Load models for taking into account vertical walking

forces: different approaches

Justine Deprez
Promoter: Senne Strobbe

I. Description of the research domain [3]
In the past there has been a lot of research about the
vertical walking forces. In this paper, some theories
will be analyzed and compared with each other. Both
the walking cycle and the forces exerted during
walking are considered. Here there will be mainly
talked about the forces during walking, but it is
important to note that these models are totally different
for running. Sometimes the difference will be touched
on briefly.
The force produced during walking can be
projected onto 3 perpendicular axes. These components
are vertical (superior-inferior), horizontal-lateral
(medial-lateral) and horizontal-longitudinal (anterior-
posterior). The vertical force is the most important
force of the three forces.
II. Load model from Bachmann and Ammann [2]
A. Introduction
The dynamic loading is identified by the pacing rate,
the forward speed and the load-time function.
The pacing rate or the step frequency (f s) is the most
important variable. According to Matsumoto and Schulze it
is Gaussian normal distribution around the average of 2 Hz,
with a standard deviation of 0.13Hz. This is for a normal
walk, which means an average walking speed.
The velocity of a pedestrian (vs) depends on the step
frequency (fs) and the stride length (ls). While people have
the same speed, they still have different stride lengths. This
is because the legs of those people are not the same length.
As a result, people with longer legs have a bigger stride
length and a bigger step frequency.
In Figure 1, it can be seen that the load-time function
for a mean pacing rate (0.92 Hz) looks like a saddle around
the weight of the test person (1100 N), this results the
stepping from coming down with the heel and pushing with
the toes. When the pacing rate is lower, the maximum load
barely reaches the static weight of the test person.
Conversely when the pacing rate is 3.38 Hz, the peak
almost reaches double the static weight.
Bachmann and Ammann define for the step frequency
in walking an interval between 1.6 Hz and 2.4 Hz.
B. Time function of the vertical load
In figure 2, it can be seen that when a person is
walking there is always a moment that the two feet
touch the ground (the broken line identifies the second
foot). There will always be an overlap between two
loads. Figure 3 shows the interaction between the two
load-time functions from both feet.
Figure 2: The load of a step as a function of
the time with a pacing rate of 2.38 Hz, the
broken line shows the next step. [2]

When pedestrians are walking, they exercise a vertical

and horizontal dynamic load. The most important
parameters for the load-time function are: pacing rate,
stepping particularities (heel/ball contribution), person’s
weight, type of footwear or the floor surface condition. Due
to all of these parameters the outcome of the different
studies vary widely. The measuring technique and the test
procedure also play a role in the results of the various
studies. Despite all the foregoing properties, the step
frequency remains the most important property. Figure 3: The load of two overlapping feet
added together in function of the time with a
pacing rate of 2.38 Hz. [2]

Figure 1: Load-time function in function of the different

pacing rates with a test person that has a static weight of
1100 N. [2]
 Notice that when running, there is no overlap of the
two feet, causing no interference between the loads of
the two feet. Hence there needs to be a difference
between the two for the mathematical formulation of
the dynamic load variation. In the next topic the
mathematical formulation for the load-time function
during walking will be discussed. In the study of
Bachmann and Amman there is also a topic for the
mathematical formulation for the load-time function
during running, which is not covered in this paper. The
difference is that the load-time function for running is
characterized by a single load maximum and not by
two load loads maximum.
C. Continuous ground contact during walking
The load-time function for walking, as in figure 3,
is as follows:
Fp=G+ ∆ G1∗sin ( 2∗π∗f s∗t )
+ ∆G 2∗sin ( 4∗π∗f s∗t−φ2 ) (1)
+ ∆G 3∗sin ( 6∗π∗f s∗t−φ3 )
Where:
- G = weight of the person
- ∆ G 1 = load component of 1st harmonic
- ∆ G2 = load component of 2nd harmonic
- ∆ G3 = load component of 3rd harmonic
- fs = pacing rate
- φ2 nd st
= phase angle 2 to 1 harmonic
- φ3 = phase angle 3rd to 2nd harmonic
III. Load model from Zivanovic, Pavic and Reynolds [1]
D. Introduction
The course of the forces is characterized by the
following important parameters: the weight of the walking
person and his step frequency (f s). These are far fewer
parameters than Bachmann and Ammann [2]. They saw
step frequency and stride length as different parameters,
but here a relationship is established between the two.
Figure 5: the peak force and contact
time in function of the step frequency
The relationship between step frequency and stride
length is shown on Figure 4. Increasing the step frequency
leads to increasing the stride length, the degree of
increasing stride length depends on the speed (walking or
running). Figure 5 shows the relationship between the step
frequency and the peak force (peak of the load-time
function), the peak force increases as the step frequency
increases. Similarly, speed, peak forces and contact time
are properties that are a function of the step frequency.
Contact time is the time a foot touches the ground per step,
so there will be a big difference there between walking and
running. Figure 5 shows that it decreases as step frequency
increases. Figure 4: the stride length in function of
the step frequency and the walking speed
Increasing the step frequency also leads to greater
variability of vertical and lateral forces, and at normal step
frequency there is minimal variability of longitudinal
force.
The individual foot forces are assumed to be identical.
This creates a continuous walking force and, as with
Bachmann and Ammann, there is an overlap between the
forces of the 2 feet, as shown in figure 2 and figure 3.
The study by Zivanovic, Pavic and Reynolds with 1976
test subjects showed that step frequency is normally
distributed with a mean of 1.78 Hz and a standard
deviation of 0.189 Hz.
E. Time function of the vertical load
Zivanovic, Pavic and Reynolds indicate that it is a very
complex fact to model human induced forces. Besides the
facts pointed out earlier that there is a big difference
between walking and running and that ther are very much
parameters that play a role. They also indicate that the
influence of the number of people and their degree of
synchronization also play a role on pedestrian bridges.
F. Frequency function of the vertical load
Although the time function is more common than the
frequency function, it is briefly described here.
IV. Load model from Young
Acknowledgements
 References

[1] S. Zivanovic, A. Pavic, and P. Reynolds. Vibration

serviceability of footbridges under human-induced
excitation: a literature review. Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 279(1-2):1–74, Jan. 2005.

[2] H. Bachmann and W. Ammann. Vibration in

structures induced by man and machines. IABSE-
AIPC-IVBH, Zurich, Switzerland, 1987.

[3] E. T. Ingólfsson. Pedestrian-induced lateral

vibratrions of footbridges. PhD thesis, Technical
University of Denmark (DTU), 2011.