Machine Element I

Chapter 1

1. Introduction
1.1 Engineering materials and their properties
• The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great
significance for a design engineer.
• The machine elements should be made of such a material
which has properties suitable for the conditions of operation.
• In addition to this, a design engineer must be familiar with the
effects which the manufacturing processes and heat
treatment have on the properties of the materials
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
Engineering 3. Composites
Materials 4. Polymers and elastomers
5. Natural materials (wood)
6. Foams
various of engineering materials are shown in the next slide taken
from Ashby’s material selection handbook
1.1.1The families of engineering materials
 The taxonomy of the kingdom of materials and their attributes

• Computer-based selection software stores data in a hierarchical

structure like this
 1.1.2 Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes
• The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is
one of the most difficult problem for the designer.
• The best material is one which serve the desired objective at
the minimum cost.
• The following factors should be considered while selecting the
material :
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions
in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.

• The important properties, which determine the utility of the

material are physical, chemical and mechanical properties
1.1.3 The strategy for
materials selection

The strategy for materials

selection.
The four main steps are
translation, screening,
ranking, and supporting
information—are shown
here
1.1.4 Mechanical and physical properties of materials
Mechanical Properties Physical Properties
Strength Melting point
Stiffness Density
Elasticity Thermal electric conductivity
Ductility Coeff. Linear expansion
Brittleness luster, colour,
Malleability size and shape
Toughness
Machinability The mechanical properties of the
Resilience metals are those which are
Creep associated with the ability of the
Fatigue material to resist mechanical
Hardness forces and loads
1.1.5 Attribute limits and material indices
 1.2 Allowable stress and the factor of safety
• An engineer in charge of the design of a structural member or
mechanical element must restrict the stress in the material to a
level that will be safe
• So it becomes necessary to perform the calculations using a safe
or allowable stress
• To ensure safety , it is necessary to choose an allowable stress
that restrict the allowable to be less than the load the member
can fully support.
• One method of specifying the allowable load for design analysis
of a member is to use a number called the factory of safety
• The factor of safety is the ratio of the ultimate load the member
can support to the allowable load.
ultimate strength  U  U
F .S   
allowable stress  all  all
1.2.1 Factors considered while selecting factor of safety
• Uncertainties' of the design analysis due various simplifying
assumptions
• Errors in manufacturing and assembling
• Unknown vibrations, accidental impact loads
• Extreme service environmental conditions
• The effect of the failure of single component in the entire
system / machine
• The level of risk and hazards that may result due to failure, etc

What is the difference between design factor of safety

and actual factor of safety ???
 2.1 Introduction
• While we design any machine component, we must consider
the relations between strength and the loading in order to
make the decisions concerning material and its treatment,
fabrication, and geometry for satisfying the requirements of
functionality, safety, reliability, competitiveness, usability,
manufacturability, and marketability

Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces; has
become permanently distorted, thus ruining its geometry; has had its
reliability downgraded; or has had its function compromised,
whatever the reason.

A designer speaking of failure can mean any or all of

these above possibilities
2.1.1 Examples of failure

Failure of a truck drive-shaft Chain test fixture that failed

spline due to corrosion fatigue in one cycle

Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt

Impact failure of blade driver hub
 2.2 Design for static load

• A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member.

To be stationary, the force or couple must be unchanging in
magnitude, point or points of application, and direction.
• A static load can produce axial tension or compression, shear
load, bending load, tensional load, or any combination of these
Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should
have available the results of a great many strength tests of the
particular material chosen

The cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is

justified if failure of the part may endanger human life or if the
part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities
 2.2.1 Failure theories
• Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking, and
rupturing are among the ways that a machine element fails

If the failure mechanism is simple, then simple tests can give

clues. Just what is simple? And Just what is important: a critical
stress, a critical strain, a critical energy?
In the next several sections, we shall show failure theories that
have helped answer some of these questions

Unfortunately, there is no universal theory of failure for the

general case of material properties and stress state. Instead, over
the years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested,
leading to today’s accepted practices
 cont…
• Structural metal behaviour is typically classified as being ductile
or brittle,
• Ductile materials are normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 &
have an identifiable yield strength that is often the same in
compression as in tension.
• Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit an identifiable yield
strength, and are typically classified by ultimate tensile and
compressive strengths.
The generally accepted failure theories are:

Ductile materials (yield criteria) Brittle materials (brittle fracture)

• Maximum shear stress (MSS) • Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Distortion energy (DE) • Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM) • Modified Mohr (MM),
2.2.2 Failure theories for ductile materials
1) Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory (Tresca or Guest theory)
• The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins
whenever the maximum shear stress in any element equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of
the same material when that specimen begins to yield
Recall that for simple tensile stress, σ = P/A, and the maximum shear
stress occurs on a surface 45° from the tensile surface with a y
magnitude of    . So the maximum shear stress at yield  max 
max
2 2

For a general state of stress, three principal stresses can be

determined and ordered such that  1   2   3 . The maximum shear
stress is then  max  ( 1   3 ) / 2
Cont…
Thus, for a general state of stress (3D stress state) , the
maximum-shear-stress theory predicts yielding when
( 1   3  y
 max   or ( 1   3 )   y  S sy  0.5S y (2.1)
2 2

For design purposes, Equation (2.1 can be modified to

incorporate a factor of safety, n. Thus,
y y
 max    1   3   (2.2)
2n n

Plane stress problems are very common where one of the

principal stresses is zero, then there are three cases to
consider in using Eq. (2.1) for plane stress: (see next slide)
Cont…
For plane stress, let  1   2   3 and  3  0

Case 1:  A   B  0 . For this case,

 1  . A  2   B  3  0
Equation (2.1) reduces to a yield
condition of
 A  Sy
Case 2: A  0   B , equation 2.1)
reduces to a yield condition of

 A  B  Sy
Case 3:0   A   B , equation (2.1)
reduces to a yield condition of
The maximum-shear-stress (MSS)
 B  S y theory for plane stress, where σA and
σB are two nonzero principal stresses.
2) Distortion-Energy Theory (DE)
• The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the
distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension
or compression of the same material.
The DE theory is originated from the observation that ductile materials
stressed hydrostatically exhibited yield strengths greatly in excess of
the values given by the simple tension test ; yielding in tension test is
somehow related to the angular distortion of the stressed element
Cont…
In the above figure, (a) Element with tri-axial stresses; element
undergoes both volume change and angular distortion. (b) Element
under hydrostatic tension undergoes only volume change. (c) Element
has angular distortion without volume change
1   2   3
 av  (2.3)
3
1
The strain energy per unit volume for simple tension is u  .
2
For the element under tri-axial stress, the strain energy per unit
1
volume is u  ( 1 1   2 2   3 3 ) . Substituting for the principal
2
strains from generalized Hooke’s law for multi-axial loading, we get

1
[ 1   2   3  2 ( 1 2   2 3   3 1 )]
2 2 2
u (2.4)
2E
 Cont…
The strain energy for producing only volume change uv can be
obtained by substituting  av for  1 ,  3 and  3 in Eq. (2.4) and using
eq. (2.3) for the value of  av , we get

3 av
2
uv  (1  2 )
2E (2.5)
1  2
( 1   2   3  2 1 2  2 2 3  2 3 1 )
2 2 2

6E
The distortion energy is obtained by subtracting Eq. (2.5) from Eq. (2.4);

1   ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2 
u d  u  uv    (2.6)
3E  2 
 Cont…
For the simple tensile test, at yield, 1  S y and  2   3  0 , and from
Eq.(2.6) the distortion energy is

1  2
ud  Sy (2.7)
3E
Equating eq. (2.6) and eq. (2.7), the distortion energy failure theory for
the general state of stress given as;
1
 ( 1   2 )  ( 2   3 )  ( 3   1 ) 
2 2 2 2
 '    Sy (2.8)
 2 
Where  ' is called von Mises stress which represent a single, equivalent,
or effective stress for the entire general tri-axial state of stress
Sy
  ' Sy or  ' Distortion Energy failure criterion
n
Cont…
For plane stress, let1 and  2 be the nonzero principal stresses
and  3  0 , then the von Mises stress becomes
2 12
 '  ( 1   1 2   2 )
2 (2.9)

Using xy components for plane

stress, the von Mises stress can
be written as

2 12
 '  ( x   x y   y  3 xy )
2 2

MSS theory, can be seen to be

more restrictive, hence, more
conservative
Shear yield strength predicted by DE
Ssy  0.577S y (2.10)
 3) Ductile Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• This theory is primarily used to predict failure for materials whose
strengths in tension and compression are not equal
The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests: tension, compression,
and shear, to yielding if the material can yield, or to rupture

Three Mohr circles, one for the

uniaxial compression test, one for the
test in pure shear, and one for the
uniaxial tension test, are used to
define failure by the Mohr hypothesis

Based on Mohr, failure occurs when

one of the circles (stresses) become
tangent to the failure envelope
depicted as ABCDE in the fig, above
the σ axis; The failure envelope need
not be straight
The difficulty in Mohr theory is;
Was the failure envelope straight,
circular, or quadratic???
Cont…
A variation of Mohr’s theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the
internal-friction theory, assumes that failure envelope is straight and
only the tensile and compressive strengths are necessary
Consider the conventional ordering of the
principal stresses such that  1   2   3 .
The largest circle connects 1 and  3

Triangles OBi Ci are similar, therefore

B2C2  B1C1 B3C3  B1C1
 (2.11)
OC2  OC1 OC3  OC1

1   3 St Sc St
 
2 2  2 2
St  1   3 Sc St (2.12)
Where S t and S c are tensile  
2 2 2 2
and compressive strengths
 Cont…
Cross-multiplying and simplifying equation (2.12) reduces to;
1  3
 1 (2.13)
St Sc

For plane stress, let  1   2   3 and  3  0

Case 1:  1   2  0 . Failure condition is

 1  St
Case 2: 1  0   2 , failure condition is
1  2
 1
St Sc
Incorporating the factor of safety
Case 3: 0  1   2 , failure condition n in eq. (2.13) for design purpose
 2  Sc 1  3 1
  (2.14)
St S c n
 2.2.3 Summary of Failure of Ductile Materials
The selection of
one or the other of
these theories is
something that you,
the engineer, must
decide

1) For design the 2) To learn why a part

MSS theory is failed, then the DE theory
easy, quick to may be the best to use
use, and
conservative 3) For ductile materials with
unequal yield strengths in tension
&in compression, the Coulomb-
Mohr theory is the best available
2.2.4 Failure theories for brittle materials
1) Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory (MNS)
The MNS theory states that failure occurs whenever one of the
three principal stresses equals or exceeds the ultimate strength
Let the principal stresses for a general stress state are ordered in the
form  1   2   3 , failure occurs whenever

 1  Sut or  3  Suc (2.15)

For plane stress, let 1   2 and  3  0

 1  Sut or  2   Suc (2.16)

The failure criteria equations can be

converted to design equations as;
Sut  Suc
1  or  2  (2.17)
n n
2) Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr Theory (BCM)
Considering plane stress condition, the design type equation
incorporating the factor of safety

Sut
1  for  1   2  0 (2.18a)
n
1  2 1
  for  1  0   2 (2.18b)
Sut Suc n
Sut
2   for 0   1   2 (2.18c)
n

In the first quadrant the data appear on both sides and

along the failure curves of maximum-normal-stress,
Coulomb-Mohr, and modified Mohr. All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well
3) Modified-Mohr Theory (MM)

SSut

 11  for 
 ut for  
11   22 
 00
nn
(a)

 11  1

 11  
 00   22 and
and 1

 22
(( SSuc  S ))  
ut  11
uc  S ut --  22 for   0   and  22  1 (b)
for  11  0   22 and 1
SSuc SSut
uc ut
SSuc
uc

 11
Suc Suc 0    
 2    2  for for1 0  2 1   2 (c)
n n

In the fourth quadrant the modified Mohr theory

represents the data best
Failure of Brittle Materials Summary

A plot of experimental
data points obtained
from tests on cast iron.
Shown also are the
graphs of three failure
theories of possible
usefulness for brittle
materials

In the first quadrant the

data appear on both sides
and along the failure
curves of maximum-
normal-stress, Coulomb-
Mohr, and modified Mohr.
All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well
 Cont…
In the fourth quadrant the modified Mohr theory represents the
data best.

In the third quadrant the points A, B, C, and D are too few to make
any suggestion concerning a fracture locus.

Selection of Failure Criteria

For ductile behaviour the preferred criterion is the distortion-energy
theory, although some designers also apply the maximum-shear-stress
theory because of its simplicity and conservative nature

For brittle behaviour, the original Mohr hypothesis, constructed with

tensile, compression, and torsion tests, with a curved failure locus is
the best hypothesis we have. However, the difficulty of applying it
without a computer leads engineers to choose modifications, namely,
Coulomb Mohr, or modified Mohr
Failure theory selection flowchart

Failure theory
selection flowchart
 Problem
1. A machine frame is made of steel having Sy = 400 MPa and Ssy = 250 MPa. When
loaded in a test fixture, the stresses were found to vary linearly with load. Two
points on the surface were found to be most critical. With a 4 kN test load, stresses
at these points were: point a, 𝜎1 = 200 MPa, 𝜎2 = 100 MPa; point b, 𝜎1 = 150 MPa,
𝜎2 = -100 MPa. Compute the test load at which the frame will experience initial
yielding according to the (a) maximum-normal-stress theory, (b) maximum-shear-
stress theory, and (c) maximum-distortion-energy theory. Discuss briefly the
relative validity of each theory for this application. (See Figure below)?

1. A lawn mower component experiences critical static stresses of 𝜎𝑥 = 310 MPa, 𝜎𝑦

= 173 MPa, and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 105 MPa. The component is made of 4130 normalized steel
that has an ultimate strength of 670 MPa and yield strength of 435 MPa. Determine
the factor of safety based on predicting failure by the maximum-normal stress
theory, the maximum-shear-stress theory, and the distortion energy theory.
 Types of Stresses

Types of fatigue stresses

2.3 Design for fatigue load
fatigue failure arises when the loads vary with time or they fluctuate
between different levels

These and other kinds of loading occurring in machine members

produce stresses that are called variable, repeated, alternating, or
fluctuating stresses.

fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total, and hence

dangerous

It is relatively simple to design against a static failure, because our

knowledge is comprehensive. Fatigue is a much more complicated
phenomenon, only partially understood, and the engineer seeking
competence must acquire as much knowledge of the subject as
possible
 Cont…
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue
crack will typically initiate at a discontinuity in the material where the
1.cyclic
eeerr
stress is a maximum,
1. Crack formation
2. Crack growth/propagation
3. Fracture
Discontinuities can arise because of:

Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc.

1
where stress concentrations occur
Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (IC engine, air
2 craft, compressors, pups, bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under high
contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact
stresses that can cause surface pitting or spalling after many cycles
of the load in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches,
Carelessness
3
&burrs; poor joint design; improper assembly; and other
fabrication faults
 Cont…

4 Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling,

forging, casting, extrusion, drawing, heat treatment, etc.
microscopic and sub microscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material,
alloy segregation, voids, hard precipitated particles, and crystal
discontinuities

• 90% of mechanical failure is due to fatigue failure.

• Various conditions that can accelerate crack initiation include
residual tensile stresses, elevated temperatures, temperature
cycling, a corrosive environment, and high-frequency cycling
• The rate and direction of fatigue crack propagation is primarily
controlled by localized stresses and by the structure of the material
at the crack. However, as with crack formation, other factors may
exert a significant influence, such as environment, temperature,
and frequency
2.3.1 Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

The methods of fatigue failure analysis represent a combination of

engineering and science; while science has not yet completely
explained the complete mechanism of fatigue, the engineer
must still design things that will not fail

Engineers use science to solve their problems if the science is

available. But available or not, the problem must be solved
whatever form the solution takes under these conditions.

We will take a structured approach in the design against fatigue

failure. As with static failure, we will attempt to relate to test
results performed on simply loaded specimens. However,
because of the complex nature of fatigue, there is much more to
account for
 Cont…

Fatigue-Life Methods

Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are the
stress-life method, the strain-life method, and the linear-elastic fracture
mechanics method.
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to
failure, N, for a specific level of loading. Life of 1  N  103 cycles is
generally classified as low-cycle fatigue, whereas high-cycle fatigue is
considered to be N  103 cycles

The S - N method, based on stress levels only, is the least accurate

approach, especially for low-cycle applications. However, it is the most
traditional method, since it is the easiest to implement for a wide
range of design applications has ample supporting data, and
represents high-cycle applications adequately
Stress-Life method (S-N)
 Strain-life method
Strain-life method involves more detailed analysis of the plastic deformation
at localized regions where the stresses and strains are considered for life
estimates. This method is especially good for low-cycle fatigue applications. In
this method several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results

Fatigue ductility coefficient ε′F

Fatigue strength coefficient σ′F

Fatigue ductility exponent c

Fatigue strength exponent b

 2.3.2 The Endurance Limit
For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point.
The strength at this point is called the endurance limit S ' e and occurs
somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles

Endurance limit for steel

Con..
• Region the fatigue strength 𝑺𝒇

𝒃
𝑺𝒇
𝑺𝒇 = 𝒂𝑵 𝒏=
𝝈𝒂
where
o N is cycles to failure and , 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 are the constants , 𝒇 is fatigue strength
fraction, 𝒏 is Factor of safety
o If a completely reversed stress 𝜎𝑎 is given, setting 𝑆𝑓 = 𝜎𝑎
𝒇𝑺𝒖𝒕 𝟐 𝟏 𝒇𝑺𝒖𝒕
• 𝒂= 𝒃 = − 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑺𝒆 𝟑 𝑺𝒆
• The number of cycles-to-failure can be expressed as
𝟏 𝟏
𝝈𝒂 𝒃 𝑺𝒇 𝒃
• 𝑵= 𝒐𝒓
𝒂 𝒂
• Verify that the loading imposed by the four symmetrically located
bearings causes the center portion of the specimen to be loaded in
pure bending (i.e.,zero transverse shear),and that the stress at any
point goes through a cycle of tension-to-compression-to-tension
with each shaft rotation.
 Example1
𝑺𝒂 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝒌𝒑𝒊 𝑺𝒖𝒕 = 𝟗𝟎𝒌𝒑𝒊 n=2.0 N= 𝟏𝟎𝟑 cycle
Find :- 𝑺𝒆 ′ ,𝒇, 𝑺𝒇
Plot the S-N graph?

Example 2
Rotation shaft 𝑺𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒑𝒔𝒊 , 𝑺𝒂 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒑𝒔𝒊
Find 𝑺𝒆 ′ , 𝒇, 𝑺𝒇 ,𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 , n, 𝑵,
Plot the S-N graph
Example 3
Rotating-beam N of cycles is 300,000 cycles, 𝑺𝒂 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒑𝒔𝒊, 𝑺𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒑𝒔𝒊
Find finite and infinite factor of safety ?
𝑺𝒆 ′ ,𝒇, 𝑺𝒇 ,𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 ?
Plot the S-N graph?
2.3.2 The Endurance Limit modifying factors
The rotating-beam specimen used in the laboratory to determine
endurance limits is prepared very carefully and tested under closely
controlled conditions. It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a
mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained in the
laboratory. Some differences include;
1. Material: composition, basis of failure, variability
2. Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting
corrosion, surface condition, stress concentration
3. Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state,
relaxation times
4. Design: size, shape, life, stress state, stress
concentration, speed, fretting, galling

A Marin equation to determine the modified endurance limit is

S e  k a kb k c k d k e k f S e '
 Cont…
Where k a  surface condition modifying factor
kb  size modification factor
kc  load modification factor
k d  temprature modification factor
ke  reliability factor
k f  miscellaneous effect modification factor
S e '  rotary beam test specimen endurance limit
S e  endurance limit at the critical location of a machine part

Surface Factor k a

ka  a(Sut )b
 Cont…
Size Factor kb

For non-rotating solid or hollow rounds of diameter d

A rectangular section of dimensions h × b has

For axial loading there is no size effect, so kb  1

Load Factor k c
Temperature Factor k d

If the rotating beam

endurance limit is
known at room
temperature, use
Reliability Factor k e

Reliability Factors k e Corresponding to 8 Percent Standard Deviation

of the Endurance Limit
 2.3.3 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves,
or notches, in a part increases the theoretical stresses significantly in the
immediate vicinity of the discontinuity
A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor K t or K ts is
used to relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to the
nominal stress. Maximum stress ( max ) Is determined experimentally

e.g. plate in tension or simple

compression with a transverse
central hole.

The net tensile force is

The nominal stress is given by
 Cont…
The fatigue stress-concentration factor for a material under a cyclic load is

Based on the Neuber

equation,

Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation

Where is defined as
the Neuber constant and
is a material constant.
In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from the For steels and
geometry of the part. Then specify the material, aluminium alloys, the
notch sensitivity is
find q, and solve for Kf from the equation

Recommended value of
q for all grades of cast
iron is 0.20 be used
 Notch-sensitivity charts

Notch-sensitivity charts for steels and UNS A92024-T wrought aluminium alloys
subjected to reversed bending or reversed axial loads. For larger notch radii,
use the values of q corresponding to the r = 0.16-in (4-mm) ordinate
Notch-sensitivity charts (cont…)

Notch-sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion. For larger notch

radii, use the values of q shear corresponding to r = 0.16 in (4 mm)
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 7 in tension

Fig. 8 Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 9 in torsion

Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 9 in bending
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 10
Fig. 12

Fig. 10 Round shaft in torsion with

transverse hole

Round shaft in bending with

Fig. 11 a transverse hole

Fig. 11
Plate loaded in tension by a
Fig. 12 pin through a hole
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 13 Grooved round bar in tension

Fig. 14 Grooved round bar in bending

Fig. 15 Grooved round bar in torsion

Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)
 Problems
1. A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown in Fig. The
plate material is grey cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 2.5.
Determine the thickness of the plate.

2. A non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 kN is shown in Fig. The

shaft is made of brittle material, with an ultimate tensile strength of
300 N/mm2. The factor of safety is 3. Determine the dimensions of
the shaft
 Example
1) A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 28 kN is shown in Fig. The plate material
is cold draw AISI 1018 with an ultimate tensile strength of 590 MPa and the
fatigue factor (f) is 0.87. Determine
a) The factor of safety of infinite and finite life.
b) Number of cycle

1) A rotating shaft number of revolution is 950rpm at a time of 10hr supporting a load

of 8 kN is shown in Fig. The shaft is made of 1095 HR steel material, with an
ultimate tensile strength of 120 kPa. The small shaft diameter is 2.4in. Determine
the factor of safety of infinite and finite life. When 𝑛𝑑 = 1.8
 2.3.4 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of a sinusoidal
pattern because of the nature of some rotating machinery. However,
other patterns, some quite irregular, do occur

However; in periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum and a single

minimum of force, the shape of the wave is not important, but the
peaks on both the high side (maximum) and the low side (minimum)
are important
If the largest force is Fmax and the smallest force is Fmin, then a steady
component and an alternating component can be constructed as follows

where Fm is the midrange steady component of force, and Fa is the amplitude

of the alternating component of force.
Some stress-time relations

(a) fluctuating stress with high

frequency ripple
(d) sinusoidal fluctuating stress;

(b) Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress

(e) repeated stress;

(c) Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress (f ) completely reversed sinusoidal stress.

Cont…
Components of stress, some of which are shown in the previous Fig. are

The steady, or static, stress is not the same as the midrange stress; in fact, it
may have any value between σmin and σmax. The steady stress exists
because of a fixed load or preload applied to the part, and it is usually
independent of the varying portion of the load

midrange steady component and amplitude of the alternating component of

stresses are

The stress ratio and the amplitude ratio

 2.3.5 Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating Stress
The following are fatigue failure criteria that are often used for analysis
and design purposes; • Modified Goodman line at
(𝑶𝑺𝒆 𝑨𝑺𝒚 ) nether fatigue
1. Goodman line nor yield and
• At 𝑺𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑺𝒖𝒕 is safely
2. Soderberg line
3. Modified Goodman line
4. Gerber line
5. ASME elliptic line
6. Yielding line
Either the fatigue limit Se or
the finite-life strength Sf is
plotted on the ordinate. Note
that the yield strength Sy is
plotted on the ordinate too.

The midrange-stress axis has

Fatigue diagram showing various criteria of
the yield strength Sy and the failure. For each criterion, points on or
tensile strength Sut plotted “above” the respective line indicate failure
along it.
 Cont…
In order to understand other fatigue failure criteria, it is important to
include the failure criterion of Goodman because

• It is a straight line and the algebra is linear and easy.

• It is easily graphed, every time for every problem.
• It reveals subtleties of insight into fatigue problems.
• Answers can be scaled from the diagrams as a check on the algebra.

The criterion equation for the the ASME-elliptic is written as

Soderberg line is

find the modified Goodman The Gerber failure criterion

relation to be is written as
Cont…
The Langer first-cycle-yielding criterion is used in
connection with the fatigue curve

The stresses and can replace and when n is the design factor
or factor of safety, then

The Soderber line becomes The ASME elliptic line becomes

The modified Goodman line becomes

The Langer line becomes

The Gerber line becomes

Roadmaps and important design steps for the Stress-Life method
To proceed with a typical analysis, assume that fatigue occurs first and use one
of the fatigue failure criteria to determine factory of safety n or the size of the
component, depending on the task. Most often fatigue is the governing failure
mode. Then follow with static check. If fatigue failure governs, then the
analysis is repeated using the Langer criterion.
A. Completely reversed simple loading

1.Determine experimental endurance limit from

2. Modify the experimental endurance limit

Cont..

B. Fluctuating simple loading

Cont..
C. Combined loading modes