Presentation 4 Chapter 3 PART II 12 Dec Final Version

NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL
Department of Preparatory Classes

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Chapter : III
Electronic structure
of the atom
Part II
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Limitations of Bohr Atomic Model Theory
 The Bohr model cannot describe the emission spectrum of polyelectronic

atoms
This model stands true for only hydrogen atom or atoms like hydrogen (
Hydrogenoid ions) (atoms with a single electron)
 The Bohr atomic model theory considers electrons to have both a known
radius and orbit i.e. known position and momentum at the same time, which
is impossible according to Heisenberg principle.
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A new theory or model has managed to explain the real

behavior of electron in atoms, it is the Quantum
Mechanical Model
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The Quantum Mechanical Model

Basics of quantum mechanics
1. The theory of wave--particle duality developed by Louis-
Victor de Broglie
De Broglie started with the fact that light acts as both a particle and a wave. In
many ways light acts as a wave, with a characteristic frequency, wavelength, and
amplitude.
Einstein argued, however, that light carries energy as if it contains discrete photons
or packets of energy.
in 1924, de Broglie looked at the consequences of assuming that light

simultaneously has the properties of both a particle and a wave.
He then extended this idea to other objects, such as an

electron.
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When an object behaves as a particle in motion, it has an energy proportional to its

mass (m) and speed with which it moves through space (s).
E=m V2
When it behaves as a wave, however, it has an energy that is proportional to its
frequency.
𝑉
E=hν = h λ
By simultaneously assuming that an object can be both a particle and a wave,

de Broglie set up the following equation.
Wavelenght of the particale
Planck’s constant
𝑉 𝒉 𝒉
h λ
=m V2 𝝀= =
𝒎𝑽 𝑷 Momentum of the particale
De Broglie Waves
the de Broglie equation suggests that the wavelength ( ) of any object in motion is
inversely proportional to its momentum.
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De Broglie applied his theory of wave--particle duality to the Bohr model to

explain why only certain orbits are allowed for the electron.
He argued that only certain orbits allow the electron to satisfy both its particle and
wave properties at the same time because only certain orbits have a circumference
that is an integral multiple of the wavelength of the electron, as shown below.
The fact that only certain orbits are allowed in

the Bohr model of the atom can be explained
by assuming that the circumference of the
orbit must be an integral (n = 1, 2, 3, 4 . . .)
multiple of the wavelength of the electron.
The 4th Postulate of Bohr

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Example: calculation of the wavelengths λ associated with the following

particles
 Macroscopic particle: tennis ball of mass 0.05 kg and speed 40 m/s
It makes no sense
 Microscopic particle: Mass electron
and speed of
Completely measurable value and corresponds to the wavelength λ of X-rays
Every corpuscle is therefore associated with a wave. However, this

property is impossible to demonstrate at the macroscopic level.
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2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Formulated by the German physicist , Werner Heisenberg in 1927,
The uncertainty principle says that it is not possible to precisely and simultaneously
measure both the velocity and position of a subatomic particle like an electron. This
is because precise measurement of the position affects the value of momentum
and vice versa.
the more we nail down the particle's position, the less we
know about its speed and vice versa.
∆ x: uncertainty about the position

∆ p: uncertainty about the momentum
∆p=m∆v
∆ v . ∆ x ≥ h / (2 π. m)
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Macroscopic object: a car m= 1 ton and v=100 km/h with 0.001 km/h
uncertainty,
∆ x = 3.8×10-34m.
Microscopic object:
- The Bohr radius is known to within 0.005 nm, i.e. an accuracy of 10%.
∆ V =2,32. 107 m/s
the speed of the electron of the Bohr atom, in the fundamental state, is
v = 2,.2. 106m/s.
We find an uncertainty in the speed at least 10 times greater than

the speed itself,
hence the inadequacy of Bohr’s model

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We can therefore associate with the electron a De

Broglie wave which is described by a mathematical
function called wave (or orbital) function, solution
of the Schrödinger equation.
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Wave function and the Schrödinger equation.

Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) used
new theoretical calculations and experimental results
to devise and solve a mathematical equation
describing the behavior of the electron.
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The Schrödinger equation
: is called “Laplace operator”
m : mass of electron h : Planck ‘s constant

V : Potentiel energie in the point r.
E : Total energie of lectron.
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In a simplified way,
H : Hamilton operator (Hamiltonian), it expresses the

total energy of the electron
Ψ: Relative wave function
We admit that the wave function associated with an electron of the atom must
satisfy this equation. The solutions to the Schrödinger equation are standing
wave functions.
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 The function ψ(x,y,z) is a solution to the Schrödinger

equation, it will then be an orbital of the atom, time not
being involved in the determination of the stationary states of
the atom.
 the function ψ(x,y,z) and the total energy E constitute the

unknowns in Schrödinger equation
 The couples (ψ,E) determined by solving the Schrödinger

equation. Only certain wave functions are solutions to the
physical problem.
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To solve Schrödinger equation it is necessary to introduce

three quantum numbers: n, ℓ, ml
Conclusion
 The electron is not in an orbit, but it moves in wave form, in a
probable volume of space called: atomic orbital.
 The atomic orbital (OA) represents the volume in which the

electron gravitates, each atomic orbital has a precise geometry
and an energy En, and each OA is characterized by the
quantum numbers n, l, m, it will be denoted ψn, l, m
 Each electron will be described by four (04) quantum numbers (n, l, m, s)

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Quantum Numbers
• Series of numbers that express various
properties of an orbital
– Principal quantum number (n)
– Azimuthal quantum number or Angular
momentum quantum number (l)
– Magnetic quantum number (ml)
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Quantum numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
 Has integral values (1, 2, 3, 4….. …∞)
 It characterizes the level or shell occupied by the

electron or the electronic layer it occupies.
N=1 : K layer
N=2 : L layer
N=3 : M layer
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
value
Layer K L M N O P Q
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2. Azimuthal quantum number or Angular

momentum quantum number (l)
 It characterizes a sublayer (or the sublevel) occupied by
the electron.
 It defines the shape of the volume in which the electron is

located, i.e. the shape of the orbitals.
l is an integer [0 ≤ l ≤ n – 1]
 Value of l in each orbital is assigned a letter
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Magnetic Quantum Number

m (or ml)
 This number defines the number of orientations in space that the
electron can take when subjected to the action of a magnetic
field.
 It characterizes the quantum box occupied by the electron.
 The values of mℓ range from −ℓ to ℓ, with integer intervals.

It is an integer which can be zero
2l +1 different values of m

 To symbolize the different orbital, we use a quantum box
represented by a square
There are as many rectangles as there are possible values of m
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orbital S :spherical shape

Examples
One quantum box
if n=1
l=0 orbital S m=0
orbital S :spherical shape

if n=2 One quantum box
l=0 orbital S m=0
l=1 orbital P
-1, 0, +1
oriented along oriented along oriented along

3 quantum box the X axis the y axis the z axis
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These three quantum numbers define a quantum cell and this contains two
electrons. To distinguish between two electrons, we introduce a fourth spin
quantum number (s)
4. spin quantum number (ms)
We can represent magnetic spins with an

arrow
implying that electron can spin in one of two opposite
directions
An orbital can hold up

to two electrons with
opposite spins.
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State nomenclature
We designate a particular state (an orbital) of the electron by the

quantum value of n accompanied by an index linked to the value of
the azimuthal number l
ns, np, nd, …
The corresponding wave functions
ψn, l, m
n=2 l=0 ψ2, 0, 0
l=1 m= -1, 0, +1
ψ2, 1, -1 ; ψ2, l, 0 ; ψ2, l, +1
npx npy npz

 n=5
0≤l≤4
l=0 m=0 1 Orbitals
Orbital S
l=1 Orbital P -1≤m≤+1

-1, 0, +1
3 Orbitals
l=2 Orbital d -2≤m≤+2

-2, -1, 0, +1, +2
5 Orbitals
l=3 Orbital f -3≤m≤+3

-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2,+3
7 Orbitals
l=4 Orbital g -4≤m≤+4

-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2,+3,+4
9 Orbitals
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Graphical representation of functions ψn, l, m
s Orbitals
The location of an electron is
described in terms of
probability.
• Orbitals are a three-
dimensional volume in
which electrons have the
highest probability of being
found.
• The s orbitals are shown as
spheres.
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p Orbitals
There are three p orbitals,
starting with n = 2.
• Each p orbital has two lobes,
like a balloon tied in the
middle, and can hold a
maximum of two electrons.
• The three p orbitals are
arranged perpendicular to
each other along the x, y,
and z axes around the
nucleus.
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p Orbitals
A p orbital has two regions of high probability, which gives a “dumbbell” shape. (a)
Each p orbital is aligned along a different axis from the other p orbitals. (b) All three p
orbitals are shown around the nucleus.
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d Orbitals (l=2)
Subshells with l = 2 have five d orbitals
The five d orbitals have ml values of −2, −1, 0, +1, and +2

(m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2)
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Degenerate Orbitals Example:
Orbitals in the 2p sublevel are degenerate orbitals – Which means that the 2px,
2py, and 2pz orbitals have the exact same energy, as illustrated in the diagram
provided below.
Similarly, the 3px, 3py, and 3pz are degenerate orbitals. And at the 3d energy level,
the 3dxy, 3dxz, 3dyz, 3dx2 – y2, and 3dz2 are degenerate orbitals with the same
energy.
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The electron configuration of an element

The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are
distributed in its atomic orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a
standard notation in which all electron-containing atomic subshells (with the
number of electrons they hold written in superscript) are placed in a
sequence.
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Electron Configurations are useful for:
 Determining the valency of an element.
 Predicting the properties of a group of elements (elements

with similar electron configurations tend to exhibit similar
properties).
 Interpreting atomic spectra.

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Writing Electron Configurations

 To describe an atom, we have its atomic number Z which characterizes
the charge of the nucleus and its total number of electrons.
 To obtain the distribution of electrons in the different orbitals for the

ground state of the atom, it will be necessary to proceed according to
the following filling rules
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Filling rules
1. The Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons in the same atom can have

the same four quantum numbers
An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons

and they must have opposite spins (paired spins)
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2. Hund's rule : states that orbitals of equal energy are

each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a
second electron, and that each of the single electrons must have
the same spin.
This rule takes into account the fact that it is more favorable energetically to
locate twoelectrons in two orbitals, which thus avoids electronic repulsion.
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3. Aufbau Principle
 The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the

orbitals having lower energies before occupying higher energy
orbitals.
 The sublayers are filled so that n+l is increasing . n is the principal quantum
number and l is the azimuthal quantum number.
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Example :
 n=1 l=0
1S
n+l=1
 n=2 l=0
2S
n+l=2
l=1
The same
2P
n+l We start n+l=3
with the
lowest n
 n=3 l=0 l=1 l=2
3S 3P 3d
n+l=3 n+l=4 n+l=5
 n=4 l=0 l=1 l=2 l=3
4S 4P 4d 4f
n+l=4 n+l=5 n+l=6 n+l=7
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Remark
All these rules are valid to obtain the electronic description of an atom
in the fundamental state
 If the principle of stability(Aufbau Principle) is not accepted, we

obtain an excited state
 If Hund's principle is not accepted, we also obtain an excited state
 Pauli's principle can never be circumvented

Examples:
a : inexact
e : inexact
b : fondamental state
 c : excited state
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Numbre of electronlectron
Examples:
6C (Z=6) 1s2 2s2 2p2

:
16S(Z=16) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

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Remark
In practice we will only use the representation using quantum boxes for the
highest energy orbitals, i.e. characterized by the greatest value of n.
6C : 1s2 2s2 2p2

valence orbitals
are those which are concerned in the bonds between

atoms, in molecules.
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Valence electrons
Valence shell
(2 valence electrons)
core electrons
16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Valence shell
Valence shell
 The valence electrons are the electrons of the largest n shell + the electrons of
the last non-full subshell.
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Condensed (shorted) notation
To quickly describe the electronic configuration of an atom, we can use the

condensed form:
Configuration of Noble Gas + valence layer.
Noble gases are chemically stable and have a peripheral or valence shell
electronic configuration : :
Noble Gas symbol Number of
electrons
Helium He 2 2<Z<10
Neon Ne 10 10<Z<18
Argon Ar 18 18<Z<36
Krypton Kr 36 36<Z<54
Xenon Xe 54 54<Z<86
Radon Rn 86 Z >86
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Noble Gas symbol Number of

electrons
Helium He 2 2<Z<10
Neon Ne 10 10<Z<18
Argon Ar 18 18<Z<36
Krypton Kr 36 36<Z<54
Xenon Xe 54 54<Z<86
Radon Rn 86 Z >86
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Electronic configuration of a negative ion
From the electronic configuration of the neutral atom and add as many
electrons as necessary according to the same filling rules.
Electronic configuration of a positive ion
From the electronic configuration of the neutral atom
 Prioritize the electrons of the largest n,

 then if necessary the electrons of the
lower n subshell filled last.
Example
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Some valence electronic configurations are more stable and lead to filling
anomalies
these are configurations presenting in their valence layer a full or half-full

sublayer (except s)
in reality
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Periodic properties such as ionization or electronic attachment energy are

modulated by these particular configurational stabilities:
is easier than expected (creates a more stable configuration )
is more difficult than expected (destroys a more stable configuration)

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Magnetic Properties of Elements
 Diamagnetic elements:
Atoms that do not have single electrons.
 Paramagnetic elements
Atoms having single electrons.

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Periodic classification of elements

All existing matter in our surroundings is made up of basic units
known as elements. Initially, in 1800, only 31 chemical elements
were discovered. After some advancement in technology in
1865, about 63 more elements were discovered. This created
the need for the periodic classification of elements.
Presently, there are 118 elements known to us. Out of these

118 chemical elements, some elements are man-made.
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The design of this table is generally attributed to the Russian

chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, who, in 1869,
constructed a table, different from the one used today, but
similar in principle, whose great interest was to propose a
classification systematics of the elements known at the time.
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What is the PERIODIC

TABLE?
o Shows all known

elements in the
universe.
o Organizes the
elements by chemical
properties.
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Key to the Periodic Table
• Elements are
organized on the
table according to
their atomic
number.
Column= groups / The elements of the same column, called family, have the
Subgroups. 18 columns same number of valence electrons
They have similar chemical properties
1 18
K n=1 2 Z 13 14 15 16 17
Z
L n=2
M n=3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Rows = Periods
N n=4
O n=5
P n=6
Q n=7
The elements of the same line (period) have: the same value of the
maximum principal quantum number n (same layer).
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Subgroups
A B
8 groups
block d
8 Groups III : ns2(n-1) d1
I : ns1 IV : ns2(n-1) d2
block S
II : ns2 V: ns2(n-1) d3
III: ns2np1 VI :ns2(n-1) d4
IV :ns2np2 VII :ns2(n-1) d5
V :ns2np3 VIII :ns2(n-1) d6
block P VI :ns2np4 ns2(n-1) d7
VII :ns2np5 ns2(n-1) d8
VIII : ns2np6
I :ns2(n-1) d9 I :ns1(n-1) d10
II :ns2(n-1) d10 I :ns2(n-1) d10
subgroup A : valence electrons occupy the s and/or p atomic orbitals.
Valence shell
Group /Subgroup
IA
VIIIA
1S1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
…2S1 …2S2 ..2S2 2p1 …2S2 2p2 …2S2 2p6
…3S1 …3S2 …3S2 3p1 …3S2 3p2
…4S1 …4S2
…5S1 …5S2
…6S1 …6S2
…7S1 …7S2
 the family (Group) is characterized

by the number of valence
electrons
Numbered by a Roman numeral from I to VIII.

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subgroup
8 Groupes
I : ns1
BLOCk S BLOCk P
II : ns2 BLOC kS
III: ns2np1
IV :ns2np2
V :ns2np3
BLOCk P VI :ns2np4
VII :ns2np5
VIII : ns2np6
Subgroup B : the valence electrons occupy the s and d orbital.
n=4
ns1(n-1) d10 IIB
2 ( 5 …nS2 (n-1) d9 …nS2 (n-1) d1

…nS2 (n-1)d1 …nS2 (n-1) d2 …nS2 (n-1)d3 VIB …nS n-1)d
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
…nS2 (n-1)d4 VIIB VIII :ns2(n-1) d6
IVB ns2(n-1) d7
IB
IIIB VB
ns2(n-1) d8
VIIIB
BLOCk d
subgroup
B
8 Groups
BLOCk d
ns2(n-1)
III : d1
IV : ns2(n-1) d2
V: ns2(n-1) d3
VI :ns2(n-1) d4
VII :ns2(n-1) d5
VIII :ns2(n-1) d6
ns2(n-1) d7
ns2(n-1) d8
I :ns2(n-1) d9 I :ns1(n-1) d10

II :ns2(n-1) d10 I :ns2(n-1) d10
IIA n=2 BLOCk S
Valence shell
IVA n=3 BLOCk P
Valence shell
IVB n=4 BLOCk d
Valence shell
VA n=4 BLOCkP
the d is filled We do not count the
electrons of the d Valence shell
Lanthanides and actinides
The lanthanides or rare earths correspond to the filling of the 4f sublayer
while the actinides correspond to the filling of the 5f sublayer.
BLOCk f
Exceptions : *
Exceptions are observed. They are due to the fact that the energy gap between the
orbitals atomic decreases as n increases
Analysis by column: element families
The alkali metals group
The alkali metals group consists of six specific elements on the Periodic Table of Elements.
These six elements can be found in the first vertical column on the periodic table underneath
the first element, Hydrogen.
These elements have a configuration for their valence electrons at :ns1
 they have a tendency to easily donate this electron to saturate the

energy level and to form a cation with charge +1: Li+, Na+, K+, ...
Alkali metals all have the same physical and chemical properties:
 The defining characteristic of the alkali metals is the reactivity that they have towards
water. This reactivity is directly related to having only one valence electron.
 They have high thermal and electrical conductivity
Remark
 Hydrogen (H), even if it is part of group IA, is not part of the alkaline family,
contrary to what one might think.
 It is the lightest element

The alkaline earth metals
The alkaline earth family (2nd column of

the periodic table)
beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca),
strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).
 These are elements that have a configuration for their valence electrons
at: ns2.
 They will therefore tend to easily donate two electrons

to saturate the energy level and form a cation with charge +2: Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, ...
They are less reactive than the alkali metals of Group 1A.
Halogen family
 halogens (VIIA or 17th column of the periodic table) includes fluorine,

chlorine, bromine and iodine. These are compounds that exist in the form
of dihalogen X2. They have an electronic configuration in: ns2np5
 therefore tend to attract 1 electron to form an anion with charge -1: F-, Cl-, ...
Family of noble gases or rare gases

 The family of noble gases or rare gases (VIIIA or 18th column of the
periodic table) includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon. They have
an electronic configuration for the valence electrons in ns2np6.
 These are extremely stable elements, therefore not very reactive. Only elements like
xenon or even krypton can react, often with great difficulty, with powerful oxidants
such as difluorine or oxygen.
Family of transition elements of block d:
 The family of d block transition elements (encountered from the 4th period of
the periodic table) includes metals whose ns subshell is filled with 2 electrons
while the (n-1) d subshell is incompletely filled.
 There are 10 transition elements of the d block per period because they
correspond to the filling of these 5 d orbitals with at most 10 electrons with
opposite spins.
Transition elements of block f: lanthanides or actinides:

Lanthanides correspond to the filling of the 4f sublayer while actinides correspond to
the filling of the 5f sublayer.
Metallic or non-metallic character of a chemical
element
Metals
Metals appear to the left of the dark ziz-zag line
on the periodic table. Most metals are solid at
room temperature (except mercury).
Physical properties of metals :
Metals are hard. (except Lithium, Potassium, Sodium)
Metals have metallic lustre. (shine)
Metals are malleable. (can be beaten into thin sheets)
Metals are ductile. (can be drawn into wires)
Metals have high melting points. (Gallium and Ceasium have low
melting points. They melt in the palm of the hand)
Metals have high boiling points.
Metals are good conductors of heat. ( Best conductors are silver
and copper. Poor conductors are Lead and Mercury)
Metals are good conductors of electricity. ( Best conductors are
Silver and Copper)
Nonmetals occur to the right of the dark zig-zag on
the periodic table. Although Hydrogen is in family 1, it
is also a nonmetal. Many nonmetals are gases at
room temperature.
Physical properties of non metals
Non metals may be solids, liquids or gases. (Solids – Carbon, Sulphur,

Phosphorus etc. Liquid – Bromine, Gases – Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc.)
Non metals are soft. (except diamond which is the hardest natural substance)
Non metals do not have lustre.( except iodine cryatals)
Non metals are not malleable.
Non metals are not ductile.
Non metals which are solids and liquids have low melting points.
Non metals which are solids and liquids have low boiling points.
Non metals are bad conductors of heat.
Non metals are bad conductors of electricity. (except graphite)
Metalloids can be found clustered around the dark zig-
zag line that separates metals and nonmetals.
 Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
 Metalloids are solids that can be shiny or dull.
 They conduct electricity and heat better than nonmetals but

not as well as metals.
Evolution and periodicity of physicochemical properties
 The great interest of the periodic table is to organize the

chemical elements in such a way that their physicochemical
properties can be largely predicted by their position in the
table.
 These properties evolve differently depending on whether you
move vertically or horizontally in the table.
 The periodicity of the properties of the elements in the

periodic table is how the physical and chemical properties of the
elements repeat regularly from one period to the next.
Evolution and periodicity of physicochemical properties
1. ATOMIC RADIUS
• The atomic radius is one half of the distance between

the nuclei of two atoms of the same element when
the atoms are joined.
Throughout a period The atomic radius gradually decreases as the atomic number
increases because the increase in nuclear charge exerts a greater and
greater attractive force on the electrons resulting in a decrease in the
size of the atom.
Z R
Z
R
Along a group  The atomic radius increases as the atomic number increases because
the valence shells of successive periods correspond to increasingly larger
principal quantum numbers n.
2. Ionization energy:
the energy that must be supplied to a neutral atom to remove an electron (the
least bound) in the gaseous state and form a positive ion.
X(g) + Ei X+(g) + e-
Ionization energy
To explain the evolution of the ionization energy of elements within a group or

a period, two factors must mainly be taken into account:
1. Nuclear charge
An increase in nuclear charge is generally responsible for an increase in
ionization energy due to a stronger attraction of the nucleus towards electrons.
2. The screening effect:

The core electrons act as a “screen” between the nucleus and the valence
electrons. Therefore, valence electrons will be attracted less and less to the core
as the number of core electrons increases. This results in a reduction in
ionization energy.
Throughout a period
the number of core electrons does not vary, their screening effect is the same.
The ionization energy therefore increases as the atomic number increases
due to the increase in the charge of the nucleus.
Along a group:
the ionization energy decreases from n = 1 to n = 7 due to the increase in the
screening effect.
Z Z R Ei
R
Ei
Exceptions in ionization energies
The ionization energy increases from the beginningto the end of a period because the
charge of the nucleus increases steadily. When we move to a new period Ei decreases
suddenly, because we move to the filling of a new layer. Slight decreases in Ei are
observed at certain locations corresponding to a completely filled sub-layer s or a
half-filled p sub-layer
3. Electronegativity:
Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom

to attract electrons toward itself.
There are several measurement scales for electronegativity.

The one that is generally reported on the periodic table is the Pauling scale.
Along a period: Electronegativity increases because nuclear charge increases

with Z
Along a group: Electronegativity decreases from n = 1 to n = 7
 According to Pauling, the most electronegative element is fluorine (F) and the
least electronegative is cesium(Cs).
4. Electron affinity
Electron affinity, in chemistry, the amount of energy liberated when an electron
is added to a neutral atom to form a negatively charged ion.
It is complex to derive generalized periodic trends for this property because

there are several irregularities.

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NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL

Department of Preparatory Classes

Limitations of Bohr Atomic Model Theory

 The Bohr model cannot describe the emission spectrum of polyelectronic

A new theory or model has managed to explain the real

The Quantum Mechanical Model

in 1924, de Broglie looked at the consequences of assuming that light

He then extended this idea to other objects, such as an

When an object behaves as a particle in motion, it has an energy proportional to its

By simultaneously assuming that an object can be both a particle and a wave,

De Broglie applied his theory of wave--particle duality to the Bohr model to

The fact that only certain orbits are allowed in

The 4th Postulate of Bohr

Example: calculation of the wavelengths λ associated with the following

 Macroscopic particle: tennis ball of mass 0.05 kg and speed 40 m/s

Completely measurable value and corresponds to the wavelength λ of X-rays

Every corpuscle is therefore associated with a wave. However, this

2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

∆ x: uncertainty about the position

∆ V =2,32. 107 m/s

We find an uncertainty in the speed at least 10 times greater than

hence the inadequacy of Bohr’s model

We can therefore associate with the electron a De

Wave function and the Schrödinger equation.

The Schrödinger equation

: is called “Laplace operator”

m : mass of electron h : Planck ‘s constant

H : Hamilton operator (Hamiltonian), it expresses the

Ψ: Relative wave function

 The function ψ(x,y,z) is a solution to the Schrödinger

 the function ψ(x,y,z) and the total energy E constitute the

 The couples (ψ,E) determined by solving the Schrödinger

To solve Schrödinger equation it is necessary to introduce

 The atomic orbital (OA) represents the volume in which the

 Each electron will be described by four (04) quantum numbers (n, l, m, s)

 Has integral values (1, 2, 3, 4….. …∞)

 It characterizes the level or shell occupied by the

2. Azimuthal quantum number or Angular

 It defines the shape of the volume in which the electron is

Magnetic Quantum Number

 The values of mℓ range from −ℓ to ℓ, with integer intervals.

2l +1 different values ​of m

orbital S :spherical shape

orbital S :spherical shape

l=0 orbital S m=0

oriented along oriented along oriented along

4. spin quantum number (ms)

We can represent magnetic spins with an

An orbital can hold up

We designate a particular state (an orbital) of the electron by the

ns, np, nd, …

The corresponding wave functions

npx npy npz

l=1 Orbital P -1≤m≤+1

l=2 Orbital d -2≤m≤+2

l=3 Orbital f -3≤m≤+3

l=4 Orbital g -4≤m≤+4

Graphical representation of functions ψn, l, m

2l +1 different values of m