Decimal
number.
2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 1
0
Example 1.
0
2 548
2 274 0
2 137 1
2 68 0
2 34 0
2 17 1
2 8 0
Decimal Remainder
2 4 0 fraction.
0.356*2=0.712 0
2 2 0
0.712*2=1.424 1
0.424*2=0.848 0
2 1 1
1) SYSTEM SOFTWARE
These are programs that start up the computer and function as the principal coordinator of all
hardware components and applications software programs. This is first loaded into the RAM of
the computer before loading the application software. It is developed and installed in the
computer system for the purpose of developing other programs. The software is developed and
installed by the manufacturer of the system hardware.
Utility software
This is a special program that makes certain aspects of the computer to go on more
smoothly and support the development of the application programs and render services
by performing the common processing requirements.
Such services include sorting, copying, file handling and disc management.
The two basic types of utility software are;
i) System-level utility software
These help the user to work with the operating system and its functions. For example,
a utility software tells the user when she/he enters a wrong command and gives
suggestions how the error can be corrected.
ii) Application-utility software
These make the use of an application program smoother and efficient. These utility
programs are commonly purchased separately or may be part of an operating system.
2) APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application packages are programs that are designed to help the user accomplish specific tasks.
3) Programming languages
A programming language is a set of rules that provide a way of telling the computer what
operations to perform.
Levels of languages
ii. Lower Level language – are close or similar to the language computer itself uses or
understand or machine understandable language ie 0s &1s
iii. Higher level language- are closer or similar to language people use or human
understandable language like English
GENERATION OF LAGUAGES
There are five levels of language corresponding to generations.
1) Machine languages
Represents data and program instructions as 0s and 1s ie binary digits that correspond to the on/
off electrical states in the computer. It is composed of numbers.
2) Assembly languages
To replace the 0s and 1s in machine language, assembly language use mnemonic codes,
which are abbreviations that are easy to remember eg A for Add, C for Compare, MP for
Multiply etc?
Since machine language is the only language that the computer can actually execute, a
translator called Assembly Program is required to convert the assembly language program
into machine language
3) High-level languages
Programs were written in an English-like manner, thus making them more easy and a
programmer could accomplish more with less effort.
A translator is needed to translate the symbolic statements of a high-level language into
computer executable machine language and this translator is a compiler. There are many
compilers for each language and at least one for each type of computer eg FORTRAN
FORmula TRANslator.
4) Very High-level languages
These are shorthand programming languages. They are often known by their generation
number ie fourth generation languages or 4GLs.
An operation that requires hundreds of lines in the 3rd GL typically requires only 5-10
lines in 4GL. These are difficult to describe because there are so many types eg COBOL
& Query Language for database.
5) Natural languages
These resemble the ‘natural’ spoken English language ie they are similar to human
understandable language. They are the latest 5th GL and most ill-defined than 4th GLs. A
user of one of these languages can say the same thing in a number of ways.
The compiler translate this natural language to machine language and when it is not sure
what the user has in mind, it politely as for further explanation.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
a) Operating Systems
Definition: An operating system refers to the computer software that provides the interface
between the hardware, the user and the application software. It governs and manages the computer
resources and activities.
Resident component
These are programs of OS that must remain in the RAM at all times. Such programs are loaded
from the disk as soon as the computer is switched on. These include:
a) Task manager
b) Device drivers
c) File manager
The process of loading the OS from the disc into main memory is called booting the computer.
Booting refers to the process of starting up a computer.
Non-resident OS
They are only loaded into a RAM as and when it is needed. These include:-
i) Program development tools
ii) House-keeping utilities
iii) Sorting programs that manage data into some required order
iv) Special maths programs
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
a) OS is classified into;-
i) Number of tasks handled concurrently
ii) Number of users
iii) Human-computer Interface (HCI)
b) Classification according to tasks handled concurrently
i) Single program OS
ii) Multitasking OS
Single program
It allows processing of only one user program in the main memory at a time. User can only run one
interface program at a time. The user must exit from the program before loading and running another
program. Example Ms-DOS
Multitasking OS
It allows single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one program at the same time. The CPU
switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for processing, executing instructions from
one program and then from another using the concept of giving a time slices to each application.
Single user
Supports only one person and runs only one user application at a time.
Multi-user/multi access
It allows more than one user to interactively use the computer. It can be installed on a computer that is
accessed by many people at the same time.
Examples – UNIX, Novell, Windows NT/2000, Linux
a) Hardware considerations
Some factors considered when selecting computer hardware are;
i) Processor speed
It is important to buy a processor that suits ones needs and not necessarily the fastest
Directories/folders/files management
i) Creating folders/files
Creating a file or folder on the desktop
a) Right click an empty location on the desktop
b) Point at New from the pop - up menu
c) To create a file, select the name of the program to create the file by e.g. Microsoft Word.
To create a folder, click on folder from the side kick menu
d) Type the name of the file or the folder
e) Press enter
Creating a file or folder in another folder window
a) Click on the file menu
b) Point at New from the pop - up menu
c) To create a file, select the name of the program to create the file by e.g. Microsoft Word.
To create a folder, click on folder from the side kick menu
d) Type the name of the file or the folder
e) Press enter
NB: A folder in another folder is called a subfolder.
Assignment
Locate the shortcut commands from the standard toolbar used for moving and pasting files
and folders.
v) Deleting files/folders
Folders stored in drive c: / are temporary send to the recycle bin when deleted and can
be later deleted permanently or restored to their original locations.
Those stored in removable media like floppy disks and flash disks are not sent to the
recycle bin and may not be recovered.
Steps
a) Select the file/folder to delete
b) Click on the file menu
c) Click on delete and confirm deletion
OR
Select the file/folder, press delete key form keyboard the confirm deletion
d) Managing discs
i) Assigning a volume label
ii) Checking disc storage status
iii) Formatting a disc
Formatting is the process of preparing a new disc for use by imprinting empty sectors and
tracks on the surface of the disc so that the operating system can recognize and be able to
access it. To format a flash disc;
1. Put the flash disc on the port in the computer
2. Double click My Computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the
computer
3. Right click a drive icon e.g. Drive E
4. From the shortcut menu, click format, then click quick format in the format options
5. Then click start
6. A prompt appears warning the user that formatting will erase ALL data on the disc.
Hence to format the disc, click OK, to quit, click CANCEL.
7. Clicking OK enables formatting to proceed and a prompt will appear when
formatting is completed
iv) Scanning a disc
Windows has a disk management tool called the scandisk that helps the user check up and
repair minor storage problems, such as lost storage locations, or damaged surface. To scan a
storage device the following is done;
1) Double click My Computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the
computer
2) Right click a drive icon e.g. Drive C
3) From the shortcut menu, click properties, then click tools tab, to display a dialog
box
4) Click the check now button
5) A prompt appears requesting the user to specify scandisk options like whether
errors found should be corrected automatically. Other programs must be closed for
this task to proceed.
6) Once scandisk is complete, Windows will give a summary statistics on errors
encountered if any
a) Double click My Computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the computer
b) Right click a drive icon e.g. Flash disc
c) From the shortcut menu, select the name of the anti-virus program e.g. Scan with Norton
antivirus
d) Follow the instructions displayed by the antivirus program to start scanning
WORD PROCESSING
1. Word processing: This is the process of manipulating text, characters, words, and sentences in
such a manners as to make the final document free of errors and attractive to look at.
2.Word processor: An application software that enables the user to create, save, edit, format and
print text-rich documents. Microsoft word is one of the products in the Microsoft office programs
suit. There several versions of Microsoft word determined by every release of the Microsoft office
programs suite e.g. Ms Word 97, 2000, XP, 2003, 2007.
a. Fonts
To format text font:
1. Highlight the text
2. From the Format menu, click Font
3. In the font dialog box, select the font type, style, size and colour and any other attribute.
4. Click OK.
Paragraph formatting
A paragraph is a separate block of text dealing with a single theme and starting on a new line or
indent. Some of the formatting features you can apply onto a paragraph include
Alignment
Alignment is the arrangement of text relative to the left margin, centre of page or the right
margin. The five major alignment options available are the left, centre, right and justified
and force justified.
To align text:
1. Highlight the text
2. From the Format menu, click Paragraph.
3. In the paragraph dialog box, select the alignment option from the alignment list box
then click the OK.
NB: You can apply alignment by simply clicking any of the five alignment buttons on the
formatting toolbar
Spacing
You can set the space between lines, paragraphs or blocks text.
To space lines:
1) Highlight the lines of text
2) From the Format menu, click Paragraph
3) In the paragraph dialog box, select the line spacing option from the line spacing list box
4) Click the OK button.
Drop caps
• A drop cap is a large character in a paragraph that occupies more than one line down.
• To create a dropped cap:
1) Highlight the paragraph you want to begin with drop cap
2) Click on format menu
3) Click Drop Cap. Drop cap dialog box appears
4) Click Dropped or In Margin.
5) Specify the number of lines and other options
6) Click OK.
Page breaks
• Page, section and column breaks are used to force the cursor to move from a new page,
section or column even before the end of the current.
• To insert a break:
1. Position the insertion pointer where you want to break
2. Click on the insert menu
3. Click on Break from the pull down menu
4. In the break dialog box, set the break type
E.g. page break, column break etc
5. Click OK.
Change case
The cases applied to text are; lowercase, UPPERCASE, Sentence case, Title Case and
tOGGLE cASE. To change case:
1. Highlight the text
2. From the Format menu, click Change Case
3. From change case dialog box, select the case option you want to apply.
4. Click OK.
NB: The use of case in this sentence is deliberate.
Page numbering
i) Page numbers are used to organize a large document for ease of reference.
ii) To insert page numbers:
iii) Click Insert menu
iv) Click on page numbers the insert page numbers dialog box appears
v) In the position box, specify whether to place the page numbers at the top of page
(header) or at the bottom of the page (footer).
vi) In the Alignment box, specify whether to align page numbers to the left, centre or right
of page.
vii) If you don’t want a number on the first page, clear the “Show number on first page”
check box
viii) Click OK.
Headers and footers
• Headers are lines of text that appears at the top margin of every page or selected pages
while footers appears at the bottom margin.
• To insert a header or footer:
a) Click on the View menu
b) Click Header and Footer from the pull down menu
c) To create a header, enter text or pictorial object in the header area.
d) Click on switch between header and footer command button from the header and footer
toolbar to create footer.
e) Click inside the footer area and enter the text or pictorial object.
f) Click Close on the header and footer toolbar.
Creating a table
a) Click where you want to create a table.
b) On the Table menu, point to Insert, and then click Table.
c) Under Table size, select the number of columns and rows.
d) Under AutoFit behaviour, choose options to adjust table size.
e) To use a built-in table format, click AutoFormat.
f) Click ok
Column
Column
Row Row Row Row Column
e) Calculations
i) Insert table
ii) Fill data
iii) Select layout
iv) To multiply, put cursor in the required row and select formula = PRODUCT(LEFT)
v) To add, put cursor in the required column and select formula = SUM(ABOVE)
Kg Ksh FORMULA
(fx)
Tea leaves 1 320 ** Expression
is faulty **
Sugar 2 120 ** Expression
is faulty **
TOTAL 0
f) Mail merging
i) Creating a main document
•A feature that enables one to create a standard document e.g. forms letters to be received b many
recipients.
•One can use the Mail Merge Wizard to create form letters, mailing labels, envelopes, directories,
and mass e-mail and fax distributions.
• This is done in four basic steps:
a) Open or create a main document
•Main document: In a mail-merge operation in Word, the document that contains the text and
graphics that are the same for each version of the merged document, for example, the return
address or salutation in a form letter.
• Definition: A computer network refers to a set of computers connected to one another using a
modem and other communication links for the purpose of sharing resources which include
hardware, software, data and information.
• The network operating system/network software contains instructions that enable the hardware to
work as a network.
• Computer networks can be classified into different categories. E.g. according to geographical
coverage, ownership etc.
In a server based network, there are computers set up to be primary providers of services such as
file service or mail service. The computers providing the service are called servers and the
computers that request and use the service are called client computers.
1. Local Area Network (LAN) - Defined as a communication network that provides interconnection
of a variety of data communication devices within a small area e.g. same office, on the same floor
or in the same building. LANs are typically owned by small organizations, companies, schools etc.
• This is a network that covers a very large area e.g. at several countries, a whole country, a
continent or several continents. It involves interconnection of LANS and MANS to cover a wide
range of distance.
b) Functions of networks
i) All users can easily share or exchange information
ii) The computers in a network can share resources such as printers and scanners
c) Networks configuration/Topology
The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There are several
common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration.
In the topology, every is connected to a main cable called the . Therefore, in effect, each
workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the network.
In the topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the workstations are directly
connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other through the central computer.
In the topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs of
workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly connected, the data
passing through one or more intermediate nodes.
If a protocol is used in a star or ring topology, the signal travels in only one direction, carried by a
so-called from node to node.
The topology employs either of two schemes, called full mesh and partial mesh. In the full mesh
topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial mesh topology,
some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are connected only to those other nodes
with which they exchange the most data.
The topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The central computers of the star
networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network of star networks.
Logical (or signal) topology refers to the nature of the paths the signals follow from node to node.
In many instances, the logical topology is the same as the physical topology. But this is not always
the case. For example, some networks are physically laid out in a star configuration, but they
operate logically as bus or ring networks.
Topology can be understood as the shape or structure of a network. This shape does not necessarily
correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on
a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a .
i The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that can be connected.
ii This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.
iii Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
iv Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
v Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
vi Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Star
Mesh
i) Tree topology
WHAT IS INTERNET?
Definition:
• Internet is just like a wide highway in a cyber space (space of electronic movement of data) that
moves data and information. Therefore, the terms Cyber Space and Information Super Highway
are frequently used to refer to Internet.
• The technical management of internet protocol is carried out by an Internet Society and the
International Standards for Organization (ISO). Internet has no political borders or boundaries on
the exchange of data and information.
Internet Connectivity
Requirements:
– A computer, a PDA or WAP enabled mobile phones) – It is worthwhile to note that with the
dynamic growth of telephone and wireless technologies, it is now possible to use cellular
phones and Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs) to access information on Internet just as
you would use a computer.
– Transmission media – This is a physical (telephone line) or wireless (radio e.g. GPRS –
General Package Radio Service) pathway used to the medium for transferring
data/information from one computer to another.
• MODEM (Modular-Demodulator) - Transforms digital data signals from a computer into analog
data signals (a form that can travel over the transmission media) and vice versa.
NB: Modern communication devices may not require the use of MODEMS.
– Browser Software - This lets you access the Internet resources examples are Internet
explorer, Netscape Navigator, Opera, Mozilla Firefox, Mosaic etc.
– Email Software enables you to receive, compose and send emails e.g. Outlook express,
Eudora Light, Pegasus Mail, Yahoo mail etc.
– Search Engines – These are search agent programs that enable one to quickly search and
access internet resources. They provide a catalogue of all information available over the
internet for quick access. They all provide a search form where one types key words of the
information he/she wants to access. Examples are: Yahoo, Google, Inforseek, Alta Vista,
Lycos etc.
INTERNET CONNECTIVITY
The purpose of networking is to connect friends, business people, corporations, information and research
centers, entertainment and enrichment resources with the whole world. Computers can connect to the
Internet in a variety of ways; such as through a university or business LAN that can connect directly to the
internet, or directly through an ISP.
DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT (DTE)
Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an instrument that converts user information into signals and/or
reconverts received signals back into the original data. Data terminal Equipment is on both ends of the
transmission circuit, i.e. at the senders end and at the receivers end.
Data terminal equipment (DTE) can be a computer, a terminal, a router, an access server
A server is a computer program or a series of computers that provides essential services to other
computers across a network. Servers provide unique capabilities that can be shared by all other devices
in a network. There are several types of servers such as;
File servers; it allows all users to share one or more large capacity disk drives
Application servers; which provide processing capacity for applications that are shared by many
people/computers.
Web servers; which allows websites that can be accessed over a corporate intranet or one that gives
access to the www.
When a network has server(s) the other workstations are called clients. This introduces the concept of
client/server computing. In this system, a client request data from a server which then provides the
requested data or information back to the client. Therefore we can say that a client is an application or
system that accesses a remote service on another computer system, known as a server, over a network.
The client can be a dumb terminal i.e. it has no processing capabilities, or it can be a fully functioning
terminal with processing and storage capabilities. Today there are very few dumb terminals existing.
An example of how a client server system works
PORTS
A port is a virtual/logical data connection that can be used by programs to exchange data directly. The
most common of these are TCP and UDP ports, which are used to exchange data between computers
on the Internet.
These ports allow software applications to share hardware resources without interfering with each
other. Computers and routers automatically manage network traffic traveling via their virtual ports.
Is a company that offers its customers access to the Internet through its own internet connected
servers, providing a gateway to the internet. ISPs can also provide email accounts, web-hosting etc to
its clientele. The services the ISP offers are charged or billed as per an agreed system.
ISPs may use a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network. For personal
users and small businesses, the most popular options include dial-up, DSL, broadband wireless, cable
modem and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)
The domain name system (DNS) is the way that Internet domain names are located and translated into
Internet Protocol addresses. A domain name is a meaningful and easy-to-remember name for an
Internet address.
The Domain Name System (DNS) helps users to find their way around the Internet. Every computer
on the Internet has a unique address called the IP Address such as 192.168.11.80. But it is hard to
remember everyone's IP address. The DNS makes it easier by allowing a familiar string of letters (the
"domain name") to be used instead of the IP address. So instead of typing 192.0.34.65, you can type .
Translating the name like . into the IP address is called "resolving the domain name." The goal of the
DNS is for any Internet user any place in the world to reach a specific website IP address by entering
its domain name. Domain names are also used for reaching e-mail addresses and for other Internet
applications.
DNS SERVER
A DNS server is any computer registered to join the Domain Name System. A DNS server runs
special-purpose networking software and contains a database of network names and addresses for
other Internet hosts.
DNS server is responsible for turning domain names to IP addresses and locating them on one of the
millions of hosting servers.
DNS servers are organized in a hierarchical order and communicate with each other through private
network protocols. The master DNS servers, known as root servers, store the whole database of the
Internet domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. They are owned by various independent
agencies based in the United States, Japan, the UK and Sweden.
The other lower-level DNS servers maintain only parts of the total database of the domains/addresses
and are owned by businesses or ISPs (Internet Server Providers).
A DNS server can be any computer registered in the DNS system, running special DNS software,
which helps it resolve domain names to their appropriate hosts. Each DNS server features a public IP
address and includes a database of network names/addresses of other Internet hosts.
The communication between users' computers and DNS servers is initiated as soon as you type a
website address (domain name) into a web browser. Then the browser, acting as a DNS client, sends
an immediate request to your ISP's DNS server(s), which search for the matching IP address in
its/their database. If no match is found, the DNS server automatically passes the request to another
lower-level DNS server or even to a root server, if necessary. As soon as the matching domain name
and IP address are located - the request’s response is transmitted back to your browser through the
DNS server network. This process is called forward DNS.
When you choose to use an ISP to get you connected to the internet, you will probably be given a
connection through a modem. Because IP was not designed to be used over dial-up lines, you will
require another protocol a) SLIP & b) PPP.
SLIP & PPP both allow IP data to be sent over dial-up modems. They work by taking IP data and
package it so that it can be sent over a modem.
Serial line protocol (SLIP) is an older protocol (older than PPP) used to handle TCP/IP traffic over a
dial-up or other serial connection. SLIP is a physical layer protocol that doesn't provide error
checking. Such as modem error checking. It only supports the transmission of one protocol, TCP/IP.
SLIP modifies a standard TCP/IP datagram by appending a special "SLIP END" character to it, which
distinguishes datagram boundaries in the byte stream. SLIP does not provide error detection and relay
on upper layer protocols for this. Therefore SLIP on its own is not satisfactory over an error-prone
dial-up connection.
It is a data link (layer) protocol commonly used to establish a direct connection i.e. send IP over dial
up lines between two networking nodes. Unlike SLIP it can provide connection authentication,
transmission encryption and data compression, Error detection or correction and packet sequencing
Before PPP and SLIP accounts most internet accounts were text only (Not graphical) you used a
terminal emulation program on your PC to connect to the Internet host computer. This customer
account with an ISP allows the subscriber to enter UNIX commands to send and receive files and mail.
Basically a shell account gives you access to the ISP servers that have connection to the internet.
ONLINE SERVICES
An online service is a commercial service that enables you to connect and access its proprietary
information system. Most online services also provide an internet connection, email, web access and
other internet services. Online services usually require special programs to connect to and use your
account. The two most common online services in the USA are America online and CompuServe.
There are two principal ways of connecting to the Internet, that is; Direct and Dial – up connection
1. Direct/leased line
– In this, the user has a fixed or dedicated link (physical line/wireless)to the ISP.
– A direct connection can be obtained in many ways e.g. Local Area Network (LAN) – A
LAN can be connected to the Internet through a special hardware component called a
router which is connected to another router at the ISP by a high-speed line.
Advantages:
2. Dial-up
– In this you connect your computer by use of a modem and/or phone line/wireless only
when you want to use Internet.
– The user gains Internet access when he/she contact the ISP and the ISP transfers him/her to
Internet. When he/she finishes, they disconnect from the ISP. The speed with which you
can access the Internet is determined primarily by the speed of your modem.
– To gain faster dial-up connections, you can install an Integrated Service Digital Network
(ISDN) line which is a digital line provided by the local phone company.
Advantage:
Disadvantages:
• Internet Address System - Every computer on the Internet has a unique address (IP address) that
identifies the computer sending or receiving data. An example of an IP address is 192.168.11.70.
Domain Name System - IP address is composed of digits making it difficult for users to
remember. The IP addresses can therefore be translated into a domain (host) name address which
is easier to remember e.g. The above IP address may have its domain name equivalent as:
Concepts
Web 2.0 can be described in three parts;
1. Rich internet application – it defines the experience brought from desktop to browser.
2. service oriented architecture(SOA) it defines how web 2.0 applications expose its functionality so
that other application can use and integrate the functionality.
3. social web – it defines how web 2.0 tend to interact much more with the user and making the end
user an important part.
Features of Web 2.0
Search, find information through keyword search
Links, connects information together.
Authoring; the ability to create and update content leads to collaborative work of many
rather than just a few web authors. Such as in wikis and blogs
Tags - ccategorization of content by users adding "tags" which are short, usually one-word
descriptions - to facilitate searching
Although browsers are primarily intended to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access
information provided by Web servers in private networks or files in file systems.
The primary purpose of a web browser is to bring information resources to the user.
Examples of web browsers: Internet Explorer, Mozilla, Firefox, Google Chrome, Opera, Safari.
All major web browsers allow the user to open multiple information resources at the same time, either in
different browser windows or in different tabs of the same window.
Major browsers also include pop-up blockers to prevent unwanted windows from "popping up" without
the user's consent.
Most web browsers can display a list of web pages that the user has so that the user can quickly return to
them. Bookmarks are also called "Favorites"
In addition, all major web browsers have some form of built-in web feed aggregator. In Mozilla Firefox,
web feeds are formatted as "live bookmarks" and behave like a folder of bookmarks corresponding to
recent entries in the feed.
User interface
Most major web browsers have these user interface elements in common:
-Back and forward buttons to go back to the previous resource and forward again.
-A history list, showing resources previously visited in a list
-A refresh or reload button to reload the current resource. -A
stop button to cancel loading the resource.
-A home button to return to the user's home page -
An address bar to input the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) of the desired resource and display it.
-A search bar to input terms into a search engine
-A status bar to display progress in loading the resource and also the URI of links when the cursor hovers
over them.
WEB SERVER
A web server can be referred to as either the hardware (the computer) or the software (the computer
application) that helps to deliver content that can be accessed through the Internet. The most common use
of Web servers is to host Web sites, but there are other uses like data storage or for running business
applications.
The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages on the request to clients. This means delivery
of HTML documents and any additional content that may be included by a document, such as images,
style sheets and Java Scripts.
A client, commonly a web browser, initiates communication by making a request for a specific resource
using HTTP and the server responds with the content of that resource or an error message if unable to do
so. The resource is typically a real file on the server's secondary memory.
EXAMPLES OF WEB SERVERS
1. Apache
Apache, otherwise known as Apache HTTP Server, is an open-source web server platform. The
Apache Web server provides a full range of Web server features, including CGI, SSL, and virtual
domains. Apache also supports plug-in modules for extensibility. Apache is reliable, free, and
relatively easy to configure.
It is Microsoft's business-class Web server application. It is the most common web server after
apache.
IIS has the following features or modules; HTTP module, security module, content module,
compression module, caching module, diagnostic module
2. Menu Bar - Provides menu options for manipulating the browser window and the web page
contents.
Steps:
• Click in Address bar. Type the URL address of the website to visit e.g. For the Ministry of
Education website type the following URL address in the address bar: www.education.go.ke.
• Press Enter key from the keyboard or click on the ‘Go’ command from the Navigation Bar.
• Wait as the home page is loaded. Look for the connection progress from the status bar.
NB: One must know the correct URL address to successfully load the intended website.
Steps:
• Click and wait as the web page is displayed. In the status bar, see the loading progress e.g. to read
about the ICT Trust from the Ministry of Education website point & click on the ‘ICT Trust’
hyperlink from the home page & wait to display web page on the left.
Searching for information from the web may be tedious, frustrating and time wasting if one does
not know the techniques for quick search.
Steps:
• Type URL address of the Search Engine in the address bar. Press enter key from the keyboard or
click on ‘Go’ from the navigation toolbar e.g. for google search engine.
• Type the keyword on the search form text box on the homepage and then click on search/find. See
win 1 on left.
• Click the hyperlink that closely describes information you want from the list displayed. See win 2
on left.
Search Tips
• By default the search engine tries to locate pages which have exact matches for all of the words
entered in your search form. If that fails, it then tries to locate pages which contain any words in
your search query. If that happens a short message is displayed at the top of the search results
indicating this has been done.
• In addition, there are several ways to modify the default search behavior.
1. Phrase Search
The search engine supports three types of phrase search.
• To match a near (within a couple of words) phrase, use square brackets [around the words]
Example: [free search engine]
• To match a far (within several words) phrase, use braces { around the words }
Example: {free search engine}
2. + and - qualifiers
If you precede a word with + that word is required to be on the page.
If you precede a word with - that word is required to not be on the page.
Example: +always, - never
3. * wildcard
If the word typed ends with a * all words on a page which start the same way as that form word
will match.
Example: gift*
4. ? wildcard
If the word typed contains a ? any character will match that position.
Example: b?g
5. Boolean search
You can use the following Boolean operators in your search: AND, OR, NOT. These operators
MUST be in capital letters.
Example: (contact AND us) OR (about AND us)
• Downloading refers to the process of transferring information from a remote computer to a local
storage in your computer. This helps you to save the information for future retrieval.
Click on ‘Save Target AS’ command from the shortcut menu that appears
Save as dialog box is displayed. Specify the folder/drive where to save the contents and
type a unique file name in the name box.
Click on ‘Save’ command button. The download progress dialog box appears & prompts
you when through with the contents are fully downloaded.
• The download process may take some time depending on some factors like; the internet download
speed (band width) at that time, size of the document downloaded, your computer’s specifications,
internet ‘traffic jam’ etc.
• Downloaded web contents will require some application programs to have been installed in your
computer e.g. PDF files will require programs like Acrobat Reader to be installed in your computer
for you to read their contents.
To print web contents, open the file/web page and then send it for printing. Your computer must be
connected to a working printer. To Print, click on file menu – print – choose printer – specify the
number of copies to print – then click on print command button.
• Electronic Mail refers to the sending and receiving of electronic letters and documents on the
Internet.
– It is fast
– It is cheap
– It is convenient
– Document created using other application can easily be attached to the mail etc.
Disadvantages
E-mail Address
• For one to send and receive an email, he/she must have an email address.
• Email address directs the computers on the Internet on where to deliver the email message.
• A typical email address has this format: e.g. pekyalo@yahoo.com i.e. the email parts are:
– Pekyalo – This is the user name that identifies the owner of the email address.
– Yahoo – The name of the host computer on the Internet in to which the email account is
hosted.
– The period (.) – read as dot. Separates different parts of the email address.
– Com – The domain. Identifies the type of Institution that owns the host computer.
– .org – NGOs ( )
– .go – government ( )
LOG ON/SIGN IN
• Load the e-mail program that you are using e.g. for yahoo mail account holders, type
‘www.mail.yahoo.com’ in address bar of your browser to load the mail program.
• In the username text box, type your user name .e.g. jepkemboi
• In the password text box, type the password. The password appears encrypted for security.
• Click on Sign in command button and wait as your mails window is opened
Steps:
• Click on compose command button – mail editor window appears as shown on the left.
• To send Carbon Copies (Cc) & Blind Carbon Copies (Bcc) type the addresses in the Cc: & Bcc:
textboxes respectively. Separate two or more addresses by commas. Bcc recipients don’t see the
identity of other recipients.
• Type the message and format it as you want in the message text area.
Receiving/Replying/Forwarding mail
Steps:
• Log/sign in if required to access your email account by supplying your username and password.
• To read a mail, click on its subject/title from the list of received mails. To read an attachment, click
on the attachment icon & follow the instructions that follow.
• To reply the mail, simply click on Reply tab/command and type the reply message then click on
send command to send it.
• To forward the mail, click on ‘Forward’ tab, type the address of the person whom you want to
forward the mail to, click on send.
File Attachment
Steps:
• Log in or sign in as expected to access your account by supplying your username and password.
• From the dialog box that appears, browse to specify the file/s to attach from your computer.
• Click on Open command button from the ‘Choose file’ dialog box after choosing the file to attach.
• The attachment progress bar appears. Wait as the file/s is/are attached to you mail.
• An attachment bar is inserted in the mail window with the name of the attached file.
Saving an E-mail
c) Select the location to save the mail and type the file name
d) Click on save
b) Click on the delete or spam command button to delete or spam the mail
Printing Mails
e) Click on print.
• Once you have read your mail, it is advisable to sign out or log off to ensure that unauthorized
users do not read the mail.
• To sign out or log off, click on the sign out or log off command button.
e) Uses/benefits of internet
1) Speedy Communication
Internet communication is instantaneous. The speed at which e-mail is sent depends on the
slowest link, which is determined by the speed of the modem and the amount of traffic on the
telephone line.
2) Inexpensive Communication
The greatest benefit of the internet is the cost involved. A modem is inexpensive to buy and set
up. The cost is significant when lots of mail is send during marketing.
3) Convenient Communication
Unlike telephones, e-mail message can be sent even when the addressee is absent. The addressee
can pick up their mail at any convenient time. E-mail can be ‘broadcast’ to a group of people or
addressed to individuals.
4) Communication Services
i) E-mail
It is a quick, convenient, efficient and cheap way to communicate with both individual groups.
ii) Chat
Real-time one-to-one or group conversations, with discussions in typed form. One needs to be
connected to the internet and join a channel to be able to chat.
iii) Conferencing
Conferencing on the web is the dynamic exchange of all kinds of information-text, graphics,
HTML links to information, audio, video etc a context of structured conversations organized by
item and allowing a participant to contribute spontaneous responses to any item in the
conversation.
5) Health
In rural areas, telemedicine is now effectively used by assistant clinical Officers to seek expert
assistance from their experienced colleagues or doctors in the urban areas.
Internet allows one to get in-depth stories, weather around the globe, travel information and
tourist guides, entertainment and much more
7) Job Opportunities
Employers use internet to advertise jobs, thus job seekers can post their curriculum vitae to
potential employers.
There are various Search Engines on the internet that can be used to search email addresses. For
instance, Yahoo Search Engine has a facility: Yahoo! People Search.
9) Linking to traditional communications
i) Telephone
It is possible to transmit voice over the internet. Thus, international phone calls are made through
the internet.
SMS can be sent through the internet to any network globally, unlike the trend where local
networks can only reach a limited number of networks.
iii) Banking
Banks allows customers to access their accounts using mobile phones. The banks also allow the
customers to make electronic payment for bills straight from their mobile phones.
iv) Radio/TV
Some radio and television stations have looped their channels into the internet, to give a more
global audience access to their live programmes.
a) Electronic commerce
Basically, electronic commerce (EC) is the process of buying, transferring, or exchanging products,
services, and/or information by businesses, individuals, organizations, governments, via computer
networks, including the internet. Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from
ordering "digital" content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and
services, to "meta" services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce.
Advantages of e-commerce
i) The predominant advantage of e-Commerce over the other means of commerce is that it
overcomes the barriers of time and distance thus making it a hit over the global market. One
can log on to the Internet at any point of time, be it day or night and purchase or sell anything
one desires at a single click of the mouse.
ii) The cost of having commerce over the electronic media is comparatively lesser than the other
ways of business promotion. This is the same for the inventory management, marketing,
promotion and customer care too. These are possible with the efficient e-Commerce software
that, to a great extent aids in elevating the standard of trade overseas. This cost efficiency
makes it a boon for the merchants and vendors. This, for the consumers is more befitting when
they find less time for shopping. It is the cheapest means of doing business.
iii) As for the business entrepreneurs, the e-Commerce solutions provide real time communication
with the consumers and the facility of data exchange with the internal departments thus
increasing the efficiency of supply chain process.
iv) There is a better visibility of the supply chain and the supplies being more predictable, the
inventory levels of the company can be vastly reduced. This again results in the decreased
costs.
v) There is a great flexibility in the target market segmentation. This permits the companies to
concentrate on a particular group of customers and thereby concentrate on the satisfaction of
that group of customers by tending to their unique needs.
vi) With the development of e-Commerce websites, the exchanging of information between
different organizations becomes simpler and easier.
vii) There is much saving of time with the e-Commerce software and e-Commerce websites as
there is not much to maintain unlike the real time shops and also in the adjudication of the
invoices and orders.
viii) E-Commerce is one of the most important facets of the Internet to have emerged in the recent
times. E-Commerce or electronic commerce involves carrying out business over the Internet
with the assistance of computers, which are linked to each other forming a network. To be
specific e-Commerce would be buying and selling of goods and services and transfer of funds
through digital communications.
ix) The direct cost-of-sale for an order taken from a web site is lower than through traditional
means (retail, paper based), as there is no human interaction during the on-line electronic
purchase order process. Also, electronic selling virtually eliminates processing errors, as well
as being faster and more convenient for the visitor.
x) The day-to-day pressures of the marketplace have played their part in reducing the
opportunities for companies to invest in improving their competitive position. A mature
market, increased competitions have all reduced the amount of money available to invest. If the
selling price cannot be increased and the manufactured cost cannot be decreased then the
difference can be in the way the business is carried out. E-Commerce has provided the solution
by decimating the costs, which are incurred.
Disadvantages of e-Commerce
Though e-Commerce solutions and e-Commerce websites are found beneficial, there is a fair share
of disadvantages too. Before one enters the e-Commerce business, it is important to understand the
disadvantages of the e-Commerce business along with the benefits.
i) The time of delivery of the products plays an important part in the disadvantages of the e-
Commerce solutions. It is unlike walking out of the store with the desired product and it takes a lot
of time to get delivered and in some cases also needs a special amount for the delivery.
ii) The e-Commerce business functions purely on trust. You don't know the exact kind of item you
are purchasing and the quality of the item and the condition as well. The consumers don't even
know if the e-Commerce businesses they are involved in are legitimate.
iii) There is a limitation in the things you order online. For example you cannot think of ordering a
plate of pasta from Italy staying in Japan. Thus the perishable goods are better avoided while
buying things through the e-Commerce websites.
iv) Though there is a certain amount of interaction between the consumer and the merchant that takes
place through the e-Commerce websites, there is a lack of personal service that makes the
consumer feel more comfortable.
v) While the payment comes into question, the consumer is deprived of the security of the
information regarding the credit cards. This may give rise to the theft along with other ways of
misusing them
Electronic Business
Advantages of E-Business
i) Worldwide Presence: This is the biggest advantage of conducting business online. A firm engaging
in e-business can have a nationwide or a worldwide presence. IBM was one of the first companies
to use the term e-business to refer to servicing customers and collaborating with business partners
from all over the world. Dell Inc. too had a flourishing business selling PCs throughout the US,
only via telephone and the Internet till the year 2007. Amazon.com is another success story that
helps people buy internationally from third parties. Hence, worldwide presence is ensured if
companies rethink their business in terms of the Internet.
ii) Cost Effective Marketing and Promotions: Using the web to market products guarantees
worldwide reach at a nominal price. Advertising techniques like pay per click advertising ensure
that the advertiser only pays for the advertisements that are actually viewed. Affiliate marketing,
where customers are directed to a business portal because of the efforts of the affiliate who in turn
receive a compensation for their efforts meeting with success, has emerged on account of e-
business. Affiliate marketing has helped both the business and the affiliates. Firms engaging in e-
business have managed to use cost effective online advertising strategies to their advantage.
iii) Developing a Competitive Strategy: Firms need to have a competitive strategy in order to ensure a
competitive advantage. Without an effective strategy, they will find it impossible to maintain the
advantage and earn profits. The strategy, that the firms can pursue, can be a be a cost strategy or a
differentiation strategy. For instance, till the year 2007, Dell Inc. was selling computers only via
the Internet and the phone. It adopted a differentiation strategy by selling its computers online and
customizing its laptops to suit the requirements of the clients. Thus, e-business resulted in Dell Inc.
managing to capture a vast segment of the market using the differentiation strategy.
iv) Better Customer Service: E-Business has resulted in improved customer service. Many a times, on
visiting a website, the customer is greeted by a pop-up chat window. Readily available customer
service may help in encouraging the customer to know more about the product or service.
Moreover, payments can be made online, products can be shipped to the customer without the
customer having to leave the house.
Disadvantages of E-Business
i) Sectoral Limitations: The main disadvantage of e-business is the lack of growth in some sectors
on account of product or sector limitations. The food sector has not benefited in terms of growth of
sales and consequent revenue generation because of a number of practical reasons like food
products being perishable items. Consumers do not look for food products on the Internet since
they prefer going to the supermarket to buy the necessary items as and when the need arises.
ii) Costly E-Business Solutions for Optimization: Substantial resources are required for redefining
product lines in order to sell online. Upgrading computer systems, training personnel, and updating
websites requires substantial resources. Moreover, Electronic Data Management (EDM) and
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) necessary for ensuring optimal internal business processes
may be looked upon, by some firms, as one of the disadvantages of e-business.
11) Education
E-LEARNING
E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported and . The and , whether or not, serve
as specific media to implement the learning process. The term will still most likely be utilized to
reference out-of-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via technology, even as
advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum.
E-learning is essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge. E-
learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based learning,
opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet,
audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-paced or instructor-led and includes
media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming video and audio.
Benefits of E-Learning
i) Class work can be scheduled around family, personal and professional work, resulting in flexible
learning.
ii) Reduces travel cost and time to and from school for off-campus students
iii) Learners may have the option to select learning materials that meets their level of knowledge and
interest
iv) Learners can study wherever they have access to a computer and Internet connection
vi) Flexibility to join discussions in the bulletin board threaded discussion areas at any hour, or visit
with classmates and instructors remotely in chat rooms
vii) eLearning can accommodate different learning styles and facilitate learning through a variety of
activities
viii) Instructors and students both report eLearning fosters more interaction among students and
instructors than in large lecture courses
ix) Develops knowledge of the Internet and computers skills that will help learners throughout their
lives and careers
x) Successfully completing online or computer-based courses builds self-knowledge and self-
confidence and encourages students to take responsibility for their learning
xi) Learners can test out of or skim over materials already mastered and concentrate efforts in
mastering areas containing new information and/or skills
xii) E-learning is beneficial to education, corporations and to all types of learners. It is affordable,
saves time, and produces measurable results. E-learning is more cost effective than traditional
learning because less time and money is spent traveling. Since e-learning can be done in any
geographic location and there are no travel expenses, this type of learning is much less costly than
doing learning at a traditional institute.
xiii) Flexibility is a major benefit of e-learning. E-learning has the advantage of taking class anytime
anywhere. Education is available when and where it is needed. E-learning can be done at the
office, at home, on the road, 24 hours a day, and seven days a week. . E-learning also has
measurable assessments which can be created so the both the instructors and students will know
what the students have learned, when they've completed courses, and how they have performed.
xiv) Students like e-learning because it accommodates different types of learning styles. Students have
the advantage of learning at their own pace. Students can also learn through a variety of activities
that apply to many different learning styles learners have. Learners can fit e-learning into their
busy schedule. If they hold a job, they can still be working with e-learning. If the learner needs to
do the learning at night, then this option is available. Learners can sit in their home in their
pajamas and do the learning if they desire.
xv) E-learning encourages students to peruse through information by using hyperlinks and sites on the
worldwide Web. Students are able to find information relevant to their personal situations and
interest. E-learning allows students to select learning materials that meet their level of knowledge,
interest and what they need to know to perform more effectively in an activity. E-learning is more
focused on the learner and it is more interesting for the learner because it is information that they
want to learn. E-learning is flexible and can be customized to meet the individual needs of the
learners.
xvi) E-learning helps students develop knowledge of the Internet. This knowledge will help learners
throughout their careers. E-learning encourages students to take personal responsibility for their
own learning. When learners succeed, it builds self-knowledge and self-confidence in them.
xvii) Educators and corporations really benefit from e-learning. Learners enjoy having the opportunity
to learn at their own pace, on their own time, and have it less costly.
DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING
Slow Internet connections or older computers may make accessing course materials frustrating
Managing computer files and online learning software can sometimes seem complex for students
with beginner-level computer skills
Hands-on or lab work is difficult to simulate in a virtual classroom
One disadvantage of e-learning is that learners need to have access to a computer as well as the
Internet. They also need to have computer skills with programs such as word processing, Internet
browsers, and e-mail. Without these skills and software it is not possible for the student to succeed
in e-learning. E-learners need to be very comfortable using a computer. Slow Internet connections
or older computers may make accessing course materials difficult. This may cause the learners to
get frustrated and give up. Another disadvantage of e-learning is managing computer files and
online learning software. For learners with beginner-level computer skills it can sometimes seem
complex to keep their computer files organized. Without good computer organizational skills
learners may lose or misplace reports causing them to be late in submitting assignments. Some of
the students also may have trouble installing software that is required for the class.
E-learning also requires just as much time for attending class and completing assignments as any
traditional classroom course. This means that students have to be highly motivated and responsible
because all the work they do is on their own. Learners with low motivation or bad study habits
may fall behind. Another disadvantage of e-learning is that without the routine structures of a
traditional class, students may get lost or confused about course activities and deadlines causing
the student to fail or do poorly.
Students may feel isolated from the instructor. Instructions are not always available to help the
learner so learners need to have discipline to work independently without the instructor's
assistance. E-learners also need to have good writing and communication skills. When instructors
and other learners aren't meeting face-to-face it is possible to misinterpret what was meant.
Unmotivated learners or those with poor study habits may fall behind
Lack of familiar structure and routine may take time getting used to
Instructor may not always be available on demand
Slow or unreliable Internet connections can be frustrating
SPREAD SHEETS
a) Meaning of spread sheets
Spreadsheet is software used to organize and present data in easy-to understand forms like tables,
graphs and charts for easy analysis. Ms-Excel is one such software-tool designed and developed by
Microsoft Corporation of USA.
Workbook software comprises of multiple worksheets with data editing facilities and inbuilt
calculation abilities. When formulae are defined in a worksheet, automatic calculations are done
and results are generated.
Step-by-Step.
1. Click the mouse on “start ‘button
2. Selet “all programs’
3. Select” Microsoft Excel” and Ms-Excel window will appear
4. Decide on the items to be included in the worksheet.
5. Decide on the layout of the worksheet. (That is, which items
should appear in which columns, etc.)
Parts of the Excel Screen
Name Description
i Active cell indicator
This dark outline indicates the currently active cell (one of the 17,179,869,184 cells on
each worksheet).
ii Application Close button - Clicking this button closes Excel.
iii Application Minimize button - Clicking this button minimizes the Excel window.
iv Column letters - Letters range from A to XFD — one for each of the 16,384 columns in the
worksheet. You can click a column heading to select an entire column of cells, or drag a column
border to change its width.
v File button - Click this button to open Back Stage view, which contains many options for
working with your document (including printing), and setting Excel options.
vi Formula bar - When you enter information or formulas into a cell, it appears in this line.
vii Help button - Clicking this button displays the Excel Help system window.
viii Horizontal scrollbar - Use this tool to scroll the sheet horizontally.
ix Minimize Ribbon button - Clicking this button hides the Ribbon, giving you a bit more space
onscreen. When you click a tab, the Ribbon reappears.
x Name box - This field displays the active cell address or the name of the selected cell, range, or
object.
xi Page View buttons - Change the way the worksheet is displayed by clicking one of these buttons.
xii Quick Access toolbar - This customizable toolbar holds commonly used commands. The Quick
Access toolbar is always visible, regardless of which tab is selected.
xiii Ribbon - This is the main location for Excel commands. Clicking an item in the tab list changes the
Ribbon that displays.
xiv Row numbers - Numbers range from 1 to 1,048,576 — one for each row in the worksheet. You can
click a row number to select an entire row of cells.
xv Sheet tabs - Each of these notebook-like tabs represents a different sheet in the workbook. A
workbook can have any number of sheets, and each sheet has its name displayed in a sheet tab.
xvi Insert Sheet button - By default, each new workbook that you create contains three sheets. Add a
new sheet by clicking the Insert Worksheet button (which is displayed after the last sheet tab).
xvii Sheet tab scroll buttons - Use these buttons to scroll the sheet tabs to display tabs that aren’t
visible.
xviiiStatus bar - This bar displays various messages as well as the status of the Num Lock, Caps Lock,
and Scroll Lock keys on your keyboard. It also shows summary information about the range of cells
that is selected. Right-click the status bar to change the information that’s displayed.
xix Tab list - Use these commands to display a different Ribbon, similar to a menu.
xx Title bar - This displays the name of the program and the name of the current workbook, and also
holds some control buttons that you can use to modify the window.
xxi Vertical scrollbar - Use this to scroll the sheet vertically.
xxii Window Close button - Clicking this button closes the active workbook window.
xxiii Window Maximize/Restore button - Clicking this button increases the workbook window’s size to
fill Excel’s complete workspace. If the window is already maximized, clicking this button
“unmaximizes” Excel’s window so that it no longer fills the entire screen.
xxiv Window Minimize button - Clicking this button minimizes the workbook window, and it displays
as an icon.
xxv Zoom control - Use this scroller to zoom your worksheet in and out.
Ribbon tabs
The commands available in the Ribbon vary, depending upon which tab is selected. The Ribbon is
arranged into groups of related commands. Here’s a quick overview of Excel’s tabs.
i) Home: You’ll probably spend most of your time with the Home tab selected. This tab contains the
basic Clipboard commands, formatting commands, style commands, and commands to insert and
delete rows or columns, plus an assortment of worksheet editing commands.
ii) Insert: Select this tab when you need to insert something in a worksheet — a table, a diagram, a
chart, a symbol, and so on.
iii) Page Layout: This tab contains commands that affect the overall appearance of your worksheet,
including some settings that deal with printing.
iv) Formulas: Use this tab to insert a formula, name a cell or a range, access the formula auditing
tools, or control how Excel performs calculations.
v) Data: Excel’s data-related commands are on this tab.
vi) Review: This tab contains tools to check spelling, translate words, add comments, or protect
sheets.
vii) View: The View tab contains commands that control various aspects of how a sheet is viewed.
Some commands on this tab are also available in the status bar.
viii) Developer: This tab isn’t visible by default. It contains commands that are useful for
programmers. To display the Developer tab, choose File ➪ Options and then select Customize
Ribbon. In the Customize the Ribbon section on the right, place a check mark next to Developer
and then click OK.
ix) Add-Ins: This tab is visible only if you loaded an older workbook or add-in that customizes the
menu or toolbars
Step-by-Step.
To Enter Data in a Worksheet1. Point the mouse pointer at the cell
(intersection of a row and column) and click the left mouse button. The cell
pointer moves to the cell in which you want to enter data.
2. Type in the data using the keyboard.
3. Press the Enter key.
Filling in the month names
In this step, you enter the month names in column A.
1. Move the cell pointer to A2 and type Jan (an abbreviation for January). At this point, you
can enter the other month name abbreviations manually, but you can let Excel do some of the work
by taking advantage of the AutoFill feature.
2. Make sure that cell A2 is selected. Notice that the active cell is displayed with a heavy outline.
At the bottom-right corner of the outline, you’ll see a small square known as the fill handle. Move
your mouse pointer over the fill handle, click, and drag down until you’ve highlighted from A2
down to A13.
3. Release the mouse button, and Excel automatically fill in the month names.
Your worksheet should resemble the one shown in Figure 1.16.
d) Building worksheet
At this point, your worksheet should resemble the one shown in below. Keep in mind that
except for cell B2, the values in column B are calculated with formulas. To demonstrate, try
changing
the projected sales value for the initial month, January (in cell B2). You’ll find that the formulas
recalculate and return different values. These formulas all depend on the initial value in cell B2,
though.
3. Click OK to close the Create Table dialog box. Excel applies its default table formatting
and also displays its Table Tools ➪ Design contextual tab. Your worksheet should
look like Figure 1.18.
4. If you don’t like the default table style, just select another one from the Table
Tools ➪ Design ➪ Table Styles group. Notice that you can get a preview of different
table styles by moving your mouse over the Ribbon. When you find one you like, click it, and
style will be applied to your table.
An Excel workbook can hold any number of worksheets, and each worksheet is made up of more
than 17 billion cells. A cell can hold any of three basic types of data:
A numeric value
Text
A formula
A worksheet can also hold charts, diagrams, pictures, buttons, and other objects. These objects
aren’t contained in cells. Rather, they reside on the worksheet’s draw layer, which is an invisible
layer on top of each worksheet.
h) Charts
Creating a chart
How about a chart that shows the projected sales for each month?
1. Activate any cell in the table.
2. Choose Insert ➪ Charts ➪ Column and then select one of the 2-D column charts
types. Excel inserts the chart in the center of your screen.
Create a Simple Chart.
Charts are used to present data effectively; they make relationships among
numbers easy to see because they turn numbers into shapes that can be
compared to one another.
Step-by-Step.
1. Select the range containing the information you want to be represented in
chart form.
2. Click on the ChartWizard button and the following dialog box appears.
Freezing panes keeps the headings visible while you’re scrolling through the worksheet.
To freeze panes, start by moving the cell pointer to the cell below the row that you want to
remain
visible while you scroll vertically, and to the right of the column that you want to remain visible
while you scroll horizontally. Then, choose View ➪ Window ➪ Freeze Panes and select the
Freeze Panes option from the drop-down list. Excel inserts dark lines to indicate the frozen rows
and columns. The frozen row and column remain visible while you scroll throughout the
worksheet.
To remove the frozen panes, choose View ➪ Window ➪ Freeze Panes, and select the
Unfreeze Panes option from the drop-down list.
Figure 3.8 shows a worksheet with frozen panes. In this case, rows 1:4 and column A are frozen
in place. This technique allows you to scroll down and to the right to locate some information
while keeping the column titles and the column A entries visible.
The figure below shows a worksheet with frozen panes. In this case, rows 1:4 and column A are
frozen in place. This technique allows you to scroll down and to the right to locate some
information while keeping the column titles and the column A entries visible.
TP 42 13 4 35
MM
MED 12 LS EP EEP MA T
TP 42 22 4 35
36 71 37 36 14
TPUT/ ME IMP
AGD 12 P EP S T ES
20 43 53 68 35
AN
ELD 12 LS EIT E MA ICT
The vast majority of the time, you’ll want to freeze either the first row or the first column. The
View ➪ Window ➪ Freeze Panes drop-down list has two additional options: Freeze Top Row and
Freeze First Column. Using these commands eliminates the need to position the cell pointer before
freezing panes.
To insert a new row or rows, you can use any of these techniques:
Select an entire row or multiple rows by clicking the row numbers in the worksheet border.
Right-click and choose Insert from the shortcut menu.
Move the cell pointer to the row that you want to insert and then choose Home ➪Cells ➪ Insert
➪ Insert Sheet Rows.
If you select multiple cells in the column, Excel inserts additional rows that correspond to the
number of cells selected in the column and moves the rows below the insertion down.
Creating a Table
Most of the time, you’ll create a table from an existing range of data. However, Excel also allows
you to create a table from an empty range so that you can fill in the details later. The following
instructions assume that you already have a range of data that’s suitable for a table.
1. Make sure that the range doesn’t contain any completely blank rows or columns;
otherwise, Excel will not guess the table range correctly.
2. Select any cell within the range.
3. Choose Insert ➪ Tables ➪ Table (or press Ctrl+T). Excel responds with its Create
Table dialog box, shown in Figure 5.4. Excel tries to guess the range as well as whether
the table has a header row. Most of the time, it guesses correctly. If not, make your corrections
before you click OK.
Moving a table
To move a table to a new location in the same worksheet, move the mouse pointer to any of its
borders. When the mouse pointer turns into a cross with four arrows, click and drag the table to
its new location.
To move a table to a different worksheet (which could be in a different workbook), you can drag
and drop it as well — as long as the destination worksheet is visible onscreen.
Sorting a table
Sorting a table rearranges the rows based on the contents of a particular column. You may want to
sort a table to put names in alphabetical order. Or, maybe you want to sort your sales staff by the
totals sales made.
To sort a table by a particular column, click the drop-down in the column header and choose one of
the sort commands. The exact command varies, depending on the type of data in the column.
You can also select Sort by Color to sort the rows based on the background or text color of the
data.
This option is relevant only if you’ve overridden the table style colors with custom formatting.
You can sort on any number of columns. The trick is to sort the least significant column first and
then proceed until the most significant column is sorted lasted. For example, in the real estate
table, you may want to sort the list by agent. And within each agent’s group, sort the rows by area.
And within each area, sort the rows by list price. For this type of sort, first sort by the List Price
column, then sort by the Area column, and then sort by the Agent column.
Filtering a table
Filtering a table refers to displaying only the rows that meet certain conditions. (The other rows
are
hidden.)
Using the real estate table, assume that you’re only interested in the data for the N. County area.
Click the drop-down arrow in the Area Row Header and remove the check mark from Select All,
which unselects everything. Then, place a check mark next to N. County and click OK. The table,
shown in Figure 5.12, is now filtered to display only the listings in the N. County area. Notice that
some of the row numbers are missing; these rows contain the filtered (hidden) data.
Also notice that the drop-down arrow in the Area column now shows a different graphic — an icon
that indicates the column is filtered.
FORMATING WORKSHEET
The Home tab of the Ribbon provides quick access to the most commonly used formatting options.
Start by selecting the cell or range; then use the appropriate tool in the Font, Alignment, or
Number groups.
Using these tools is very intuitive, and the best way to familiarize yourself with them is to
experiment.
Enter some data, select some cells, and then click the controls to change the appearance.
Note that some of these controls are actually drop-down lists. Click the small arrow on the button,
and the button expands to display your choices.
On the Mini toolbar that appears when you right-click a range or a cell
When you right-click a cell or a range selection, you get a shortcut menu. In addition, the Mini
toolbar appears above the shortcut menu.
l From the Format Cells dialog box
The formatting controls available on the Home tab of the Ribbon are sufficient most of the time,
but some types of formatting require that you use the Format Cells dialog box. This tabbed dialog
box lets you apply nearly any type of stylistic formatting, as well as number formatting. The
formats that you choose in the Format Cells dialog box apply to the cells that you have selected at
the time. Later sections in this chapter cover the tabs of the Format Cells dialog box.
In addition, many common formatting commands have keyboard shortcuts that you can use.
You can merge any number of cells occupying any number of rows and columns. In fact, you can
merge all 17,179,869,184 cells in a worksheet into a single cell — although I can’t think of any
good reason to do so, except maybe to play a trick on a co-worker.
The range that you intend to merge should be empty, except for the upper-left cell. If any of the
other cells that you intend to merge are not empty, Excel displays a warning. If you continue, all
the data (except in the upper-left cell) will be deleted. To avoid deleting data, click Cancel in
response to the warning.
The Home ➪ Alignment ➪ Merge & Center control contains a drop-down list with these
additional options:
Merge Across: When a multirow range is selected, this command creates multiple merged
cells — one for each row.
Merge Cells: Merges the selected cells without applying the Center attribute.
Unmerge Cells: Unmerges the selected cells.
a) Meaning of database
Database is a shared collection of logically related data and a description of this data designed to
meet the information needs of an organization
Examples of application of database
ATM card, mobile phone, Super-market, Library, School Management Information System
TERMINOLOGIES
i Entity
-Is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.
o Example: specific person, company, event, plant, student, book
ii Attribute
-Refers to the property of an entity, i.e. entities have attributes e.g. name, reg no, book no, title
iii Schema
The structure of a database is called a schema (tables, property of tables, relationships –names
iv Relationship
-Refers to the association between entities e.g. borrows, returns
v Relation
-Is a table with columns and rows
vi Tupule
-Is a row of a relation
vii Domain
-is the set of allowable values for one or more attributes
viii View
- A view is named relation corresponding to an entity in conceptual schema, whose
tuples are physically stored in database. Contents of a view are defined as a query on
one or more base relations.
b) Database design
Database design has the following conceptual steps
1) Build local conceptual data model for each user view
2) Build and validate local data model for each user view
3) Build and validate global logical data model
4) Translate global data model for targets DBMS
5) Design physical representation
6) Design security mechanism
7) Monitor and tune the operational system
CHARACTERISTICS OF DBMS
c) Data manipulation
- Data is arranged in columns (fields) and rows (records)
- Each column has similar items or entries
- Each row contains information pertaining (belonging) to the single individual
d) Data sorting and indexing
This involves arranging the records into a predefined sequence or way and this requires one to
identify certain fields to be key fields so as to sort either in ascending/descending order or
alphabetically.
e) Data retrieval/searching
This involves the ability to extract information from a database- either entire content, specific
record or a set of records.
DATABASE ELEMENTS
A database consists of four elements as given,
i) Data
ii) Relationships
iii) Constraints
iv) Schema
Data items
Relationships
Data base Constraints
i) Data
Data are binary computer representations of stored logical entities.
Software is divided into two general categories-data and programs.
A program is a collection of instruction for manipulating data.
Data exist is various forms- as numbers or texts on pieces of paper, as bits and bytes stored
in electronic memory or as facts stored in a person’s mind.
ii) Relationships
Relationships explain the correspondence between various data elements.
iii) Constraints
Are predicates that define correct database states.
iv) Schema
Schema describes the organization of data and relationships within the database.
Schema defines various views of the database for the use of various system components of the
database management system and for the application’s security.
A schema separates physical aspects of data storage form the logical aspects of data
representation.
Types of schema
a)Internal schema: defines how and where the data are organized in physical data storage.
b)Conceptual schema: defines the stored data structures in terms of the database model used.
c)External schema: defines a view (or) views of the database for particular uses.
In database management systems data files are the files that store the database information whereas
offer files, such as index files and data dictionaries, store administrative information known as
metadata (data about data).
Data base are organized by fields, records and files.
i) Fields: is a single piece of information.
ii) Record: is one complete set of fields.
iii) File: is a collection of records.
Advantage of Data in database
Database system provides the organization with centralized control of its data
1) Redundancy can be reduced:
In non-database systems, each application (or) department has its own private file
resulting in considerable amount of redundancy (or) the stored data. Thus storage space is
wasted. By having centralized database most of this can be avoided
Components of a DBMS
Data Catalog
Management Application
Transaction
Management
Concurrency Control
Recovery Management
Security Management
Language Interface
i) Hierarchical Model:
It uses a structure in which records are divided into segments. A record contains one root
segment (which also becomes a key) and a variable number of subordinate segments that
define a field within a record.
Hierarchical Model is one of the oldest database model, dating from late 1950s. First
Hierarchical database model – was Information Management system (IMS). IMS
become the world’s leaching mainframe hierarchical database system in the 1970’s and
early 1980’s.
The hierarchical model represents relationships with the notion of logical adjacency or
more accurately with ‘logical proximity’ in a linearized tree.
Advantages:
i) Simplicity: The relationship b/w the various layers are logically simple. Thus the
design of a hierarchical database is simple.
ii) Data security: Hierarchical model was the first database model that offered the
data security that is provided and enforced by the DBMS.
iii) Data Integrity: Since the hierarchical model is based on the parent /child
relationship, there is always a link between the parents segment and the child segments
under it.
iv) Efficiency – The hierarchical database model is a very efficient one when the
database contains a large number of 1: n relationships.
Disadvantage:
i) Implementation Complexity
Even though it is simple and Easy to design it is quite complex to implement.
The database designers should have very good knowledge of the physical date storage
characteristics.
Advantages:
i) Conceptual simplicity: It is simple and easy to design.
ii) Capability to handle more relationship types. If can handle the one-to-many (I: n)
and many to many (n: n) relationship.
iii) Ease of data access: The data access is easier than and flexible than in the hierarchical
model.
iv) Data independence – the network model is easy to isolating the programs from the
complex physical storage details.
v) Data integrity. The network model does not allow a member to exist without an
owner
Disadvantages:
i) System complexity
ii) Absence of structural independence.
3. Relation model:
Relational model stores the data is the form of a table.
A single database can be spread across several tables.
A relational model uses tables to organize data elements.
Each table corresponds to an application entity and each row represents an instance of
that entity.
Advantage:
i) Structural independence:
The relational model does not depend on the navigational data access system thus
freeing the database designers, programmers and uses form learning the details about the
data storage.
ADMIN CA ATTENDANC
NO NAME SEX T EXAMS TOTAL E
4818 Julius M 17 46 63 85
4490 Elijah M 20 55 75 95
4826 Nickson M 14 37 51 90
4821 James M 24 53 77 85
4853 Naum F 20 50 70 91
4833 Stellah F 22 45 67 96
iii) Field types- specify the way specific data items are stored. MS Access support up to 10
different field types e.g. text, memo, number, date/time, currency, Y/N, OLE object,
auto-number, look-up, hyperlink.
Type
Auto-number A number is automatically incrementally &
never changes again
Currency A numeric field automatically assigned with a
currency sign e.g. £
Date/Time A date or time data type & can change
appearance of each from general type
Text Any character not needed for calculation
Number Any figure needed for calculation
Yes/No A logical field that needs yes or no
Memo A whole sentence e.g. comments/remarks
OLE object Any linked object e.g. picture
Hyperlink Stores data that are internet address e.g.
Link-up Values from external table
Relational Keys
i) Candidate key
It is a unique identifier of each record in a table. A table can have number of
candidate keys and out of these, one candidate key is designed as the primary key
and it is by this value that records can be sorted in a table unless otherwise, e.g.
admission number.
ii) Primary key
Is a field or a set of fields whose content, is unique to one record and can
therefore be used to identify that record while sorting.
iii) Foreign key
This is the attribute or set of attributes within one relation that matches candidate
key of some other relation.
5. Entity-Relationship Model
A database can be modeled as:
o a collection of entities,
o relationship among entities.
An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.
o Example: specific person, company, event, plant
Entities have attributes
o Example: people have names and addresses
An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the same properties.
o Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays
One-to-One
Consider for example a set of students in a class. Each student can have only
one admission number. Similarly each adm. No. can be associated with only
one student. This is a case of one-to-one relationship
AA
Assigned
STUDENT 1 Adm. No. 001
Many to One
A student can register for only one particular course at a time, whereas many
students could register for that particular course
Student 1
Student 2 COURSE
Student 3
Dealer 1
Item 1
Dealer 2
Item 2
6. FLAT FILES
In a flat file, a database holds only one set of data and is not any different from
the manual files. For example the cards in a library books catalogue. The cards are
arranged sequentially for easy access e.g. alphabetically using book’s title or by author’s
names.
CREATING DATABASE
To create and manage database, we use Database Management System (DBMS)
software. This software facilitates the creation, organization and maintenance of
databases. Examples of DBMS software are Microsoft Access (MS Access), Microsoft
SQL Server, Oracle, FoxPro, DbaseIV, Lotus Approach and MySQL.
The functions of a database management software are to;
a) Allow the user add or delete records
b) Update or modify existing records
c) Organize data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation of records.
d) Ensure security for the data in the database by safeguarding it against
unauthorized access and corruption (damage).
e) Keep statistics of data items in a database
Tables/file structure
This is a database structure that is used to hold related records. Tables are
organized in rows and columns with each row representing a record while each
column represents common fields in each record.
Queries
A query is a statement use to extract, change, analyze or request for specific data
from one or more tables. Because a query is a question posed to the database, it
returns a result for the user.
Query statements are written using a special language called Structured Query
Language (SQL). The user creates a query by writing Structure query language
statement such as;
Select student admission number,
From
Admission table
Where
Class = year of admission
Forms/Input screen
A form is a graphical interface that resembles an ordinary paper form. Enter into
or view data from database. However, a database form enables the user to view
and enter data into a table. Form interface is a more convenient and easy way of
entering and viewing records from a table.
Reports
Most database systems provide the user with a tool for generating reports from
underlying tables o queries. It is the report generator that provides the user with a
means to specify the output layout and what is to be output or printed on a report.
Macros
In most DBMS software, it is possible to automate frequently performed
procedures or tasks using database components known as a macro. For example,
if you frequently use a particular form when you start a database program, you
need to create a macro that automates the opening of the form.
Students database
Tables Queries Forms Reports Macros Modules
Open
Design
view
New
Ok
Assuming the “students database is open;
9) Click on the Tables tab and click on the New button to create a new table. Access
displays a New Table dialog box with various options of creating the table
10) Select Design view and click ok. A blank data table structure is displayed.
11) Using the grid displayed, enter a unique name for each field in the table. A field name
must start with a letter and can be up to a maximum of 64 characters including letters,
numbers, spaces and punctuation.
12) Choose appropriate data type before adding the next field. By default, Ms Access inserts
text as a data type. To specify the data type, click on the box besides Text and select the
required data type from the drop-down menu.
13) The field size and Formats are entered automatically on the General Tab table structure.
However, you can change the field sizes and Formats accordingly. Note that when a field
is empty, information in the general tab is not visibly displayed immediately until you
click in the data type column.
14) To save the table, click the save button on the standard tool bar or save from the file
menu and save as (e.g. Students Table and click ok).
15) Access will ask you whether you want to create a Primary Key, click yes.
16) Click on the View menu and select Datasheet View to see results of the structure. At this
point, you can enter a few records just to check that the table structure designed will be
suitable for the data.
17) Click on File and select Close to complete the table structure design. A new table is
complete and ready for the data entry.
A data table showing defined fields (complete table ready for data entry)
DESKTOP PUBLISHING
a) Functions of DP
Publishing is a way in which information and experiences shared by individuals, groups,
or broadcast to a wide audience. Some examples of publishing media are;
- Printing material such as books, magazines, newsletters, flyers, posters,
banners, greeting cards etc
- Radio, tape and digital music
- Television, satellite TV, cable TV, Teletext
- Cinema and Video
- Telephone, mobile phones and pagers
- Computers, laptop and handheld devices
- The internet
Desktop generally refers to the display on the computer screen. Desktop Publishing (DTP)
software is essentially an enhanced combination of word processing and graphics software
that allows manipulation of text, graphics and typeface on screen before finally printing the
design on paper.
In brief DTP enables the user to perform the following
i) Type text
ii) Insert and manipulate graphics
iii) Create page layout
iv) Print or publish to the web
b) Tools used
Types of DTP Software
i) Layout based software
ii) Print and draw software
Margin Guides
Margin guides are on top, bottom and left sides of the page. They are used to define page margins
and are represented by a blue dotted line. Contents of a apge are within the margin guides
Column Guides
These are vertical green dotted that are used to divide a publication page into two or more
Row Guides
These are represented by blue dotted lines. They are used to divide a page into two or more
sections to help structure the layout of the page.
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
Definition
Presentation software is an application software designed to help design layout and produce
visual aids to help further communication of ideas during presentation of information to an
audience.
A presentation is a collection of slides, hand outs, speaker’s notes and outlines in a single file. A
slide is an individual page in a presentation. Slide shows are normally employed during meetings
or seminars to enhance speaker’s ideas graphically.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
1) They contain templates which define what the presentation will look like, where the slide
and other objects will appear and which foreground and background colors will be used
2) They contain wizards which lead the user step-by-step through creating different styles of
presentation (for quick editing and re-organizing of slides)
3) They have the ability to add sound, transitions, graphics and animation effects
c) Designing/Creating slides
In creating a presentation, it is important to have a clear understanding of the presentation
objectives and verbalize the information to be presented to the audience.
The following steps provide an overview of the process for creating a presentation using
Microsoft PowerPoint.
1) Select the starting point of the presentation
There are a number of ways which appear in the start-up dialog box when PowerPoint
is loaded. These are
Auto Content Wizard
Template
Blank Presentation
Using auto content wizard
A wizard is a special feature that displays a series of dialog boxes that ask
questions on design and content. The wizard uses the answers to create the design
as per instructions. When finished, there will be a standardized group of slides, all
with similar look or feel, for a particular situation.
2) The auto content wizard is launched and presents an initial Auto Content Wizard screen.
3) To proceed to next screen, click next button
4) Select the category of presentation – PowerPoint has seven categories, e.g. select
Data exist is various forms- as numbers or texts on pieces of paper, as bits and bytes
stored in electronic memory or as facts stored in a person’s mind.
Many businesses are solely based on information stored in computers. Personal staff
details, client lists, salaries, bank account details, marketing and sales information may all
be stored on a database. Without this information, it would often be very hard for a
business to operate. Information security systems need to be implemented to protect this
information.
The terms information security, and are frequently incorrectly used interchangeably.
These fields are interrelated often and share the common goals of protecting the , and of
information; however, there are some subtle differences between them.
These differences lie primarily in the approach to the subject, the methodologies used,
and the areas of concentration. Information security is concerned with the confidentiality,
integrity and availability of regardless of the form the data may take: electronic, print, or
other forms.
Computer security can focus on ensuring the availability and correct operation of a
without concern for the information stored or processed by the computer.
Security is about well-being (integrity) and about protecting property or interests from
intrusions, stealing or wire-tapping (privacy - the right to keep a secret can also be
stolen). In order to do that, in a hostile environment, we need to restrict access to our
assets. To grant access to a few, we need to know whom we can trust and we need to
verify the credentials (authenticate) of those we allow to come near us.
There are people who make a living from or breaking through information security
systems. They use their technological skills to break into computer systems and access
private information. Firewalls, which are designed to prevent access to a computer's
network, can be bypassed by a with the right hardware. This could result in the loss of
vital information, or a virus could be planted and erase all information. A computer
hacker can gain access to a network if a firewall is shut down for only a minute.
One of the biggest potential threats to information security is the people who operate the
computers. A workplace may have excellent information security systems in place, but
security can be easily compromised. If a worker gives out or resets passwords without
verifying who the information is for, then anyone can easily gain access to the system.
Computer operators should be made fully aware of the importance of security.
Simple security measures can be used by everyone to keep data secure. Changing
passwords on your computer, and using combinations of letters and numbers, makes it
harder for to gain access. Also, do not keep a note of your where it can be easily
accessed. This is the same idea as not keeping your and PIN number together. You
would not want anyone to have access to the information or funds in your bank account,
and it is the same with your computer.
COMPUTER VIRUS
It can be a code segment that replicates by attaching copies of itself to existing executable files.
The new copy of the virus is executed when a user executes the new host program. The virus
may include an additional code that triggers when specific conditions are met. For example,
some viruses display a text string on a particular date. There are many types of viruses, including
variants, overwriting, resident, stealth, and polymorphic.
There are different types of computer viruses which can be classified according to their origin,
techniques, types of files they infect, where they hide, the kind of damage they cause, the type of
operating system or platform they attack as follows;
Companion Viruses
Companion viruses can be considered as a type of file infector viruses like resident or direct
action types. They are known as companion viruses because once they get into the system they
'accompany' the other files that already exist. In other words, in order to carry out their infection
routines, companion viruses can wait in memory until a program is run (resident virus) or act
immediately by making copies of themselves (direct action virus).
Some examples include: Stator, Asimov.1539 and Terrax.1069
Resident Virus
This type of virus is permanent as it dwells in the Random Access Memory so as it can
overcome and interrupt all the operations executed by the system. It can corrupt files and
programs that are opened, closed, copied, renamed etc.
Examples: Randex, CMJ, Meve, and MrKlunky.
Direct Action Viruses
The main purpose of this virus is to replicate and take action when it is executed. When a
specific condition is met, the virus will go into action and infect files in the directory or folder
that it is in as well as directories that are specified in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file path. This batch
file is always located in the root directory of the hard disk and carries out certain operations
when the computer is booted.
Examples: Vienna virus.
Overwrite Viruses
Virus of this kind is characterized by the fact that it deletes the information contained in the files
that it infects, rendering them partially or totally useless once they have been infected. The only
way to clean a file infected by an overwrite virus is to delete the file completely, thus losing the
original content.
Examples: Way, Trj.Reboot, Trivial.88.D.
Macro Virus
Macro viruses infect files that are created using certain applications or programs that contain
macros. These mini-programs make it possible to automate series of operations so that they are
performed as a single action, thereby saving the user from having to carry them out one by one.
Examples: Relax Melissa.A, Bablas, O97M/Y2K.
Directory Virus
Directory viruses change the path that indicate the location of a file. When you execute a
program file with an extension .EXE or .COM that has been infected by a virus, you are
unknowingly running the virus program, while the original file and program is previously moved
by the virus. Once infected it becomes impossible to locate the original files.
Examples: Dir-2 virus.
Polymorphic Virus
Polymorphic viruses encrypt or encode themselves in a different way (using different algorithms
and encryption keys) every time they infect a system. This makes it impossible for anti-viruses to
find them using string or signature searches (because they are different in each encryption). The
virus then goes on creating a large number of copies.
Examples: Elkern, Marburg, Satan Bug and Tuareg.
Multipartite Virus
These viruses spread in multiple ways possible. It may vary in its action depending upon the
operating system installed and the presence of certain files.
Examples: Invader, Flip and Tequila
Logic Bombs
They are not considered viruses because they do not replicate. They are not even programs in
their own right but rather camouflaged segments of other programs. They are only executed
when a certain predefined condition is met. Their objective is to destroy data on the computer
once certain conditions have been met. Logic bombs go undetected until launched and the results
can be destructive.
Besides, there are many other computer viruses that have a potential to infect digital data. Hence,
it is a must that data is protected by installing a genuine quality anti-virus software.
Worms
Worms are programs that replicate and spread, often opening a back door to allow hackers to
gain access to the computers that they infect.
Worms can spread over the Internet by exploiting security flaws in the software of computers
that are connected to the Internet. Worms can also spread by copying themselves from disk to
disk or by email. A self-replicating program that is self-contained and does not require a host
program. The program creates a copy of itself and causes it to execute; no user intervention is
required. Worms commonly use network services to propagate to other host systems. A worm is
a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to self-replicate and can lead to negative
effects on your system. But they can be detected and eliminated by anti-viruses.
Examples of worms include: PSWBugbear.B, Lovgate.F, Trile.C, Sobig.D, Mapson.
Stealth virus
Companion virus
This virus does not actually inject a program but gets a run when the program is supposed to run
Conclusion
Information security is the ongoing process of exercising due care and due diligence to
protect information, and information systems, from unauthorized access, use,
disclosure, destruction, modification, or disruption or distribution. The never ending
process of information security involves ongoing training, assessment, protection,
monitoring & detection, incident response & repair, documentation, and review. This
makes information security an indispensable part of all the business operations across
different domains.
c) Computer crimes
d)
Hacking
Phishing
A Phishing attack is when you are sent an email that asks you to click on a
link and re-enter your bank or credit card details. These emails can pretend
to be from banks, Internet service providers, on-line stores and so on, and
both the email and the web site it links to appear genuine. When you enter
your bank or credit card details they are then used fraudulently.
Zombies
Zombies often arrive as email attachments and when the attachment is opened they
install themselves secretly and then wait to be activated.
While your computer is connected to the Internet it can be subject to attack through
your network communications. Some of the most common attacks include:
Bonk – An attack on the Microsoft TCP/IP stack that can crash the attacked computer.
RDS_Shell – A method of exploiting the Remote Data Services component of the
Microsoft Data Access Components that lets a remote attacker run commands with
system privileges.
WinNuke – An exploit that can use NetBIOS to crash older Windows computers.
Spyware, Adware and Advertising Trojans are often installed with other programs,
usually without your knowledge. They record your behaviour on the Internet,
display targeted ads to you and can even download other malicious software on to
your computer. They are often included within programs that you can download free
from the Internet or that are on CDs given away free by magazines.
Spyware doesn’t usually carry viruses but it can use your system resources and slow
down your Internet connection with the display of ads. If the Spyware contains bugs
(faults) it can make your computer unstable but the main concern is your privacy.
These programs record every step that you take on the Internet and forward it to an
Ad Management Centre which reviews your searches and downloads to determine
your shopping preferences. The Ad Management Centre will build up a detailed
profile of you, without your knowledge, and can pass this on to third parties, again
without your knowledge. Some Spyware can download more serious threats on to
your computer, such as Trojan Horses.
Virus Hoaxes
Virus hoaxes are messages, usually sent by email, that amount to little more than
chain letters. They pretend to alert you to the latest "undetectable" virus and simply
waste your time and Internet bandwidth. The best course of action is to delete these
hoaxes - they can cause genuine fear and alarm in the disabled, elderly and other
vulnerable groups.
If a wireless access point, e.g. an ADSL (Broadband) Router, hasn't been secured
then anyone with a wireless device (laptop, PDA, etc) will be able to connect to it
and thereby access the Internet and all the other computers on the wireless network.
Bluesnarfing
The act of stealing personal data, specifically calendar and contact information, from
a Bluetooth enabled device.
Social Engineering
Tricking computer users into revealing computer security or private information, e.g.
passwords, email addresses, etc, by exploiting the natural tendency of a person to trust
and/or by exploiting a person's emotional response.
Example 1: Spammers send out an email about victims of child abuse and provide a link
to click in the email for further information or to help the victims. When the link is
clicked the spammers know the email address is "live" and add it to their live list which
they then use to target their spam.
Example 2: A company computer user is tricked into revealing the network password
by someone on the telephone who is impersonating the voice of an employee in
authority and who has a story of distress.
Worms
Worms are programs that replicate and spread, often opening a back door to allow
hackers to gain access to the computers that they infect.
Worms can spread over the Internet by exploiting security flaws in the software of
computers that are connected to the Internet. Worms can also spread by copying
themselves from disk to disk or by email.
Trespass
This is when someone is able to connect to your computer and control it in some form.
This can range from being able to view or access your files, to actually running programs
on your computer
Some programs have special features that allow for remote access. Others contain bugs
that allow a backdoor or hidden access, that provides some level of control of the
program, and trespassers will make use of this to gain access to your computer.
Tracking
Tracking is when someone is able to monitor what you are doing on your computer
system. This applies mainly to tracking Internet usage, where someone may monitor what
sites you visited and what links you clicked on so that they can determine your interests,
and use that information for future marketing.
Tapping
Tapping is when someone gains access to information that is being transmitted via
communication links. Any information that is transmitted across a network is at risk of
being intercepted, if appropriate security measures are not in place
Cracking
Cracking is similar to hacking, but with one major distinction. In hacking, someone feels
the need to understand how the computer or network system of an organization works,
but without the intent of causing damage. In cracking, someone uses his or her
knowledge of information systems to literally to illegally or unethically penetrate
computers system for personal gain.
Trespassing, tapping and cracking all violate privacy of information and leave systems
open to fraud. Any compromised system can potentially leak personal information –such
as medical information, credit card details, etc.
Sabotage
Sabotage occurs when a malicious user renders a system unusable by other users.
Sabotage takes different forms;
Spam
By gaining access to a list of e-mail addresses, a person can send unsolicited junk e-mail,
called spam to thousands of users. This is done quite often by redirecting the email
through the mail server of an unsuspecting host, making the actual sender of the spam
difficult to track.
Alterations
When a system is compromised, the data stored in it can be altered. Typical examples of
data alteration are when students break into a system to alter exam results, or someone
breaks into a banking system to change account details or divert money.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is necessary (but not sufficient) for maintaining the of the people whose
personal information a system holds.
Integrity
In information security, integrity means that data cannot be modified undetectably. Integrity
is violated when a message is actively modified in transit. Information security systems
typically provide message integrity in addition to data confidentiality.
Availability
For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be when it is needed.
This means that the computing systems used to store and process the information, the
security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be
functioning correctly
Authenticity
In computing, and information security it is necessary to ensure that the data, transactions,
communications or documents (electronic or physical) are genuine. It is also important for
authenticity to validate that both parties involved are who they claim they are.
1) Audit trail/checks
Audit trail help to detect trespassing and alteration. It is used to keep a record of who has
accessed a computer system and what operations he/she has performed during a given period
of time. In case a system is broken into by a hacker, an audit trail enables their activities to be
tracked. Any unauthorized alterations can be rolled back to take the system back to the state it
was in before the alterations were done.
2) Secured waste
Paper shredders are used to destroy printed information so that it is not accessed by persons
who are not supposed to.
3) Internal controls
The system has transaction log which is a record/file for all those who accessed or attempted
to access.
4) Applicant screening
5) Password
6) Built-in software
This is where the system matches use of numbers against numbers already assigned to the
data being accessed
7) Data/information encryption
Information security uses to transform usable information into a form that renders it
unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called . Information
that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original
usable form by an authorized user, who possesses the , through the process of
decryption. Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from
unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the is in transit (either electronically or
physically) and while information is in storage.
8) Hacking
-log off correctly from the computer when leaving the machine
-Chose passwords that are not obvious, with at least 6 characters and a mixture of
numbers and both upper and lower case letters
9) Firewalls
A physical firewall keeps a fire from spreading from one area to the next.
Similarly, a firewall is a program or hardware that filters information coming
through the internet and connections into your personal computer or network.
Firewalls can prevent unauthorized remote logins, limit or stop Spam, and
filter the content that is downloaded from the internet. Some firewalls offer
virus protection but it is worth the investment to install Anti-virus software on
each computer.
When Management chooses to mitigate a risk, they will do so by implementing one or more
of three different types of controls.
10) Administrative
Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies,
procedures, standards and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running
the business and managing people. They inform people on how the business is to be run and
how day to day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government
bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business. Some
industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards and guidelines that must be followed -
the Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard required by and is such an example.
Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, , hiring
policies, and disciplinary policies.
Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and
physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls.
Administrative controls are of paramount importance.
Logical
Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control
access to information and computing systems. For example: passwords, network and host
based firewalls, network systems, , and data encryption are logical controls.
An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege.
The requires that an individual, program or system process is not granted any more access
privileges than are necessary to perform the task. A blatant example of the failure to adhere to
the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read Email
and surf the Web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects
additional access privileges over time. This happens when employees' job duties change, or
they are promoted to a new position, or they transfer to another department. The access
privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access
privileges which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.
Physical
i) Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and
computing facilities. They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities.
For example: doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire
suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc.
Separating the network and work place into functional areas are also physical controls.
To prevent loss of hardware (theft), computers should be kept in strong rooms and data
back-up should be done regularly. An important physical control that is frequently
overlooked is the separation of duties. Separation of duties ensures that an individual
can not complete a critical task by himself. For example: an employee who submits a
request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the
check. An applications programmer should not also be the or the - these roles and
responsibilities must be separated from one another.
ii) Restricting access to areas with computers, so that only authorized personnel are
allowed to use the system
The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on
the nature of the organization, with examples being:
In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.
In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Sensitive But Unclassified,
Restricted, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents.
In cross-sectoral formations, the , this consists of: White, Green, Amber and Red.
All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the
classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures
for each classification. The classification a particular information asset has been assigned
should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the
information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place.
11) Access control
ii) Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a
bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe (a claim of
identity). The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's
license. The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it
and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John
Doe. If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that
John Doe is who he claimed to be.
There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:
After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated
then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and
what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change). This
is called authorization.
Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control
mechanisms - some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms.
The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three
approaches to access control or it may be derived from a combination of the three
approaches.
Defense in depth
Information security must protect information throughout the life span of the
information, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal
of the information. The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest.
During its life time, information may pass through many different information
processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems.
There are many different ways the information and information systems can be
threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the
information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms. The building
up, layering on and overlapping of security measures is called defense in depth. The
strength of any system is no greater than its weakest link. Using a defense in depth
strategy, should one defensive measure fail there are other defensive measures in place
that continue to provide protection.
Process
The terms reasonable and prudent person, due care and due diligence have been used
in the fields of Finance, Securities, and Law for many years.
In the field of Information Security, Harris offers the following definitions of due care
and due diligence:
"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for
the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to
help protect the company, its resources, and employees." And, [Due diligence are the]
"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually
maintained and operational."
Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions. First, in due care,
steps are taken to show - this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even
produce tangible artifacts. Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities - this
means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection
mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.
While a business continuity plan (BCP) takes a broad approach to dealing with
organizational-wide effects of a disaster, a disaster recovery plan (DRP), which is a
subset of the business continuity plan, is instead focused on taking the necessary steps to
resume normal business operations as quickly as possible. A disaster recovery plan is
executed immediately after the disaster occurs and details what steps are to be taken in
order to recover critical information technology infrastructure. There are a number of
approaches;
a) Manual Services
b) Service bureau
c) Aid package
d) Computer facility
Computer crime is a growing industry. Some of the issues addressed by ICT legislation are;
ii) To provide legal backing so that it is possible to seek redress if rights are violated
In Kenya, the Copyright Act was amended in 1996 to include protection for computer programs
and software copyright. In addition to copyright protection, there are other laws in force in other
countries. Some examples are listed below with a description of what the legislations entails.
Legislations Description
Health and Safety An explanation of what employers must do and what the
equipment must be like to safeguard the health and safety of
employees
The USA () is a non-regulatory federal agency within the . The NIST Computer Security
Division develops standards, metrics, tests and validation programs as well as publishes
standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management and
operation. NIST is also the custodian of the USA publications (FIPS).
is a professional membership society with more than 100 organization and over 20,000
individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that
confront the future of the Internet, and is the organization home for the groups responsible
for Internet infrastructure standards, including the (IETF) and the (IAB). The ISOC hosts
the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol
Standards and the RFC-2196 .
Professionalism
adoption is always increasing and spread to vital infrastructure for civil and military
organizations. Everybody can get involved in the . It is crucial that a nation can have
skilled professional to defend its vital interests.
Conclusion
Information security is the ongoing process of exercising due care and due diligence to
protect information, and information systems, from unauthorized access, use, disclosure,
destruction, modification, or disruption or distribution. The never ending process of
information security involves ongoing training, assessment, protection, monitoring &
detection, incident response & repair, documentation, and review. This makes information
security an indispensable part of all the business operations across different domains.
MULTIMEDIA
Definition
Multimedia, defined, is the combination of various digital media types such as text,
images, sound and video, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive application or
presentation to convey a message or information to an audience. In other words,
multimedia means “an individual or a small group using a computer to interact with
information that is represented in several media, by repeatedly selecting what to see and
hear next” (Agnew et. al, 1996).
Multimedia can best be defined as various combinations of text, graphics, sound, video,
and animation that are controlled, coordinated, and delivered on the computer screen.
Multimedia also implies interactivity, where the user is actively engaged in the
presentation of information, and is not just a passive observer of a fixed procession of
sights and sounds.
i) Capture devices
- Video Camera, Video Recorder, Audio Microphone, Keyboards, mice, graphics
tablets, 3D input devices, tactile sensors, VR devices. Digitizing/Sampling
Hardware
ii) Storage Devices
- Hard disks, CD-ROMs, Jazz/Zip drives, DVD, etc
iii) Communication Networks
- Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, ATM, Intranets, Internets.
iv) Computer Systems
- Multimedia Desktop machines, Workstations, MPEG/VIDEO/DSP Hardware
v) Display Devices
- CD-quality speakers, HDTV,SVGA, Hi-Res monitors, Colour printers etc.
Hypertext - Hypertext is basically the same as regular text - it can be stored, read,
searched, or edited - with an important exception: hypertext is text with pointers to other
text. The browsers let you deal with the pointers in a transparent way -- select the pointer,
and you are presented with the text that is pointed to.
Hypermedia - Hypermedia is a superset of hypertext. Hypermedia documents contain
links not only to other pieces of text, but also to other forms of media - sounds, images,
and movies. Images themselves can be selected to link to sounds or documents. This
means that browsers might not display a text file, but might display images or sound or
animations. Hypermedia simply combines hypertext and multimedia.
The first hypermedia system was the Aspen Movie Map, while the first truly universal
hypermedia was Hypercard. Most modern hypermedia is delivered via electronic pages
from a variety of systems. Audio hypermedia is emerging with voice command devices and
voice browsing.
The three principal ways in which multimedia technology is used in higher education
include:
i) at the front of the classroom as a more flexible and versatile update of traditional
audiovisual media,
ii) in student groups for collaborative learning, and
iii) in individual student use for independent learning.
Components of Multimedia
i) Educational multimedia projects may incorporate interactive audio and video from a
videodisc player, digital audio or digital video clips stored on a hard disk, or audio
playback from a CD player controlled by a Macintosh computer.
ii) Some presentations combine visual media on a single computer screen, but many
interactive videodisc projects use two screens; one for the computer, and a separate
video screen for a videodisc player. All Macintosh computers come with a built-in
speaker; in multimedia presentations, this is often supplemented by larger speakers for
better sound quality.
Uses of Multimedia /Applications
Exciting and entertaining products are developed using multimedia. They include
standalone applications or fun supplements such as enhanced music CDs with
information about the artist, instruments, trivia and music videos or clips of the
recordings.
Other applications include on-line games and other supplemental content to make the on-
line experience more enjoyable and easier Presentations for tradeshows, conferences,
annual meetings and other uses are best done with multimedia. The rich and involving
multimedia experience ensures information stands out and is communicated effectively.
Multimedia presentations can also be used for promotional applications such as product
or company information delivered via interactive CDROM or website.
The web is ideal to facilitate online presentations, meetings and information exchange.
Multimedia enhances these applications with rich content and individual media tools,
making communication more effective. On-line multimedia products are integrated with
existing systems to make use of database applications, providing custom, on
demand/dynamic content.
Multimedia products are effective for many reasons. Applications developed using
multimedia are adaptable for presentation across many different mediums. The
information presented is updated or customized to reach specific individuals.
d) Formatting slides
e) Running slides
f) Editing objects
g) Printing slides and handouts