Prepared by

BIT 2103: INTRODUCTION TO N. Chemutai

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
LECTURE NOTES
 COURSE OUTLINE

Purpose
To equip the learner with the knowledge of computer systems and use of various software
application programs.

Learning outcomes
At the end of the course students should be able to:
1. Define various terms as used in Computer Applications.
2. Demonstrate the understanding of the computer hardware and software.
3. Demonstrate understanding of uses of computers in the society.
4. Perform simple tasks using word processing, spreadsheets and databases.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of the internet and networks.

Course Description
An exploration for understanding and working with computer and software applications.
Topics include Introduction to computer components; Hardware, software, functions and uses
of computers; Managing Computer contents; Operating Systems; Functions and features of
operating systems; Windows operating systems; Word processors; Spreadsheets; Database
Management Systems (DBMS); Presentation Software; Antivirus programs; Internet and
Networks.

Delivery Methodology
Lectures, practical and tutorial sessions in Computer Laboratory, individual and group
assignments, exercises and project work.

Learning Resources
Overhead projector and computer, handouts, journals, white boards, textbooks.
Demonstration projects.

WEEK TOPIC OUTLINE

WK1 Introduction Introduction to Computers
Definition
Advantages & Limitations
History and Evolution of Computers
WK2 Anatomy of Computers Components of Computers & Its functions
Overview of Input devices of Computer
Overview of Output devices of computer
Memory
Processors
Hardware and Software
WK3 Types of Software Operating system
Translators & Programming languages
Application Programs
WK4 Types of Software Utility Programs
General Purpose programs
Classification of computers

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WK5 Operating System Functions of OS
Types of OS-DOS and WINDOWS
Booting process
Fundamentals of DOS commands – FORMAT,
DIR, COPY, PATH, LABEL, VOL, MD, CD,
DEL, TREE.
WK6 CAT 1
WK7 WINDOWS GUI
Desktop and its element
Anatomy of a window - Title Bar, Minimize,
Maximize, Restore and Close Buttons, Scroll Bars,
Menus and Tool
Starting and shutting down of windows
WINDOWS Explorer
Working with organization of files and folders
Copy, Move and Print files
Setting time and date
WK8 MS-WORD Word processing and units of document
Features of word
Processing packages
Creating, Editing, Formatting and Saving a
document in MSWORD
Features of File, Edit and Format menus
WK9 MS-EXCEL Electronic Spreadsheets - concept, packages.
Creating, editing and saving a spreadsheet with
MSEXCEL
Use of in-built Statistical and other functions and
writing expressions
Creating Data Analysis option in Tools Menu
Use of Data Analysis Tools – Correlation and
Regression, t-test for two samples, Creating Graphs
WK10 MS-ACCESS Concept of Database
Units of database
Creating database
Types of databases
Advantages and disadvantages of databases
Functions of DBMS
Components of a DBMS
WK11 CAT 2
WK12 Internet and Networks Definition of terms
Properties
Network Topologies
Types of Networks
WK13 World Wide Web Concepts
Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet
Email and Email Services
Features and benefits of an Email
WK 14 FINAL

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Course Assessment
Continuous Assessment Tests 30%
End of Semester Examination 70%

References
1. Introduction To Computers, 6th Edition - Peter Norton
2. Fundamental of Computers, 4th Ed. PHI – Rajaraman V.
3. Sinah P.K. Computer Fundamentals: Concepts, Systems & Applications, BPB
Publications, 4th Ed.
4. Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts ITE 115, David Beskeen.
Cengage Learning, 2008.
5. Computer Applications Srinivasan, T M, Aavishkar Publisher (2004)
6. Performing with Computer Applications: Word Processing, Desktop Publishing,
Spreadsheets, Database, Presentations, and Web Design (Performing), Iris Blanc.

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 INTRODUCTION
Definition: A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve
Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a
collection of devices that function together as a system.
It performs the following three operations in sequence.
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.
Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols. For example, names of students and
their marks in different subjects listed in random order.
Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner. For example,
when the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average marks are
calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Program: Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.
Advantages of computers:
1. High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than
human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy: Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage: Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any
instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically
(which increases the productivity).
5. Diligence: Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy
without getting tired.
6. Versatility: Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort,
thereby reducing costs.
Limitations of computers:
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the
instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.
Classification of Computers
The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:
i. On basis of purpose
ii. On the basis of size.
iii. On the basis of functionality.
iv. On the basis of data handling/Type.

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Classification on basis of Purpose
A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. These computers were essentially
developed for computations. Later, the developments in the computers led to the use of digital
computers in variety of applications. Depending on the use of applications, the digital
computers are classified into:
1. Special Purpose Computers: These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of
the areas where these computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation,
medical scanning, traffic signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.
2. General Purpose Computers: These are developed to meet the requirements of several
areas such as simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel
database.
Classification on basis of size
These computers are available in different sizes and capabilities and are further classified
(based on memory, speed, and storage) as follows:
a. Super Computers: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing
speeds which are at least 10 times faster than other computers. These are used for
large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as
quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration,
molecular modelling, and physical simulations. The first supercomputer was
developed in U.S.A. by CRAY computers. In India the indigenous supercomputer
was developed under the name Param.
b. Mainframe Computers: They also have large storage and high computing speed
(but relatively lower than the super computers). They are used in by big
organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a
higher processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers they
support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously but
are expensive. E.g.: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
c. Minicomputers: It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available
indigenously and used for large volume applications. It can serve multi-users
simultaneously. They were actually designed for control, instrumentation, human
interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record
keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with evolution. E.g.,
Personal Laptop, PC etc.
d. Micro Computers: A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing
system. Micro computers are also referred as “personal computers” (PC). They
actually formed the foundation for present day microcomputers and smart gadgets
that we use in day-to-day life. E.g.: Tablets, Smartwatches. These are self-contained
units and usually developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to
very large systems. They are cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for
variety of applications from small to medium range. These are available in three
models:
❖ PC: Personal Computer
❖ PC-XT: PC with Extended Technology

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 ❖ PC-AT: PC with Advanced Technology
Classification on the basis of functionality
Servers: Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some services
to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offered. Eg: security
server, database server.
Workstation: Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user at a
time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our day to
day personal / commercial work.
Information Appliances: They are the portable devices which are designed to perform a
limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing internet etc. They are
generally referred as the mobile devices. They have very limited memory and flexibility and
generally run on “as-is” basis.
Embedded computers: They are the computing devices which are used in other machines to
serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-volatile memory and
they are not required to execute reboot or reset. The processing units used in such device work
to those basic requirements only and are different from the ones that are used in personal
computers- better known as workstations.
Classification on the basis of Data Handling/Type
These computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for
which they were developed. These can be classified into three types:
1. Analog Computers: They operate by “measuring” instead of “counting”. The name
(derived from Greek word analogue) denotes that the computer functions by
establishing similarities between the two quantities. They are powerful tools for solving
differential equations.
2. Digital Computers: These computers operate by “counting”. All quantities are
expressed as discrete digits or numbers. These are useful for evaluating arithmetic
expressions and manipulations of data.
3. Hybrid Computers: Computers which combine the features of analog and digital
computers are known as Hybrid computers.
History of Computers
Primitive people used the first counting device. Earlier, people used their fingers, stones,
bones, and pebbles as counting tools to do calculations. More computing devices were
developed as the human mind and technology improved with time. The first use of the word
“Computer” was documented in 1613, referring to an individual who carried out calculations
or computations, and the term persisted in being used in that sense until the middle of the
20th century.
Some of the popular computing devices, starting with the first to recent ones, are described
below:
1. Talley Sticks

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Tally Sticks.

A tally stick (or tally) was an ancient memory aid device to record quantities, numbers, or
messages. Tally sticks first appear as animal bones carved with notches during the Upper
Palaeolithic (also known as Late Stone Age). Tallies have been used for numerous purposes,
from messaging and scheduling, especially in financial and legal transactions, to being a
currency.
2. Abacus
The Abacus, which appeared about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, is
one of the first mechanical calculating devices that lets users do computations using a system
of sliding beads arranged on a rack. Early traders used Abacus to keep trading transactions.
An image of the Abacus is shown below.

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Abacus.

3. Napier’s Bone
Napier’s Bone was invented in 1614 by a Scottish Mathematician, John Napier of Merchiston
(1550-1617). He also played a crucial role in the development of Logarithms. Napier’s Bone
was a manually operated calculating device that let the operator multiply, divide, and
calculate square and cube roots by moving the rods around and placing them in specially
made boards.

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Napier’s Bone.

He used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide in this
calculating tool. So, the device became known as Napier’s Bones. It was also the first
machine to use the decimal point.
4. The Slide Rule (1620 – 1230AD)
The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630 AD, shortly after John Napier publicized the
concept of the logarithm. In 1620 Edmund Gunter of Oxford developed a calculating device
with a single logarithmic scale. In 1622, William Oughtred of Cambridge combined two
handheld Gunter rules to make a device that is recognizably the modern slide rule.

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The Slide Rule.

The slide rule is considered the first analog computing device that works on the logarithms
principle. The slide rule was used until the mid-1970s, when the first handheld calculators
and microcomputers appeared.
5. Pascaline (1623 – 1662 AD)
In 1642, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented the first mechanical machine, a
rectangular brass box called Pascaline (also known as Pascal’s calculator or arithmetic
machine) which could perform the addition and subtraction on whole numbers. Pascal
invented this device to help his father, a tax accountant.
Pascal’s device was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels with 10 teeth each. It
represents the numbers 0 to 9. As each gear made one turn it. When a wheel is rotated one
revolution, it rotates the adjoining wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the
wheels to read the totals. An image of Pascaline is shown below.

A Pascaline signed by Pascal in 1652

A computer programming language, Pascal, was later named to honor his contribution.
6. Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz Wheel
In 1694 AD, a German mathematician-philosopher, Gottfried Welham Von Leibniz,
enhanced the Pascaline by creating a machine called Stepped Reckoner (also known as
Leibnitz calculator) that could add, subtract, multiply and evaluate square roots by series of
stepped additions. Leibniz was the first to support the use of a binary number system.

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Replica of Leibniz’s stepped reckoner in the Deutsches Museum.

Leibniz got the idea for a calculating machine in 1672 in Paris from a pedometer. Later he
learned about Blaise Pascal’s device when he read Pascal’s Pensees. He focused on
expanding Pascal’s mechanism so it could multiply and divide.
7. Jacquard’s Loom Machine
In 1804, Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French silk weaver, invented a device fitted to an
automated loom that used punched cards as a pattern to weave complex designs and patterns.
The resulting ensemble of the Jacquard machine and the loom is then called a Jacquard
Loom.

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Jacquard Loom Machine.

A chain of cards controlled the machine; several punched cards laced together into a
continuous sequence. Numerous rows of holes were punched on each card, with one
complete card corresponding to one design row. This use of replaceable punched cards to
control a series of operations is considered an essential step in the history of computing
hardware, having inspired Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine.
8. Difference Engine & Analytical Engine (Babbage’s Engine)
A British mathematician at Cambridge University, Charles Babbage, invented the first
Difference Engine or Analytical Engine.
In 1822, Charles Babbage conceptualized and began inventing the Difference Engine,
believed the first automatic computing machine could approximate polynomials. The
Difference Engine was adept at computing several sets of numbers and making hard copies of
the results. Babbage received some help with inventing the Difference Engine from Ada
Lovelace, considered the first computer programmer for her work.
Unfortunately, Babbage could never finish a full-scale functional version of this machine
because of funding. In June 1991, the London Science Museum completed the Difference
Engine No 2 for the bicentennial year of Charles Babbage’s birth and later finished the
printing mechanism in 2000.

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Difference Engine & Analytical Engine.

In 1837, Charles Babbage proposed Analytical Engine, the first general mechanical
computer. The Analytical Engine contained:
• An Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
• Punch cards (inspired by the Jacquard Loom).
• Integrated memory.
• Basic flow control.
It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for multiple things and not
only one particular computation.
Unfortunately, this computer was also never built while Charles Babbage was alive because
of budget issues. In 1910, Charles Babbage’s youngest son, Henry Babbage, completed a
portion of this machine and performed some basic calculations.
Charles Babbage is known as ‘the father of the modern digital computer’ for his
contributions.
9. Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace (First Computer Programmer)
Lady Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace (1815 – 1852 AD), was an English
mathematician mainly known for her work on Charles Babbage’s proposed mechanical
general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She advised Charles Babbage to use a
binary number system to feed programs and data into an analytical engine.
She was the first to acknowledge that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation
and posted the first algorithm intended to be carried out by such a machine. As a result, she is
often considered as the first computer programmer. A programming language named “Ada”
is named after her.

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 10. Scheutzian Calculation Engine
Pehr (Per) Georg Scheutz (1785 – 1873 AD) was a Swedish lawyer, translator, and inventor,
who is now best known for his excellent work in computer technology. He is most known for
the Scheutzian Calculation Engine, invented in 1837 and finalized in 1843. This machine,
which he made with his son Edvard Scheutz, was based on Charles Babbage’s Difference
engine.

Scheutzian Calculation Engine.

In 1851 they received funds from the government to build an improved model, built-in 1853
(roughly a piano’s size) and subsequently demonstrated at the World’s Fair in Paris, 1855.
The device was used for creating logarithmic tables.
11. Tabulating Machine
In 1890, Herman Hollerith, an American statistician, invented the Tabulating Machine. It was
a mechanical tabulator based on punch cards that could tabulate statistics and record or sort
data or information. The machine was also used to tabulate the 1890 US census in a record
time. Hollerith’s machine was approximately ten times faster than manual tabulations and
saved the census office millions of dollars.

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Herman Hollerith 1890 tabulating machine with sorting box.

Hollerith also started Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 AD, which later
became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924 AD.
12. Harvard Mark 1
Harvard Mark I is also known as IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC).
Howard Aiken of Harvard University designed the first fully automatic calculating machine
in collaboration with IBM. It was the first programmable digital computer.
Harvard Mark I was an electronic relay computer as Electromagnetic signals were used for
the movement of mechanical components. It could perform basic arithmetic and complex
equations. Although this device was highly reliable, it was very slow (it took about 3-6
seconds per calculation) and was large in size and complex in design.

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Harvard Mark I

On 29 March 1944, one of the first programs to run on the Mark I was initiated by John von
Neumann. Mark I also computed and printed mathematical tables, which had been the initial
dream of Charles Babbage for his “Analytical Engine” in 1837.
13. The Z1 – First Programmable Computer
Konrad Zuse invented the Z1 in his parent’s living room from 1936 to 1938. It is considered
the first modern computer and the first electromechanical binary programmable computer. It
was a binary electrically operated mechanical calculator with limited programmability,
reading instructions from punched celluloid film.

Replica of the Z1 in the German Museum of Technology in Berlin.

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It was completed in 1938 and funded entirely from private funds. This computer was
demolished in the bombardment of Berlin in December 1943, during World War II, together
with all construction plans.
Konrad Zuse would also later invent the Z3, the first functioning programmable computer
that could be fully automated.
14. Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) – The First Digital Computer
Short for Atanasoff-Berry Computer, the ABC was the world’s first general-purpose
electronic digital computer that began development by Professor John Vincent Atanasoff and
his student Cliff Berry in 1937. Its evolution continued until 1942 at the Iowa State College.
The ABC was an electrical computer that used more than 300 vacuum tubes for digital
computation, including Boolean logic and binary math, and had no CPU (it was not
programmable). It made use of vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage.

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC).

On October 19, 1973, US Federal Judge Earl R. Larson signed his judgment that the ENIAC
patent by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly was invalid. In conclusion, Larson named
Atanasoff, the sole inventor.
15. Osborne 1 – The First Portable Computer
The Osborne 1 is the first portable computer, developed by Adam Osborne and designed by
Lee Felsenstein, released on April 3, 1981 AD, by Osborne Computer Corporation. It weighs
11.1 kg, costs $1,795 and runs the CP/M 2.2 OS. It is powered from a wall socket, as it has
no battery, but it is still tagged as a portable device since it can be hand-carried when the
keyboard is closed.

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Osborne 1 Portable Computer.

The computer shipped with a bundle of software that was equivalent in value to the machine
itself. The Osborne 1 is about the size and weight of a sewing machine and was publicized as
the only computer that would fit under an airline seat.
16. Electronic Controls Company – The First Computer Company
Founded in 1949 by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, Electronic Controls Company was
the first computer company. The company was founded by the same individuals who helped
create the ENIAC computer. Later, the company was renamed Eckert-Mauchly Computer
Corporation (EMCC) and released a series of mainframe computers under the UNIVAC
name.
In 1950, the company was sold to Remington Rand, which later joined with Sperry
Corporation to become Sperry Rand and survives today as Unisys.

Generation of Computers (Evolution)

Computer generation is a classification of computers into different groups according to their
manufacturing date, memory device, software and hardware technologies. There are five
generations of computers. They are as follow:
• First Generation (1942-1955)
• Second Generation (1955-1964)
• Third Generation (1964-1975)
• Fourth Generation (1975-1989)
• Fifth Generation (1989-Present)

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 Generation First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Features Generation Generation Generation Generation Generation

Time 1945 – 1956 1956 – 1963 1964 – 1971 Present –

Period AD AD AD 1971 – Present Future

Integrated Artificial
Processing Vacuum Transistor Circuit Microprocessor Intelligence
Device Tube based based based based based

High
Magnetic Magnetic Memory CD, DVD & Artificial
Memory Drum Tape Devices Hard Drive Intelligence

COBOL, C++, PERL, MERCURY,

Machine & COBAL & FORTRAN PYTHON & LISP, OPS5
Language Assembly FORTRAN &C SQL & PROLOG

Batch Micro Kernal,

Operating Processing Time Real Time Multiple
System OS Sharing OS OS Windows KIPS

Example ENIAC, IBM 1401, IBM 360 MAC Notebook, Robots

EDVAC & IBM 1620 & SERIES, IBM-PC &
UNIVAC CDC 3600 IBM 370, Pentium I, II & III.
UNIVAC
1108 &
UNIVAC AC
9000

1. First Generation Computer: Vacuum Tubes (1945 - 1956 AD)

First-generation computers bore little resemblance to today’s computers, either in appearance
or performance. The first generation of computers occurred from 1940 AD to 1956 AD and
was extremely large in size. The internal workings of the computers at that time were
unsophisticated. These early machines required vacuum tubes that worked as switches,
amplifiers, and magnetic drums for memory. The paper tapes and punch cards were used for
input and printouts for output.

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Vaccum Tube

The vacuum tubes were primarily responsible for the large size of the devices and the enormous
amounts of heat that they released despite large cooling units. First-generation computers also
used a very basic programming language that is referred to as machine language.
Examples include:
1. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
2. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic)
3. UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computers)
4. IBM-701
5. IBM-650
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) (1943-46 AD)
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC) was the first all-electronic
computer. It was constructed at the Moore School of Engineering of the University of
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., by a design team led by Professors J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

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ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)

The team developed ENIAC because of military needs. It was used for many years to solve
ballistic-related problems. ENIAC took up wall space in a 20 x 40 square feet room and used
18,000 vacuum tubes. It could add two numbers in 200 microseconds and multiply them in
2000 microseconds.
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic) (1946-52 AD)
A major disadvantage of ENIAC was that its programs were wired on boards which made it
difficult to change the programs. Dr. John Von Neumann later introduced the ―stored program
concept that aided overcome this problem. The basic idea after this concept is that a sequence
of instructions and data can be stored in a computer’s memory to direct operations flow
automatically. This feature largely influenced the development of modern digital computers
because of how various programs can be loaded and executed on the same computer. Because
of this feature, we usually refer to modern digital computers as stored-program digital
computers.

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EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic)

The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) used the stored’ program
concept in its design. Von Neumann also has a share of the credit for introducing the idea of
storing both instructions and data in binary form (a system that uses only two digits – 0 and 1
to represent all characters), instead of decimal numbers or human-readable words.
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computers) (1951)
The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer that was not
―one of a kind. Many UNIVAC machines were manufactured, the first of which was installed
in the Census Bureau in 1951 and was used continually for 10 years.

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UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computers)

In 1952, the International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation introduced the IBM-701
commercial computer. In quick succession, improved models of the UNIVAC I and other IBM
700-series machines were introduced. In 1953, IBM produced the IBM-650 and sold over 1000
computers.
Features of First Generation Computers
• It was a large mainframe built with vacuum tube technology.
• It occupied large space, was low efficiency and unreliable due to low accuracy.
• The power consumption was very high, and it produced massive heat.
• The operation of speed was in milliseconds.
• It was used only for scientific or research purposes.
• Low-level programming language was used in computers.
• They were very slow.
Disadvantages of First Generation Computers
• The computer needed an air conditioner room, and constant maintenance.
• They were not portable.
• It was expensive commercial product.
• They have minimum programming capabilities.
• The computers have limited uses only.

2. Second Generation Computer: Transistors (1956 – 1963 AD)

The interest in computer technology got fast after the first-generation computers. It was the
generation of Transistorized Computers. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes from the first

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generation computers. As a result, first-generation computers were replaced by second-
generation computers.
The transistors were more reliable than vacuum tubes, smaller in size, faster in speed, and
cheap[er than first-generation computers. Magnetic drums are replaced by magnetic disks and
magnetic tape for secondary storage. As a result, the size of the machines began shrinking.

Transistors

The first transistorized computer was TX-0. The first large-scale machines that took advantage
of the transistor technology were the early supercomputers, LARC by Sperry Rand and Stretch
by IBM. These machines were specially developed for atomic energy laboratories. IBM 1400
and IBM 7000 series, General Electric, and Honeywell 200 were the typical computers of the
second generation.
IBM 1401 was accepted throughout the industry, and most prominent businesses routinely
processed financial information using second-generation computers. The machine language
was replaced by assembly language. Thus the long and challenging binary code was replaced
with abbreviated programming code, which was relatively easy to understand.
The programming languages and stored program concept gave the computers flexibility to be
cost-effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept implied that the
instructions to run a computer for a specific task were held inside the computer’s memory and
could quickly be modified or replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function.
High-level languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, and AL- GOL were developed. Computers
started finding varied and vast applications. The entire software industry began with second-
generation computers.

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Examples include:
1. IBM 1401 (Used in Bussiness Application)
2. IBM 1620 (Used for Scientific Purposes)
3. CDC 3600 (Used for Scientific Purposes)
4. IBM 7000
5. Honeywell 200
Features of Second Generation Computers
• This generation’s most significant feature was introducing transistors that make the size
smaller than the first-generation computer.
• The computer was much faster, more reliable, and better speed and could handle
enormous data than first-generation computers.
• The machine-level language was replaced by assembly language and machine-
independent language such as COBOL FORTRAN to simplify programming.
• The significant change is in speed from millisecond to microsecond.
• The computer consumes less electrical power than a first-generation computer.
• The computer is widely used in commercial areas.
Disadvantages of Second Generation Computers
• It still used a cooling system to cool down the computer.
• It needs constant maintenance.
• Punch cards are still used for inputs.
• It was still costly and versatile.

3. Third Generation Computer: Integrated Circuits (1964 - 1971 AD)

Its period was around 1964 to 1971. Third-generation computers were characterized by the
invention of Integrated Circuits (ICs). IC is a silicon chip made from quartz where multiple
transistors were placed over it. Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby developed IC at Texas Instrument
in 1958-1959. Later, even more components were rigged onto a single chip, called a
semiconductor. It reduced the size even further in the third generation computers. Computers’
weight and power consumption decreased, and the speed boosted.

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Integrated Circuit

Operating systems were created, allowing the machine to run many different programs
simultaneously. Multiprogramming was made possible, whereby the device could perform
several jobs simultaneously.
Computers gained the speed of executing millions of instructions per second. Commercial
production became more accessible and cheaper. Higher-level languages like Pascal and
Report Program Generator (RPG) were introduced. And applications-oriented languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1 were developed. Keyboards and mouse were introduced for
the input of data. The monitor was introduced for the output of data.
Examples include:
1. IBM 360 SERIES
2. IBM 370
3. UNIVAC 1108
4. UNIVAC AC 9000
5. PDP-8, PDP-11
6. ICL 2900 series, and so on.
Features of Third Generation Computers
• IC was used in the computer, replacing transistors.
• The mass audience was using computers.
• The computers were highly reliable, relatively inexpensive, faster, and more accurate.
• It can be operated with low energy, and maintenance cost was low also.
• The keyboard and monitor were introduced for data input and output.
• It had a more prominent space capacity.

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 • A computer has more high-level computer language such as ALGOL-68, FORTRAN-
II TO IV, BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1.
• They were produced commercially and was cheaper than both generations of computer.
Limitations of Third Generation Computers
• Still, the air conditioner is used for cooling purposes.
• Highly sophisticated technology was required for the maintenance of the ICS chip.
• For third-generation computers, formal training was needed.

4. Fourth Generation of Computer: Microprocessor (1971 to Present)

The fourth-generation computers were developed from 1971 to 1990 AD. The present-day
computer we see is the fourth generation of computers. The third generation computers used
Integrated Circuits with 10-20 components on each chip; this was Small Scale Integration
(SSI). The Fourth Generation acknowledged Large Scale Integration (LSI), which could hold
hundreds of components on one chip, and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), which
embraced thousand of components on one silicon chip.
The Intel 4004 chip hold all the components of a computer (central processing unit (CPU),
input and output controls, memory unit) on a single chip called a Microprocessor, and
microcomputers were introduced.

Microprocessor

27
In this generation, the concept of computer networks and CD-ROMS come into existence. GUI
and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Many new operating
systems like the MS-DOS and MS-Windows developed during this time. Computer production
became affordable, and the era of Personal Computers (PCs) began.
In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer for home, office, and schools. In direct
competition, the Macintosh was introduced in 1984 by Apple. Shared interactive systems and
user-friendly environments were the features of these computers.
Examples include:
1. MAC Notebook
2. IBM-PC
3. Pentium I, II & III
4. Apple II
5. VAX 9000
6. CRAY 1
Advantages
• Computer sizes change from desktop to laptop and from laptop to palmtop.
• Electronic Mail (E-mail) and the Internet were developed in this generation.
• The computer is used for all scientific, engineering, and commercial purposes.
• On the computer, we can perform multiprocessing and multitasking.
• The computer has GUI (Graphical User Interface) and is user-friendly.
• Multiple high-level languages like PASCAL, BASIC COBOL, FORTRAN, and C
language were developed in this generation of computers.
• They emerged as single-board computers and a single-chip processor called
Microprocessors.
Disadvantages
• They were highly sophisticated.
• The manufacturing of a Very Large-Scale Integration Chip needed very advanced
technology.

5. Fifth Generation of Computers (Present - Future)

Tomorrow’s computers would be characterized by Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ULSI (Ultra
Large-Scale Integration) technology that can store millions of components in a single chip. An
example of Al is Expert Systems. Computers could be developed to think and sense much the
same way as humans. Computers would be able to accept verbal words as input (voice
recognition).
Numerous advancements in the science of computer design and technology are coming
together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such advances are in
superconductor technology that allows electricity flow with little or no resistance, significantly
enhancing the speed of information flow, and advances in parallel processing, where many
CPUs work as one.

28
Scientists are now working on fifth-generation computers – a promise but not yet a reality.
They seek to bring us machines with genuine I.Q., the ability to reason logically, and real-
world knowledge.
Examples are Desktop computers, laptops, notebooks, MacBooks, etc.
Advantages
• These machines will incorporate ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration).
• It can perform a large number of parallel processing.
• The speed of this generation of computers is going to be very high.
• Bio-chips and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) are used as memory devices.
• The concept of AI (Artificial Intelligence) has been introduced.
• This generation of computers can understand human language and recognize pictures
and graphs.
Disadvantages
• The major limitation of this generation is that the computer will overtake all
employment, creating unemployment in the country.
• The highly advanced robots can overtake the world, which leads to destruction for
humans.

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 ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS
The computer system consist of three units:
1. Input device
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output device
Block diagram of a Computer:

The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

Unit Function
Input device Reads information from input media and enters to the
computer in a coded form
CPU
a. Memory unit Stores program and data
b. Arithmetic Logic Performs arithmetic and logical functions
unit
c. Control Unit Interprets program instructions and controls the input and
output devices
Output device decodes information and presents it to the user

Central Processing Unit: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known
as the “brain” of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) and control unit.
a) Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data,
program instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an
appropriate output device. It consists of thousands of cells called “storage locations”.
These cells activate with “off-on” or binary digits (0, 1) mechanism. Thus a character

30
 either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string of (0, 1) Binary digits (BITS). These
bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations.
b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female
are performed. Once data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they are
held and transferred as needed to ALU where processing takes place. No process occurs
in primary storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU are temporarily placed in
memory until needed at later time. Data may move from primary memory to ALU and
back again to storage many times before the process is finalized.
c) Control Unit: It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is
stored correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well
as the data are selected from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input
and output devices of a system.
Input Devices
Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices. Some
important input devices are Key board, Mouse, Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone,
Joystick, Trackball, Lightpen, etc.
Keyboard: The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard
Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The
most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.
There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as:
• Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers.
• Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double
quotes (‘,”)
• Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END
etc.

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Mouse: It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have
2 buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel
between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of
information. As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction.
Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead
of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the
options on the screen.

Scanner: It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate
into digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered
separately resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types:

i. Optical scanners
a) Optical character Recognition (OCR): In this, characters are read with the help
of a light. This is used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.
b) Optical mark recognition (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device
senses the presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used
in tests such as aptitude tests.

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 c) Optical barcode recognition (OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric
scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on
product containers. This is used in supermarkets, book shops etc.
ii. MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the computer
to recognize characters printed using magnetic ink.
Magnetic Inc Character Recognition (MICR): It is a character recognition technology used
primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of the cheques. MICR characters
(cheque No., Acc No. etc) are printed in special ink usually containing iron oxide. When a
document that contains the ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine which magnetizes
the ink and there will be a reader sorter unit which translates the magnetic information into
characters. MICR provides a secure, high speed of scanning and processing information. It
scans about 2600 cheques/min.
Output devices
Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an Output
device. Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the
desired form. Some important Output devices are Monitor, Printer, Projectors, Speakers, etc .
Terminal/Monitor: It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour
and it displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of
monitors are in use. Some of them are Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA), Enhanced Graphics
Adaptor (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).
The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters.
Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or
horizontally on the screen.

Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained
from a printer is often referred as “printout”.
Categories of printers

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Impact Printers: An impact printer consists of one or many printing heads some similar to
that used with old-fashioned (traditional) Remington typewriters. An impact printer forms
characters and images on a piece of paper by hitting an ink ribbon mechanism that contacts the
paper physically.
Examples include Dot-Matrix printers, Daisy-wheel printers, and line printers.
Non-Impact Printers: A non-impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper
without hitting the paper. It does not contain a printing head but uses several different
techniques to create text or images on paper. In general, non-impact printers are much quieter.
Maintenance or repair is less likely than earlier impact printers.
Examples include Inkjet printers and Laser printers.
Differences between Impact and Non-Impact Printers
Feature Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers
Behaviour Characters. Graphics are printed on
Characters, graphics are printed on
paper by striking. paper without striking.
Mechanical For printing, electro-mechanical It does not make use of the electro-
devices are used. mechanical device for printing.
Speed These are slower. Covers a page in 30
These are faster. It Covers 250
seconds. words per second.
Noise It is very noisy. It is silent or comparatively produces
less noise
Examples Dot-matrix printers, Daisy-wheel Inkjet printers and Laser printers.
printers, and line printers.

Advantages of Impact Printers

• Ideal for composite types of printing as they can quickly print across several layers of
paper. It can stand up to dusty conditions, vibrations, and high temperatures.
Disadvantages
• Due to the striking operation, it is usually noisy. Print consistency is similar to text,
which is only appropriate for printing labels, envelopes, or invoices for mailing.
Advantages of Non-Impact Printers
• Generally, much quieter than impact printers as the process is not striking. It can
produce high-quality outputs.
Disadvantages
• It cannot print composite forms.

Categories of Printers Based on Speed

1. Character Printers: These are printers that print one character at a time much like a
typewriter. They are also known as serial printers. Daisy wheel printers and dot matrix

34
 printers are examples of character printers. Character printers are slower than line and
page printers.
2. Line Printers: These are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at one
time. A fast line printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages
of line printers are that they cannot print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are
very noisy. They are used with mainframe computers where high speed is vital for the
large volume of printed output required. Examples of line printers include drum
printers, band printers and chain printers.
3. Page Printers: These printers print a whole page at a time. They are therefore even faster
and deal with very large volumes of printed output. A laser Printer is an example of a
page printer.

Below is a summary of different printers and their speeds:

Type Mode of Printing Speed
1 Dot – Matrix Prints the character in dotted pattern through 200/300 to 700
printer printer ribbon using either 24 pin or 9 pin CPS
2 Ink Jet printer Work by spraying ionized ink Slow, 90 CPS
3 Laser printer Also called page printer. Uses laser beam to 6 to 12 PPM
produce an image.
4 Line printer Prints lines at a time instead of single 300 to 600 LPM
characters.
5 Plotter Produces drawings or graphs through pens
which are filled with different colours.
(CPS: Characters Per Second; PPM: Pages Per Minutes; LPM: Lines Per Minute)

Laser printer

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Dot-Matrix Printer
Dot matrix printers are extremely beneficial when looking to keep your costs down to an
absolute bare minimum. Instead of using other technology such as LED lights, dot matrix
printers place dots to draw out your image or text for printing.
While the finish is nowhere near as premium as a specialised photo printer, the cartridges are
inexpensive, and this printer can be used within a variety of working environments due to the
versatility of what can be printed. They are used in retail stores in printing customer receipts.
Advantages
• Cheap initial costs.
• Cheap maintenance costs.
Disadvantages
• Almost deprecated technology.
• Inferior printing quality.
• Very few in production.

Inkjet Printers
They were first developed in the 1950s and are still hugely popular and widely available
today. Due to a wide range of key advantages and very few drawbacks (other than a slightly
higher cost per printed page), inkjet printing technology is as relevant today as it was over 60

36
years ago. Perfectly positioned for small businesses that want to produce quality over
quantity printouts, inkjet printers are some of the best on the market. Some of the best inkjet
printers are also heralded for their ability to produce extremely high-quality photo printing.
Advantages
• Can produce photo-realistic printouts.
• Fast first page out time.
• Typically requires minimal space.
Disadvantages
• High cost per printed page.
• Slower at printing than laser printers.
• Prints out wet prints.

Laser Printers
In direct contrast to inkjet printers, laser printers are best suited for organisations that need to
print large volumes of documents through multiple connections. Unlike inkjet printers which
are typically slower, laser printers are best known for lightning-fast printing speeds.
Whereas an inkjet printer sprays microscopic drops of ink, laser printers are machines that
melt toner powder onto paper to create a print. Because microscopic droplets are more
accurate, this makes laser printers a weaker choice for exhibition worthy photography
printing or general photo-ready printing. However, laser printing technology has drastically
improved over the years, so laser printers are more than capable of producing high-quality
printouts as well as large volumes.
Advantages

37
 • Typically, faster at printing than inkjet printers.
• Sharper printed text documents.
• Typically requires minimal space.
Disadvantages
• High cost per printed page
• Slower at printing than laser printers
• Prints out wet prints.

Line Printer
Line printers make use of continuous form paper which is usually perforated instead of
individual cut sheets. Line printers print the full width of the page, one line of text at a time,
instead of a print head moving back and forth across the page. The two main types of line
printers are chain printers and drum printers. Although the basic printing technology used in
line printers’ dates back to the 1930s, they are still suited for high-speed printing. They are
especially well suited to industrial environments and shop floors where other printers could
be easily damaged by temperature extremes, dust or other factors.
Advantages
• High speed
• Low in cost and more durable
• The consumables of line printers are less harmful to the environment and are less
costly as well.
Disadvantages
• The print quality is mostly low, and they cannot print graphics.

38
 • They are very noisy while operating and may need soundproofing.
• The continuous feed forms for line printers are not easily available anymore, as they
are no longer in high demand.
Plotter
The Plotter is an output device of a computer system used for graphs, charts, 3D printing, and
drawing. They are used in drawing, diagrams, construction maps, engineering drawings, and
3d printing. The plotter does not use toner instead they use a pen, pencil, and maker-like
devices for printing.
The plotters are used in designing and printing multi-colour prints out in large numbers they
are also used in high-quality printouts.
The plotters were used in computer software programs like CAD {Computer Aided Design}
and CAM {Computer Aided Manufacturing} but in new and updated versions that are
eliminated from the plotters.
Advantages
• The plotters can print on large sheets to obtain results in high resolution with
maintaining and preserving DPI.
• They are capable of printing on various other materials like plastic sheets, cardboard,
wood, aluminium, and steel.
• Plotters can print with incredible speed and consistency.
• They can work with almost 100% accuracy.
• They work with enormous speed which does not deteriorate the design and quality of
output produced by modern plotters.
• The plotters are used by professionals for quality printouts.
• The large number of printouts can be produced in less time.
Disadvantages
• The plotters are big in size compared to old printers.
• They are quite expensive.
• The plotters are large in size, therefore, need massive space for installation.
• Some plotters make noise while printing.
• A plotter needs heavy maintenance.
• The plotters are not for home use like printers.
• They are not portable due to their huge size cannot locate them from one location to
another.

39
40
 MEMORY OF THE COMPUTER
Memory or storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer. Any storage
unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of the following criteria:
1. Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the storage
unit in response to program instructions.
2. Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
3. Cost per bit of storage.
Units of memory: The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0, 1)
mechanism. Thus the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0, 1). To store a character, a
computer requires 8 bits or 1 byte. This is called the “word length” of the storage unit. Hence
the storage capacity of the computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is
expressed in terms of bytes.
The different units of measurement are:
8 Bits 1 Byte
10
2 or 1024 Bytes 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
210 or 1024 KB 1 Mega Byte (MB)
210 or 1024 MB 1 Gega Byte (GB)

Conversion:
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This code has given alphabets
like some numbers which can be converted to Binary form.
A- 65 …….Z – 90 and a – 97 ………. z – 121.
By using these codes the alphabets can be converted to digital & hence to Binary form.
Types of Memory: A computer memory is of two types
1. Primary Memory (Internal storage)
2. Secondary Memory (External storage)
Primary Memory: Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part
of a computer. It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can
be recalled instantly and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by
the CPU for reading or storing information.
Primary memory is further classified into two types: Random Access Memory (RAM) and
Read- Only Memory (ROM)
RAM: RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written
onto it. RAM is a place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs
and the data. The CPU can directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. However,
the storage of data and instructions in RAM is temporary, till the time the computer is running.
It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. I.e it is volatile
memory.

41
ROM: It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or
changed onto ROM. ROM is the “built-in” memory of a computer. It stores some basic input
– output instructions put by the manufacturer to operate the computer. The storage of data and
instructions in ROM is permanent. It does not depend on the power supply. i.e it is non-volatile
memory.
Secondary Memory: The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally
not sufficient for large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the auxiliary” or
“secondary memory” is used. It is also referred as “backup storage” as it is used to store large
volume of data on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever
required for processing. Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the
main (primary memory) storage.
Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and
Flash drive.
Floppy Disk: It is also referred as “Diskette: and is made of flexible Vinyl material. It has a
small hole on one side called “Right protect notch”, which protects accidental writing/deleting
the information from the disk. There is a hole in the centre through which the spindle of drive
unit rotates the disk. The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches and these could
be either lowdensity or high-density floppies. Storage capacity of floppies are measured in
kilobytes (KB) and megabytes (MB). The details about the storage capacities of the floppies
are presented below:
Floppy Disk Storage Capacity Size (Diameter)
Low Density 360 KB 5.25 inches
High Density 1.2 MB 5.25 inches
High Density 1.44 MB 3.5 inches
Extended 2.8 MB 3.5 inches

42
Hard Disk: The hard disk can hold more information than the floppy disk and the retrieval of
information from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or tapes. A hard disk is fixed
inside the CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard disk is made up of a
collection of discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the data is recorded. These
platters are coated with magnetic material. It is less sensitive to external environmental
disorders and hence the storage in hard disk is safe. A small hard disk might be as much as 25
times larger than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks varies from 20 MB to several
Gega bytes like 80GB, 160GB.

CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk–Read Only Memory. It is used to store a wide
variety of information. Its main advantage is that it is portable and can hold a large amount of
data. The storage capacity of most CD-ROMs is approximately 650 MB or 700 MB.
CD-ROMs have the following variations:
(i) CD-R (Compact disc Recordable): Data can be written onto it just once. The stored
data can be read. Data once written onto it cannot be erased.
(ii) (ii) CD-RW (Compact disc Rewritable): It is also called erasable CD. Data once
written onto it can be erased to write or record new information many times.
To use a CD-ROM, a device called CD drive is needed.

43
DVD: DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can
store larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7MB. DVDs that can
store up to 17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are generally used to
store a very large multimedia presentations and movies that combine high quality sound and
graphics.
Flash Drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer data.
Due to its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive. We can read,
write, copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen drive to computer. It
comes in various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to
use and small enough to be carried in a pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the
computer and the computer automatically detects this device.

44
 HARDWARE and SOFTWARE
Hardware: The physical components of the computer are known as ―Hardware‖. It refers to
the objects that we can actually touch. Examples include input and output devices, storage
devices, processors, circuits, cables, bus systems, ports, motherboard, and peripheral devices.
Circuits
A group of transistors, resistors and capacitors that perform a particular electronic function.
Circuits may be made of discrete components wired together or be built into a chip.
Processors
The processor is a logic circuit or simple chip that reacts to fundamental instructions and input
processes to operate the computer. The important purposes of a processor are getting, decoding,
processing, executing, and writing back as feedback to the instructions of the chip. The
processor is termed the brain of any electronic system that incorporates into a laptop, computer,
smartphone, or embedded system.
The control and arithmetic logic units are the processors’ two significant components. The
logic functions can be addition, multiplication, subtraction, and division, whereas the control
unit manages the traffic flow, which follows the operation or command according to the input
instruction. The control unit activates, fetches, and executes the input instructions.
The processor can be embedded in a microprocessor and comprise of unit IC chip. But some
devices are based on multi-core processors. It comprises one or more CPUs. It is a typical tiny
component with pins that are embedded in the motherboard. It can also be connected to the
motherboard using a fan and heat sink, which helps dissipate the heat generated by the
component.
Types of Processors
1. Microprocessors
This is a standard processor which comprises an ALU, a control unit, and a club of registers
known as control registers, status registers, and scratchpad registers. It can be on-chip memory,
and a few interfaces can interact with the outer world via interrupting lines, and the others can
be ports and memory registers to interact with the external world. These ports are often termed
as programmable and make them act as output or input.
The processors share the input and output operations and memory. The processor mutually
shares the working and access and their input and output functions to perform the same
function.
2. Microcontroller
The microcontroller is standard and is available in different sizes and packages. A few of the
microcontrollers are Microchip P1C16F877A, Microchip Atmega328, Microchip
P1C18F45K22, Microchip P1C16F671, and Microchip P1C16F1503.
3. Embedded Processor

45
The embedded processor is structured to control the electrical and mechanical functions. It
comprises numerous blocks like timer, program memory, data memory, reset, power supply,
data memory, interrupt controller, clock oscillator systems, interfacing circuits, specific
circuits, and system application ports and circuits.
4. Digital Signal Processor
The digital signal processor filters, measures, and compresses analog and digital signals. The
processing of signals means the manipulation and analysis of digital signals.
Components of a Processor
• The fundamental parts of the processor are control units, arithmetic logic units,
registers, floating points, and L1 and L2 cache memory.
• The L2 and L1 cache memory saves the time for the CPU to fetch the data from RAM.
• The primary functions are fetching, decoding, writing back, and executing. The fetch is
the function which gets the instruction from memory and feeds it to RAM.
• In the execution process, the CPU must trigger and carry out the functions.
• Suppose it obeys four sets of commands; then it’s called as quad-core processor. If there
are more cores, the computer can obey multiple commands simultaneously.
Motherboard
A computer’s motherboard is typically the largest printed circuit board in a machine’s chassis.
It distributes electricity and facilitates communication between and to the central processing
unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), and any other component of the computer’s
hardware.
It is found inside a computer casing, which is the point of connection for most of the computer’s
elements and peripherals. When it comes to tower computers, one may look for a motherboard
on either the right or left side of the tower; the circuit board is the most significant.
The earliest motherboards for personal computers included relatively fewer real components.
Only a CPU and some card ports were included on the very first IBM PC motherboard. Users
inserted various components, including memory and controllers for floppy drives, into the slots
provided.
Compaq became the first company to utilize a motherboard that was not based on a design
created by IBM. The new architecture utilized a CPU made by Intel. When Compaq’s sales
began to take off, other businesses quickly followed suit, even though several companies in the
industry believed it was a risky move.
But by the 1990s, Intel had a dominant share of the market for personal computer
motherboards. Asus, Gigabyte Technology, and Micro-Star International (MSI) are the three
most influential companies in this industry. However, Intel remains one of the ten best
motherboard manufacturers in the world, even though Asus is now the largest motherboard
maker on the planet.

46
Types of Motherboards
1. Advanced Technology (AT) Motherboards
These motherboards do not work properly with computers that fall into the category of smaller
desktops. A larger physical size makes it more difficult to install new hardware drivers. The
power connections on these motherboards are in the form of sockets and plugs with six prongs
each. Due to the difficulty in recognizing these power connections, users often have issues
while trying to connect and operate them. In the 1980s, motherboards of this sort were all the
rage, and they continued to be manufactured far into the 2000s.
2. Standard ATX Motherboard
ATX is an enhanced version of the AT motherboard that Intel created in the 1990s. Its name
means “advanced technology extended,” and its initials stand for “advanced technology.”
Unlike AT, it is much more compact and enables the associated components to be interchanged.
The connection elements have witnessed significant progress and development.
3. Micro ATX Motherboard
The length and width of these motherboards, measured in millimeters, are also 244 mm (size
metrics will differ as per the manufacturer). This motherboard has fewer ports and slots than
the Standard ATX board.
Users who do not want excessive connections and subsequent upgrades, like adding more
RAM, an extra GPU, or other Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) cards, are better suited
for this kind of motherboard than others.

47
This motherboard may be installed in any case with enough space to accommodate 244 mm by
244 mm. It can also be installed in larger cases that are compatible with Standard ATX or
eXTENDED ATX motherboards.
4. eXtended ATX Motherboard
The dimensions of this motherboard are 344 millimeters by 330 millimeters (dimensions will
differ with different manufacturers). This motherboard supports a single or a twin CPU
configuration and has up to eight RAM slots.
Additionally, it has a higher number of PCIe (where e is for Express) and PCI slots, which may
be used to add PCI cards for a wide range of applications. Workstations and servers are both
able to use this software. There is sufficient room on all eATX motherboards, making them
ideal for desktop computers, thanks to the significant space provided for airflow and the
attachment of various components.
5. Flex ATX Motherboard
They are the ones within the ATX family that are considered the most compact. They were
designed to occupy a minimal amount of space and had a minimal price tag. Flex ATX is a
modification of mini ATX that Intel created between 1999-2000. It is a motherboard standard.
6. Low-Profile EXtended (LPX) motherboard
In comparison to previous iterations, this has two significant enhancements. The first change
was that the output and input ports were moved to the rear of the device, and the second change
was the addition of a riser card, which enables the device to have additional slots and makes it
easier to attach components.
There is an implementation of some of these functionalities on the AT motherboard. The
primary drawback of this board is that it does not have any accelerated graphic port (AGP)
ports, resulting in a connection to PCI that is made directly. The new low-profile extended
(NLX) boards are where issues present in these motherboards have been addressed.
7. BTX motherboard
Balanced technology extended, abbreviated as BTX, is a strategy developed to fulfil the
requirements of emerging technologies, which call for increased power consumption and, as a
result, emanate more heat. During the middle of the 2000s, Intel ceased the future production
of BTX boards to concentrate on low-power CPUs.
8. Pico BTX motherboard
Given their diminutive size compared to a typical motherboard, these boards are called Pico.
Even though the upper half of the BTX is shared, support is provided for two expansion slots.
Its distinguishing characteristics are the half-height or riser cards, and it is designed to meet the
needs of digital applications.
9. Mini ITX Motherboard
The motherboard has been downsized into a more compact form than in earlier iterations. It
was developed in the 2000s, and its measurements are 17 by 17 centimetres. Due to its reduced
power consumption and quicker cooling capabilities, it is primarily used in computers with a

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small form factor (SFF). Given that it has a relatively low level of fan noise, the motherboard
is the one that is recommended the most for use in home theatre systems because it will enhance
the overall performance of the system.
10. Mini STX Motherboard
The name “Intel 5×5” was initially given to the motherboard now known as the Mini-STX,
which stands for mini socket technology extended. Although it was introduced in 2015, the
motherboard has dimensions of 147 millimetres by 140 millimetres. This converts to a length
of 5.8 inches and a width of 5.5 inches; hence, the 5×5 name is rather misleading.
The Mini-STX board is 7 millimetres longer from front to back, making it somewhat
rectangular in shape. This is in contrast to the shape of other tiny form factor boards, like the
Next Unit of Computing (NUC) or the mini-ITX, which are square.
How the Motherboard Works?
When you turn your computer on, the power supply transfers electricity to the motherboard to
be used by the computer. Data is transported between the chipset components via data buses
and travels between the southbridge and northbridge sections.
The data connections to the CPU, RAM, or PCIe are made through the northbridge component.
The operations performed by the RAM are first “interpreted” by the CPU as being output after
the RAM begins to deliver inputs to the CPU. After being written to the PCIe, the data is either
copied or moved to the expansion card, based on the kind of card you have.
The data connection to the basic input/output system (BIOS), the universal serial bus (USB),
the serial advanced technology attachment (SATA), and the PCI bus are managed by the
southbridge component. Your computer can start up because of signals sent to the BIOS, and
the data sent to the SATA “awakens” your optical, hard disc, and solid-state drives. The video
card, network card, and sound card receive power from the information stored on the SATA.
The remaining components interact via an electrical signal, which serves as a hub for them.
These data buses pass via a microchip’s northbridge or southbridge elements, which then
branch off to other components like the CPU, RAM, PCI, and PCIe, amongst other elements.
The information sent over buses will be encoded using a programming language (1 and 0).
When a signal is sent to a motherboard from one of its components, the motherboard will
process it and translate it into a language the other component can comprehend. On most of
today’s computing systems, all of this will occur in a split second, and there is almost no delay
between the input and the output.

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 1. Mouse and Keyboard Connectors
Computer motherboards must have two separate connectors that allow users to connect their
external mouse and keyboard. These connectors are responsible for sending instructions and
receiving responses from the computer. There are two keyboard and mouse connectors, the
PS/2 and the USB. The personal system/2(PS/2) port is a mini-DIN plug that contains six pins
and connects the mouse or keyboard to an IBM-compatible computer. Other computers use the
USB port to connect the mouse or keyboard.
2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
The USB is a computer interface that connects computers to other devices, such as phones. The
USB port is a significant part of a motherboard that allows users to connect external peripheral
devices such as printers, scanners, and pen drives to the computer. Moreover, it enables users
to transfer data between the device and the computer. A USB port allows users to connect
peripheral devices without restarting the system. Types of USB include USB-A, USB-B, USB-
mini, micro-USB, USB-C, and USB-3.
3. CPU
The CPU controls all the functions of a computer. CPUs are available in different form factors,
each requiring a particular slot on the motherboard. A CPU can contain one or multiple cores.
A CPU with a single core can only perform a single task at a time, while those with multiple
cores can execute multiple tasks simultaneously.
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 4. RAM Memory
RAM slots connect the random access memory (RAM) to the motherboard. RAM allows the
computer to temporarily store files and programs that are being accessed by the CPU.
Computers with more RAM capacity can hold and process larger files and programs, thus
enhancing performance. However, RAM contents are erased when the computer is shut down.
A computer usually has two RAM slots. However, some computers have up to four RAM slots
in the motherboard to increase the available memory.
5. Basic Input//Output (BIOS) System
The BIOS contains the firmware of the motherboard. It consists of instructions about what to
do when the computer is turned on. It is responsible for initializing the hardware components
and loading the computer’s operating system. The BIOS also allows the computer’s operating
system to interact and respond with input and output devices such as a mouse and keyboard.
In some motherboards, the legacy BIOS is replaced by the modern extensible firmware
interface (EFI) or the unified extensible firmware interface (UEFI). UEFI and EFI allow the
computer to boot faster, provide more diagnostic and repair tools, and provide a more efficient
interface between the operating system and computer components.
6. Chipsets
The chipsets of a computer control how the computer hardware and buses interact with the
CPU and other components. Chipsets also determine the amount of memory users can add to a
motherboard and the type of connectors that the motherboard can have.
The first type of chipset is the northbridge chipset. The northbridge manages the speed at which
the CPU communicates with the components. It also controls the processor, the AGP video
slot, and the RAM.
The second type of chipset is the southbridge chipset. The southbridge chipset controls the rest
of the components connected to the computer, including communication between the processor
and expansion ports such as USB ports and sound cards.
7. Cooling Fans
The heat generated when electric current flows between components can make a computer run
slowly. If too much heat is left to build up unchecked, it could damage computer components.
Thus, a computer performs better when kept cool. Cooling fans increase the airflow, which
helps to remove heat from the computer. Some elements, such as video adapter cards, have
dedicated cooling fans.
8. Adapter cards and expansion slots
Adapter cards are integrated into the motherboard to enhance a computer’s functionality.
Examples include sound and video adapters. The expansion slots allow users to install
compatible adapter cards. Examples of expansion slots include the peripheral component
interconnect (PCI) slot, the AGP slot (which enables the insertion of video cards), the PCI
Express serial bus slot, and the PCI-extended slot.
9. CMOS Battery

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The CMOS battery is a small round battery found on the motherboard of every computer. It
provides power to the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip. The CMOS
chip stores BIOS information and computer settings, even when powered down. The CMOS
battery allows users to skip resetting BIOS configurations, such as boot order, date, and time
settings, each time they power on their computer.
10. Storage Devices
Storage drives store data permanently or retrieve data from a media disk. The storage devices
can either be installed in the computer as hard drives or in removable drives that can connect
to the computer through the USB ports. Hard disk drives(HDD) or solid-state drives (SSD) are
computers’ primary storage drives. Computers with SSDs execute tasks much faster and
perform better than HDDs. Users can also use optical drives such as compact discs to store
information.
11. Frontal Panel Connectors
Front panel connectors connect the light-emitting diode (LED) lights on the front of the case
to the hard drive, the power button, the reset button, and the internal speaker for testing. Some
USB and audio devices also have LED lights.
These front panel connectors are usually plugged into small pins on the motherboard. Although
the pins are grouped and color-coded, their layout structure varies depending on the model of
the motherboard.
12. Power Connector
The power connector provides an electric supply to the computer to function as intended. The
power supply connector has 20 pins and converts 110-V AC power into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt,
and 3.3-Volt direct current (DC) power.

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 1. Manages data flow
The BIOS component of the motherboard ensures that the operating system interacts well with
input and output devices, such as the keyboard and mouse, to process instructions. This ensures
that the data sent to the computer moves as expected to perform the intended purpose. It also
manages data flow through its USB ports, allowing for data transfer between devices.
Additionally, it ensures the processor can access information from the RAM to boost
efficiency.
2. Conserves resources
The motherboard saves consumers time, energy, and money by connecting all the computer
connects. The motherboard provides a platform on which manufacturers can connect all the
necessary components to ensure that the computer functions. Thus, saving consumers’ time
and energy as they do not have to assemble and connect different parts manually. Moreover,
collecting the individual components can prove costly as consumers would be forced to incur
additional transport and other miscellaneous costs.
3. Optimizes power distribution
The motherboard provides and distributes power optimally. Computers require electricity to
function. The motherboard has a power connector plug that connects the computer to a power
source and converts it into a form of electrical power that the computer can use. After that, the
motherboard ensures that the electric current is distributed optimally to different system
components.
The motherboard has an integrated circuit technology with pre-defined connections that ensure
each element gets the necessary power. Moreover, the circuits ensure less energy is consumed
to make the computer an energy-efficient machine.

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 4. Drives communication
The motherboard makes communication between different components easier. For a computer
to process a particular set of instructions, sometimes it may require several components to
communicate and work together to complete the task. In such scenarios, the motherboard relies
on its circuit technology to enable communication between these components. The
motherboard may also depend on some of its components, such as the CPU, BIOS, expansion
ports, and USB ports, to interact with the computer’s operating system.
5. Enhances performance
The motherboard boosts the capabilities of a computer. Motherboards often transform the
capabilities of a computer. For instance, they have additional features and functionalities, such
as built-in sound and video capabilities that can enhance the computer’s output. Motherboards
also allow users to connect peripheral devices such as printers, enabling computers to perform
additional tasks such as printing documents. Additionally, users can expand and upgrade
factory-made motherboard parts such as memory slots or hard disks to boost the capabilities of
their computers.
6. Improves reliability
A good motherboard boosts the overall reliability of the computer. A high-quality motherboard
provides a stable foundation for its components to operate on. A good motherboard has proper
cooling, and its integrated circuit technology is set in place. These factors enable it to control
the computer’s hardware efficiently by ensuring that each element functions as expected and
communicates with the other components. A reliable computer performs tasks efficiently and
thus enhances the user experience.
7. Enables productivity
The motherboard reduces effort duplication and simplifies work for computer users. While
traditional computers came pre-installed with BIOS, modern ones are pre-installed with EFI
and UEFI. BIOS, EFI, and UEFI enable computers to boot without requiring users to
reconfigure basic settings, time, and date. They also load the operating system into the memory.
Therefore, these motherboard components allow users to focus on other productive tasks.
Computer Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.
Characteristics of Ports
- External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
- Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
- Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

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Types of ports

Serial Port
• Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Port
• Used for scanners and printers
• Also called printer port
• 25 pin model
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
PS/2 Port
• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
• Also called mouse port
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and keyboard
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port
• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
• It was introduced in 1997.
• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.

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 • USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA Port
• Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
• It has 15 holes.
• Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port
has holes.
Power Connector
• Three-pronged plug.
• Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.
Firewire Port
• Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
• Invented by Apple.
• It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
Modem Port
• Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.
Ethernet Port
• Connects to a network and high-speed Internet.
• Connects the network cable to a computer.
• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.
Game Port
• Connect a joystick to a PC
• Now replaced by USB
Digital Video Interface, DVI port
• Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.
• Very popular among video card manufacturers.
Sockets
• Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.

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Cables
A cable, also known as a cord, plug, or connector transmits power or data between devices or
positions, which is covered in plastic by one or more wires. A power cable and data cable are
the primary types of computer cables. The cable that creates communication between devices
is known as a data cable.
Data cables include DVI, HDMI, or VGA, USB>/a>, SATA, CAT5, and IDE/EIDE.
Types of Computer Cables
1. HDMI Cable
HDMI is a type of computer cable that has the potential to transmit audio and video signal with
the original quality of images. It stands for High Definition Multimedia Interface, which can
send crystal clear images. The use of HDMI cable is to connect electronic devices such as TVs,
cable boxes, HDTV, Projector, media streamers, DVD players, and more. HDMI cable, one
standard cable, can be used to connect all types of Av devices. Additionally, it has the ability
to transmit audio and video signals in one go.

2. DVI Cable
DVI cable is a video display interface, which is used to connect the video card and LCD
monitor and stands for Digital Visual Interface. Without having any disturbance, users can see
pictures of high quality with the help of using this cable. It is able to transmit video content to
display devices at high resolutions, 2560 x 1600 resolutions and is mostly used in CRT
monitors, which have a VGA connection. The primary intention to develop it was to be an
industry standard for transmitting digital and analog signals to the computer system.

3. VGA Cable

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This computer cable was developed by IBM and introduced in 1987. It stands for Video
Graphics Array or Video Graphics Adapter, which is used to link the monitor and the CPU of
a computer and transfer video signals. HD televisions also use the VGA cable, 256 colors are
shown if the resolution is lowered to 320 x 200; however, it offers 640 x 480 resolution color
display screens. In modern times, it is common to find VGA cable and connector with
computers, even TVs, and projectors. However, DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort cable, and connector
are becoming the reason to replace VGA cable.

4. Ethernet Cable
The Ethernet cable is generally used for a wired network, and the quality of the connection is
described by the length and durability of the Ethernet cable. It can be used to connect the
devices such as PCs, routers, and switches within a LAN, and the quality of the connection will
not be best if the cable is not durable and too long. This may create a problem sometimes;
therefore, there are several kinds of Ethernet cable available that you can buy easily from the
market. The Ethernet port is presented on the motherboard, which is used to plug Ethernet
cable. This cable looks similar to a phone cable, but it has more wires as compared to a phone.
Additionally, users can buy Ethernet cable in different colors, and it contains eight wires.

5. PS/2 Cable
The PS/2 cable is a standard cable, which contain a round connector and a total of 6 pins, and
generally, two sizes of PS/2 cable are available on the market. It is used to attach the mouse
and keyboard to the computer system, and its length is long enough. It stands for Personal
System/2 that was developing by IBM. The most common cable is the smaller size, but there
are some adaptors available that can be used to increase its size. But USB cables are replacing
them because they can be easily plugged and are universal cables.

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 6. 5mm Audio Cable
The 3.5mm audio cables are the type of computer cable that are simply used to connect
earphones and headphones to the system. Commonly, they are used for connecting mini-stereo
audio device, a PC sound card, or any portable CD player to any multimedia speaker.

7. USB Cable
The USB cable is a popular, standard cable that enables a computer device to interact with
peripheral and other devices. It stands for Universal Serial Bus, and there are various devices
that are connected through USB cable, such as keyboards and mice, music players and flash
drives, etc. Its first version, 1.0, was released in January 1996, which was later adopted by
companies like Microsoft, Compaq, Intel, and others. The USB ports are presented on the
computer system, which is used to connect USB cables. For example, mice and keyboards have
a USB cable that is connected to the computer. Whenever the device is connected through the
USB cable, and you need to remove the USB cable while the device is running, first you should
eject safely, and then you can remove it from the system.

8. MIDI
MIDI is a simple procedure to connect two different musical components of different brands;
it was first developed in the 1980s. It stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface, which
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can carry panning, music data, event messages, vibrato, and more. Generally, it is a standard
that acts as a remote control for the music gear and digitally representing and transmitting
sounds. On the sound module, users can use a keyboard and change the tempo, pitch, and
volume of a note. A MIDI cable provides more control over the other equipment as it does not
transfer the audio signal and transfer the messages in the form of data.
There are many earlier computer systems in which sound cards contain MIDI port that connects
electronic musical instruments and computers. The devices like a MIDI keyboard or a
synthesizer can be connected to the computer through a MIDI cable.

9. Molex
It is a power cable that is used inside the computer. Molex is not the cable name. It is the name
of the company that develops computers and other related equipment. It is also referred to as a
4-pin connector or Molex power connector, which is used to attach DC power to the drives and
devices inside the computer. Inside the computer, a Molex connector is used by almost all
devices. The common devices are a Video card, Hard drive, and Disc drive (e.g., CD-ROM,
DVD, Blu-ray).

10. SATA
SATA is an interface that is developed to replace parallel ATA interface used in IBM
compatible computers, which is also known as 'Serial ATA.' It is an interface used with hard
drives and its first version 1.0, was released in August 2001. It provides a small, thin cable
solution that transfer rates start at 150MBps. It is backward-compatible with ATAPI and ATA

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devices, and as compared to the earlier ribbon cables, it gives better airflow in the computer.
As compared to the dated PATA standard, it is a more efficient and better interface.

11. SCSI
SCSI is pronounced as "Scuzzy" and stands for Small Computer Systems Interface, which has
the potential to support eight devices or sixteen devices with Wide SCSI. It was first completed
in 1982 and designed to connect devices to a computer. It is commonly used with the disc,
hard, and tape drives and all devices are "daisy-chained" together and connect to a central bus
as it is a bus technology.
On the basis of the location of the SCSI bus, its requirements are dependent, and a SCSI
connector is either external or internal. Three different signalling types are used by the SCSI,
such as LVD (low-voltage differential), Single-Ended (SE), and Differential, which may be
HVD or high-voltage differential. Furthermore, SCSI connections may also be available on a
more advanced motherboard.

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 12. Thunderbolt
Thunderbolt is a relatively new technology that is used to connect peripheral devices to a
computer and is primarily used with Apple displays and devices. It offers users the benefit of
adding several devices to their computers through a daisy chain of cords. By using one port
with a cable, it allows users to use one cable to access high-resolution and high-speed media
that can access both PCI Express and DisplayPort. Thunderbolt is a fairly new peripheral
connection technology that was developed by Apple and Intel.

System bus
A system bus is a facet of computer architecture that transmits and shares data throughout the
computer and between devices. It's the primary way for a computer to process information
because it connects the main processor to all other internal hardware components of a
computer.
A system bus is a pathway made up of electronic cables that carry the data back and forth from
the computer's central processing unit (CPU) to other areas of the computer. The specific design
of a system bus changes based on the style, size and needs of each specific computer system.

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How it works?
A system bus works by sharing data and other information between various aspects of the
computer's hardware. For example, if you plug a universal serial bus (USB) device or connector
into your computer, the system bus recognizes that data and takes it to the computer's central
processing unit. Once there, you might download files from the USB onto your computer's
memory, which means the system bus moves it from the CPU to your computer's hard drive
for storage.
Basic functions of a system bus
Internal function: Also known as a memory bus, an internal system bus connects the hardware
that's inside the computer to local devices within the computer's system.
External function: Also known as an expansion bus, an external system bus uses electronic
pathways that connect primarily to external devices outside the computer's system. For
example, connecting your computer to a wireless printer or mouse makes use of an external
system bus.
Data sharing: The main function of a system bus is to transfer data from one place to another
using a parallel structure, and the amount of data shared at one time depends on the size of the
system bus. For example, the computer systems of a large corporation might have higher data
sharing capabilities than that of a home computer.
Addressing: This function allows users to transfer information about certain data between
locations in the computer's main memory. It alerts the system to where to take certain pieces
of data.
Power: This function supplies power to each of the various devices connected to the main
computer system. It helps the computer's system bus operate at an appropriate speed.
Types of System Bus
Each type of bus follows a unique set of instructions that contribute to the accurate transfer of
data. They include:
Data bus: The data bus carries the actual data between the computer's main processor, the
memory and all other internal hardware components. It operates between computer parts or
devices to increase the flow of data by transferring data in or out of the CPU or from one device
to another.
Address bus: The address bus tells the system where data comes from or goes. Typically, this
bus takes data from the central processor and stores it in a specific location in the computer's
memory, or vice versa.
Control bus: The control bus determines how the system bus operates by managing the control,
timing and coordination of the busses to ensure the data transfers without corruption. This bus
is important for accuracy and security, as it safeguards data during the transfer.

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Approaches to implementing system bus
Synchronous: A synchronous system bus runs at a high speed because it operates alongside
the computer's clock. This method has a fixed protocol for communication and data sharing
connected with time.
Asynchronous: An asynchronous system bus operates independently from a clock with the
option of connecting to different devices or several of them. This is essentially a manual way
to operate the bus.

Software: Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in
a desired way. The basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the same as that
exists between TV and TV studio. Without TV studio (software) from where the programs are
telecast, the TV (Hardware) is a dead machine.
There are five categories of software: They include:
1. Operating System
2. Translators
3. Utility programs
4. Application programs
5. General purpose programs.
Operating System: The software that manages the resources of a computer system and
schedules its operation is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface
between the hardware and the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs.
Generally, the OS acts as an interface between the user and the Hardware of the computer. i.e
It is a bridge between the user and the Hardware.
The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.
• CUI -- Character user Interface
• GUI -- Graphical user Interface
CUI: It is operated with keyboard only. Examples: MS-DOS, UNIX
GUI: The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard. Examples: Windows 95,
Windows XP etc.
• Disk Operating System (DOS): It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates at the
age of 19. It is suited for personal computers. Dos is a single user and single task
operating system
• WINDOWS: It works with DOS and it supports single user and multitask system. It
requires a powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB.
• UNIX and XENIX: It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system.
Translators: Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in their own
language – the machine language. Therefore, a program written in any other language should
be translated into machine language. The software that “translates” the instructions of different
languages is known as translators.

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There are two types of translators. They are compilers and Interpreters.
A Compiler checks the entire user – written program (known as the source program) and if
it is error free, produces a complete program in machine language (known as object program).
The source program is retained for possible modifications and corrections and the object
program is loaded into the computer for execution. If the source program contains errors, the
compilers produce a list of errors at the end of the execution of the program. i.e a compiler
translates the whole program before execution.
An interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter translates one
statement at a time and if it is error – free, executes. This continues till the last statement. Thus
an interpreter 12 translates or executes the first instruction before it goes to the second, while
a compiler translates the whole program before execution.
The major difference between compiler and interpreter is
1. Error correction is very much simpler in the case of interpreter as it translates the
statements in stages. The compiler produces an error list of the entire program at the
end.
2. Interpreter takes more time for the execution of the program compared to compilers as
it translates one statement at a time.
Programming languages: There are three types of programming languages.
1. Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language. This language is
in terms of binary codes (0, 1). I.e. all programs should be written with these codes,
which is difficult, time consuming and leading to errors while writing the programs.
There is no unique standard machine language. Rather there are many machine
languages. These are machine dependent. These are referred as the first generation
languages.
2. Assembly Languages: It uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes (as in
machine languages). Example. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition. It requires
translators to convert into machine language. Like machine language, writing program
in assembly language is also time consuming. These are also machine dependent.
3. High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented languages
(POL). These are referred as third generation languages. The advantages of these
languages are
• The high level languages are convenient for writing programs as they can be written
without any codes. These languages follow rules like “English” language.
• Because of their English like nature, less time is required to write a program.
• They are machine independent. A program written in any HLL can be run on
computers of different types without any modifications.
Examples of High Level Languages commonly used include:
FORTRAN: FORmula TRANslation
COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language
BASIC: Beginner‘s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

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PROLOG: PROgramming in LOGic
ALGOL: ALGOrithmic Language
Utility Programs: These are pre-written programs supplied by the manufacturer for
maintaining day to day activities of computer system. Examples include COPY, SORT,
MAILING, virus scanning software etc.
Application Programs: These are user written programs to do a specific job which can be
changed to meet the individual needs. These programs are written in different languages such
as BASIC or C or by using database packages like dBASE, Oracle. Examples include Payroll,
Billing, Railway Reservation etc.
General Purpose Packages: These packages are developed to suit the needs of research
workers / scientists in different fields. These packages are categorized as:
❖ Data Analysis: SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science), MSTAT, MICROSTAT,
GENSTAT, SAS etc
❖ Word Processing: WORD PERFECT, WORDSTAR, MS-Word, CHIRATOR,
NORTON EDITOR etc.
❖ Spreadsheet: LOTUS, Qpro, VP-PLANNER, SYMPHONY, MS-Excel etc.
❖ Graphics: LOTUS, STORY-BOARD, POWER-POINT etc.
❖ Databases: dBASE, FOX-BASE, FOX-PRO, ORACLE, MS-Access etc.
Functions of Operating System
Today most operating systems perform the following important functions:
a. Process management: It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being
performed by the computer system.
b. Memory management: It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage
areas to the system programmes as well as user programmes and data.
c. Input / Output management: It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different
Input and Output devices while one or more programmes are executed.
d. File management: It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use
of text editors or some other file manipulation routines.
e. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system: It determines and maintains the
order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.
f. Interpretation of commands and instructions.
g. Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer
operator.
h. Device Management: The OS keeps track of devices, channels, control units and
decides what is an efficient way to allocate the device. The management of the process
supports OS to develop and eliminate process and provides mechanism form
communication and synchronization within multiple processes.
i. Security Management: An OS protects the user from unauthorized access of his files or
data. And also it should protect itself from users. The operating system acts as
supervisor mode and gives the system a strongly protected firewall. OS handle and
rectify the errors as soon as possible without any difficulty.

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j. Disk Management: OS permits disk access to manage files systems, file system device
drivers and related activities of files like retrieval, naming, sharing, storage and
protection of files.
k. Loading and Execution: The command interpretation is made to interpret the given
commands and make the resources to act on the system by processing the commands.
The group of processors that don’t share a memory or hardware device is called a
distributed system where the processor interacts with another device all through the
network. OS coordinates and assigns the interpreters, compilers and other software
resources of the different uses of the computer system.
l. Error handling: An OS must respond to errors by taking the appropriate actions.

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 PERSONAL COMPUTERS
Personal Computer: A personal computer has a Monitor (VDU), a keyboard, Disk Drive
(s), printer and CPU. The CPU of PC has a mother board with several chips mounted on a
circuit board. The major components of the circuit board are: Microprocessor, RAM and
ROM chips and other supporting circuits.
Microprocessor: The Microprocessor chip is like a brain of human being which contains
circuits and registers to perform arithmetic, logic and control functions. i.e it contains ALU
& CU. These chips will be able to retrieve data from the input output devices, store,
manipulate and process a byte of data at a time. There is an address bus which is built into
these chips to determine the storage locations (of RAM) of the data and the instructions of
the program.
Over the years, different microprocessors were developed and the first in the series is
INTEL 8080. The other processors are 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium I, II, III and
Pentium 4. The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but
it does it about 5000 times faster.
Clock Speed: The speed with which the instruction is executed or number of pulses per
second is called the clock speed. It is measured in terms of million pulses per second
(MHZs). The following table gives the differences among the different processors that Intel
has introduced over the years:
No. Microprocessor Date Transistors Clock Data width
speed
1 8080 1974 6,000 2 MHz 8 bits
2 8088 1979 29,000 5 MHz 16 bits
8-bit bus
3 80286 1982 134,000 6 MHz 16 bits
4 80286 1985 275,000 16 MHz 32 bits
5 80486 1989 1,200,000 25 MHz 32 bits
6 Pentium I 1993 3,100,000 60 MHz 32 bits
64-bit bus
7 Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 233 MHz 32 bits
64-bit bus
8 Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 450 MHz 32 bits
64-bit bus
9 Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 1.5 GHz 32 bits
64-bit bus

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 10 Pentium 4 2004 125,000,000 3.6 GHz 32 bits
“Prescott”
64-bit bus
11 1st Gen Intel 2008 731,000,000 1.06 GHz 32 bits
“Nehalem” to 3.33
64-bit bus
GHz
12 2nd Gen Intel 2011 504 million 1.60 GHz 32 bits
“Sandy Bridge” to 2.270 to 3.60
64-bit bus
billion GHz
13 3rd Gen Intel “Ivy 2012 2.104 1.4 GHz to 32 bits
Bridge” billion 4.1 GHz
64-bit bus

Peripherals: The input, output and secondary storage units like floppy drives, keyboards,
mouse, etc, are called peripherals.
Classification of PCs: PCs are mainly classified on the basis of primary memory (RAM),
Microprocessor, clock speed and peripherals. The classification is presented in the
following table:

No. PC- RAM Microprocessor Clock Peripherals

Type speed
1 PC 640 KB 8088/8086 8 MHZ Floppy Drives, keyboard
and printer
2 PC-XT 1 MB 8088/8086 18 Floppy Drives, Hard
MHZ drive, Keyboard and
printer
3 PC-AT 1 MB to 80286 to 80486 25 Floppy drives, Hard
32 MB MHZ disk, keyboard, mouse
and and printer.
above

Working with personal computers

Drives of the computer: A computer can have Floppy Disk Drive along with Hard Disk
drives in the system. These are referred as follows:
Floppy Disk Drive: A or B
Hard Disk: C

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 Booting of the Computer
Booting imply “activating” the computer for working. Thus, when the computer is switched
on, the operating system residing in the floppy or in the hard disk is transferred into the
primary memory. After this, the computer is ready to accept the commands at user terminal.
If OS is not existing either in floppy drive or in the hard disk drive, “non-system or disk
error” is flashed on the screen. The booting of the computer is carried out with a software
which resides on ROM chip called BIOS (Basic Input Output System). Thus when a PC
with system disk either in Hard-Disk Drive or Floppy Drive is switched “on”, the screen
finally displays one of the following symbols with a blinking cursor at its end:
a. A :\> This imply that the computer is booted through Floppy drive ‘A’ and is ready to
accept DOS commands. The symbol “\>” is referred as DOS prompt from where DOS
commands can be entered.
b. C :/> It imply that the PC is booted through the Hard-Disk Drive ‘C’.
Booting is essential whenever the system is locked or switched-off. A PC can be booted
through two ways:
a. Cold Booting: It is only switching OFF the system and after some time again switching
ON.
b. Warm Booting: It is carried out by pressing the following three keys simultaneously:
Ctrl + Alt + Del. It is preferable to cold booting as it safeguards the system from sudden
power fluctuations resulting out of switching ON and OFF the system.

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 MS-DOS OPERATING SYSTEM
MS-DOS is a collection of programs and other files. It is a single user and single
programming environment. MS-DOS is designed to provide a method of organizing and
using the information stored on disks, application programs, system programs and the
computer itself.
A disk operating system (DOS) is an operating system for x86 based personal computers
mostly developed by Microsoft.
MS-DOS was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers
during the 1980s. It was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical
user interface (GUI) in various graphical Microsoft Windows operating system
generations.

How DOS Works?

When a computer is powered on, it goes through various steps called the boot process.
For a computer running a disk operating system in the following six steps, such as:
i. The read-only memory (ROM) bootstrap loader reads the Master Boot Record and
passes control over to it.
ii. The boot record loads the disk operating system into memory, and it takes control of
the machine.

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iii. The computer transfers data stored on a magnetic disk to its main memory, the
random access memory.
iv. It also transfers data to external devices attached to the computer, such as a computer
screen or printer.
v. The computer provides various applications programming interfaces for programs like
character input/output, memory management, program loading, termination, and handling
input from the user through a keyboard.
vi. The OS also provides file management that organizes, reads, and writes files on
storage. The files are organized in a hierarchical structure of directories, subdirectories,
and files.
Its interface is character-based, so users must type commands in the command line to
indicate what actions they want.
Features of DOS
• MS-DOS does not offer GUI (Graphical User Interface) and doesn't accept mouse
inputs. It is a character-based interface system where all commands are entered in the text
at the command-line prompt.
• A disk operating system manages files, folders and allows program loading and
execution. It can control hardware devices such as disk, memory and allocate resources.
• MS-DOS offers a file system to organize, read and write files to the disk storage.
• It is a single-user operating system and performs various tasks to ensure the proper
operation of systems.
• It uses a 16-bit file allocation table (FAT16), and a 16-bit interface is used to define
the location of the memory of each file uniquely. These identifiers are stored in a tabular
format with the name File Allocation table.
• MS-DOS does not support a multiuser operating system, and it is less secure and does
not have a concept of user roles. It is very lightweight due to its basic interface and
limited features.
Limitations of MS-DOS
• Built-in security: DOS does not have built-in security, such as file ownership and
permissions.
• No multiuser or multitasking: It also does not support multiuser or multitasking. It can
only run one program at a time, but it provides direct access to the basic I/O system and
underlying hardware.
• Challenging interface: A user must type in commands and remember commands to
run programs and other OS tasks.

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 Types of DOS Commands
There are two types of commands:
i. Internal
ii. External
Internal DOS commands: Internal commands are those commands which manage files.
They are loaded into the memory of the PC when PC is booted. These are stored in a large
file with file name COMMAND.COM, when a PC is booted.
1. DIR: Dir displays continuously the directory of file names, file size, date and time of
creation.
Syntax: C:\>dir a:
This command displays the list of files and directories from the drive A i.e. the floppy drive.
It can be specified with two options:
i. Dir/p: It pauses the listing of the directory whenever the screen is full. The next
screen load of files can be displayed by pressing any key.
ii. Dir/w: Displays the files of the directory in a five column format. Only file
names and their extensions will be displayed without the date and time of
creation. The total number of files and remaining bytes are listed.
In addition, DIR can also be specified with wildcard characters (such as * or ?) to list files
sharing a common element in the file name or extension.
Eg: DIR STATS.*: lists all files with STATS and other combinations along with the
extensions. DIR *.COM: lists all files with extension .COM.
2. DEL: Deletes a specified file. Syntax: DEL {filename}
Del stats deletes the file “stats”.
Del stats.* deletes all extensions of the file “stats”.
Suppose you want to delete a file COMPUTER.DOC on A drive, the command will be:
C :> DEL A:COMPUTER.DOC 
3. COPY: The COPY command is used to copy files from one place to another.
The way to execute copy command is to type COPY leave a space followed by the source
file name again a space followed by destination file.
Syntax: copy {Drive name} <source file> {Drive name} <target file name>
Example:
1. COPY STATS MATHS copies a file “STATS” with the name “MATHS” on the same
drive

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2. COPY PATH A: ENTO copies a file “PATH” from the current drive to drive “A” with
the file name “ENTO”.
3. COPY A:MATHS C:STATS copies a file “MATHS” form drive “A” to drive “C” with
the file name “STATS”.
4. COPY A:MATHS.* C:STATS.* copies all extensions of file “MATHS” form drive A
to drive C with name “STATS”.
4. REN: The REN command is used to rename the old file with another name.
The way to execute Rename command is to type REN leave a space followed by the old
file name again followed by a space and new file name.
Syntax: REN {old file name} {old file name}
Example:
Suppose if you want to change the name of a file MATHS.TXT to STATS.TXT the
following command will work:
C:\> REN MATHS.TXT RESULT.TXT
5. DATE: It displays current date and asks for new date in (mm)-(dd)-(YY) format.
If no date is to be changed, the old date can be retained by pressing “enter” key.
Syntax: C:\> Date
6. TIME: displays current time and asks for new tine and if no new time is to be entered,
pressing “enter” retains the old time.
Syntax: C:\> Time
7. VER: Displays the version of DOS.
8. CLS: When you want to clear the screen, type in the following command:
C:\> CLS 
External commands: External commands are small file programs used for doing specific
jobs. Some of the useful commands:
1. SORT: It sorts the files in alphanumeric order: either A to Z or Z to A.
DIR| SORT (or) DIR/ON: Displays all the files in A to Z order.
DIR| SORT/R (or) DIR/O-N: Displays all the files in reverse order (i.e Z to A).
2. FORMAT: Formatting a (new) disk imply organizing the new disk into magnetic
tracks and sectors that are readable by DOS. The PC copies files only on a formatted disk.
However, if an old disk is formatted, all the existing files on it would be erased. Hence this
command should be used carefully.
Syntax: FORMAT a: formats disk in drive “A”.

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 3. VOL: This command displays the volume label of the current disk.
4. LABEL: It is used to create, change or delete the volume label on the disk.
5. PATH: It is used to provide access to files located on other directories or on other disks.
Thus while in “C” drive, one can directly invoke files of DOS, WORDSTAR (WS) (or)
LOTUS directories by giving the following command:
Syntax: PATH = C:\DOS; C:\WS; C:\LOTUS
This command is generally listed in the AUTOEXEC.BAT files for its execution when the
PC is booted.
6. MD: It is used to make a new directory (or sub-directory) which is subordinate to the
current (or root) directory. It is specified as follows:
C:\> MD\STATS (or) MD STATS: This command makes (creates) a new directory
with the name “STATS”.
7. CD: It is used to change from one directory to the other.
If we have to work with files in the directory “STATS”, the directory has to be changed to
“STATS”.
Ex: C:\>CD\STATS (or) CD STATS: This command changes the root directory to
the directory “STATS”.
8. RD: It removes or deletes a directory. To remove a directory, it is essential to first
delete all the files in the directory. To remove the directory STATS, the command is
C:\>RD STATS
9. TREE: It displays the directories and sub-directories existing in a drive with a “TREE”
diagram. The difference between TREE and DIR commands is that: DIR displays all
files with its size, date and time of creation. It also displays only directories with symbol
(without files and sub directories in that directory) whereas, TREE displays directories and
sub directories in a drive without files.
MS DOS Files and File names
A file is a collection of related information. The files should have suitable names for their
identification in later use.
A file can contain only data, or it can contain a set of instructions, called a program, telling
the computer how to perform a particular task.
A filename in MS-DOS has two parts; the name and an extension.
Rules for naming the files:
i. File names should be of one to eight characters in length with an option of one to three
character extension.

75
ii. File names can include any one of the following characters: A to Z (or a to z) 0 to 9,
$, &, #, @. %, ( ), { }
The characters which are not allowed are: : , ; + / \ * as these have special meaning
iii. A period (.) is used to separate the first part of a file name from the extension.
(LETTER.TXT, RAMA.WK1, etc.,)
iv. When a file name includes an extension, it should be referred along with its extension
and not only with the first part.
v. Reserved devices names are not allowed. (COMMAND.COM, DATE, etc.,)
Types of files in DOS
There are different types of files you can create in your computer, according to the usage.
To differentiate each file, the computer will give an extension to identify the different types
of files you have created.
Executable Files: The files with extension of either .COM or .EXE are called executable
files. These files are directly executed by typing their names (without the extension) by the
computer. A file with .COM extension refers to COMMAND file name and the other with
.EXE extension refers EXECUTABLE program file.
Batch Files: The file containing a series of DOS commands, which are executed
automatically one at a time in the order entered, is known as the batch file. A batch file has
the extension .BAT. If the batch file is given a special name AUTOEXEC.BAT, it is
automatically executed when the computer is switched on or during booting.
Backup Files: These are backup files of a file and have extension .BAK. These files are
such that their contents cannot be altered (edited). These files are created while working
with WORDSTAR package for typing a document.
System Files: These are program files developed for system control. They have .SYS
extension.
Directory: It is a collection of files, size, date and time of creation of files. The relation
between files, directories and disk is similar to the relation between papers, filing folders
and filling cabinets. Just as a cabinet contain papers and other folders, a directory may
contain directories also. The main directory of a drive is called Root Directory into which
several directories and sub-directories may exist.

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 WINDOWS (OPERATING SYSTEMS)
Definition:
It is a set of programs that control and coordinate the use of the computer system by other
programs and the user.
It’s set of instructions or commands that generally instructs or governs the computer on how
to perform specific tasks or instructions.
A program which written by the manufacturer to make it easy and efficient to use a computer.
Examples of Operating Systems
a. Ms Dos (Microsoft Disk Operating system): It’s an operating system whereby the
commands are typed in the keyboard.
b. Ms Windows (Microsoft Windows): This is an operating system whereby the mouse
is used to operate the computer.
c. Unix Operating languages: Grammatical computer languages which renders
communication by use of codes e.g. COBOL, BASIC etc.
Microsoft Windows:
It is an operating system produced by Microsoft Corporation. It uses a graphical user
interface (GUI); uses the pictures or icons at the desktop to perform the commands.
Types of Windows
1. Windows 3.1
2. Windows 95
3. Windows 98
4. Windows 2000
5. Windows Me
6. Windows XP
7. Windows Vista
8. Windows 7
9. Windows 8.1
10. Windows 10
11. Windows 11
The Key component that determines the performance of a computer to operate
a. Processor speed: The high the processor speed the better the performance of a
computer. It is measured in MHZ and sometimes GHZ e.g. 2.6MHZ etc.
b. RAM (Random Access Memory): The higher the RAM the higher the performance of
the system. It is measured in MB or sometimes in GB. E.g. 512MB, 1.0.GB, 2 GB,
4GB, 8GB, 16GB.
c. Disk space: This is the capacity of the hard disk space. The higher the hard disk space
the higher the storage media. It is measured in GB, and TB e.g. 500GB, 1TB, 2TB
etc.
d. Clock speed: Measured in MHz e.g. 33MHz.

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Salient features of Windows Operating Systems:
1. It converts the plain character-based user interface provided by DOS into a Graphical
User Interface (GUI) such as pictures, symbols and words on your screen that can be
controlled by the mouse.
2. It provides a multitasking capability to the PC.
3. It supports long file name rather than the limited 8 characters with extension of three
letter file name (8:3) as used by DOS. In Windows file name can have name up to 255
characters long.
4. Windows owes its name to the fact that it runs each program or document or application
in its own separate window.
5. Windows have the facility of accessories such as Word pad, Note pad, Calculator and
Paint.
6. User can paste portion of one document into another by utilizing more advanced
document linking features called Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE), Object Linking and
Embedding (OLE).
7. It provides a big facility of plug and play standard. It allows user to simply plug a new
board such as a video, audio or network card into the computer without having a set
of switches or making other settings.
8. If a program crashes, then it will display fault error message about its crash and you
can eliminate the crashed program from the task list without affecting other running
applications.
Hardware required for Windows:
1. MS-DOS version 6.0, 6.2, 6.22
2. A PC with at least 80386 processor.
3. At least 8 MB RAM.
4. A Hard disk with at least 40-MB of free space to install Windows.
5. Monitor (Super VGA, Monochrome or Multi-coloured).
6. Mouse.
7. CD drive.
Note: Hardware requirements have changed over-time due to dynamic changes in technology
and introduction of new Operating Systems such as Windows 10, Windows 11 etc.
Parts of a window screen:
A Window: A window is a rectangular screen display through which a user uses a program
that is open to perform tasks on objects such as files, folders drivers or contents of the file that
is opened. The space occupied on a screen when a program is running.
Desktop: The desktop is the on-screen work area on which Windows, Icons, menus & dialog
boxes appear. The Desktop can have several components. Parts of the desktop include
Icons & the taskbar.
Components of the Desktop:
• Icons
• Taskbar

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Other terminologies used:
• Point: Move the mouse until the pointer is on the target (the program you want to start).
• Menu: A list of commands or options from where you can choose any.
• Click: Pointing the mouse on the icon you want and tapping the left mouse button once.
• Drag: Holding down the mouse button without releasing it until a specific action is
completed.
Icons: Icon is a small image that represents a file, folder or program.
The text below each icon is the name of the Icon. When we rest the mouse pointer on
an icon, a rectangular box appears. This is referred to as Tooltip. It gives a brief
description of the Icon. By default, there will be 4-5 icons on the desktop.
They are:
• My Computer
• My documents
• Internet Explorer
• Recycle bin
• Network
My Computer: This is the icon which represents all the files & folders which can be used in
the system. It is used to access the drives, folders & files on the computer. i.e Floppy drive(A),
Local C, D, E, Printer, Control panel etc.
My Documents: This is the default storage location for the files created in the windows.
Internet Explorer: This is an application used to browse the internet.
Recycle bin: This is a folder that stores all the files & folders deleted from windows
temporarily, which can be restored again if needed.
Network Neighborhood: This is an application which display all the computers connected in
network with our computer.
Taskbar: The rectangular bar that runs horizontally across the bottom of the screen is called
Taskbar. The Taskbar has the START menu on the left & the Notification area on the right.
We can start an application using the start menu.
Notification area holds system icons that allow for functions such as changing the time &
Volume of the Computer. All the open applications are available on the Taskbar.

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Anatomy of a Window:
The window on a desktop is the rectangular area displaying content independently of other
areas of the screen.
The different parts of a window are the Title bar, Menu bar, the Toolbar, and the min, max &
close buttons. These tools are used to manage the window & the components within it.

80
Title bar: This is the title of the window, like your name at the top of a piece of paper. The
Title bar is also the handle for the window. If you click and hold the mouse button down on the
title bar, you can move it around the screen.
▪ Minimize: To have a window take the minimum amount of desktop space possible,
click the minimize button. This drops the window into the Task bar like a piece of paper
going into a drawer. The Task bar will show the task whether or not the window is
minimized.
▪ Maximize: To have a window take the maximum desktop space, click the maximize
button. This stretches the window out like an architect‘s floor plan being rolled out over
the desk.
▪ Restore: A maximized window will cover over all the other windows and icons on the
desktop. The Restore button places the window back so that more than one window can
display at a time.
▪ Close (X): When done with a window, you can have it taken completely off the desktop
by closing it. Use the X button to do this.
Menu bar: The Menu bar displays a list of commands that can be used to perform various
tasks. (this will be below the Title bar). Menu items are commands within the menu bar that
allow choosing of functions & tasks.
Tool bar: contains a set of buttons for frequently used commands.
Scroll Bars: On the bottom and right edges of a window we find scroll bars. They are used to
pan across the information in the window, when we have information which won‘t fit into the
window.
Status bar: The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the window and provides such
information as the cursor position, current page number, the number of words in the document
etc.
Booting in Windows:
▪ When the computer is switched on, the BIOS is activated.
▪ The BIOS present in ROM searches for the operating system and drives.
▪ If there is no OS, it shows non-system or disk error.
▪ If OS is present, then it transfers the OS from ROM to RAM.
▪ Then the desktop is displayed on the monitor.

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 WINDOWS EXPLORER
Windows Explorer is an application that provides detailed information about your files, folders,
and drives. You can use it to see how your files are organized and to copy, move, and rename
files, as well as perform other tasks pertaining to files, folders, and drives.
Explorer uses the directory windows to graphically display the directory structure of your disk
and files. Windows Explorer displays the contents of the entire system in a hierarchical manner.
To open Windows Explorer, click Start → All programs → Accessories → Windows Explorer
Windows Explorer is divided into 2 panes. The left pane displays the list of drives & folders
on the computer. The right pane displays the contents of the selected drive or folder. By using
these two panes, you can browse through the contents of your computer in a single window.
Folder is a list of files (similar to Directory in MS-DOS).

Working with Folders:

Creating a Folder:
1. From the tree pane: select the directory under which you want to create a sub directory.
2. Choose File → New → Folder. On the right pane of the screen, a new folder is created.
3. Type in the name of the directory and press ENTER. You can notice the change in the
tree structure immediately.
Creating files:
After creating a folder, we can move files into it or create new files within the folder.
Selecting files & Folders:
i. To select all the files in a folder:
Click the folder in the left pane → All the files will be displayed in the right pane. To
select all → CTRL + A

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 ii. To select consecutive files:
Use shift key + arrow keys
iii. To select non-consecutive files:
▪ In the right pane of Windows Explorer, click the first item to be selected.
▪ Hold down CTRL.
▪ Click all other items that need to be selected.
Copying Files & Folders:
Once we select the files to be copied, the next step is to copy the files.
To copy the files & folders:
i. In Windows Explorer, select the file or folder to be copied.
ii. On the edit menu click copy (the files are copied to the clip board. The clip board
is a location where the information you copy or cut is temporarily stored).
iii. Click the destination folder in the left pane.
iv. In Windows Explorer, click paste in the Edit menu.
Alternatively, to copy a file or folder, select it and then press ctrl +C. To paste, press ctrl+ V.
To move the files or folders:
i. Select the folder to be moved.
ii. On the edit menu, click cut.
iii. Click the destination folder in the left pane.
iv. On the edit menu, click paste.
Alternatively, to cut a file or folder, select and press ctrl +X & then to paste, press ctrl +V.
Renaming files or folders:
i. Select the item to be renamed.
ii. Choose File → Rename.
iii. Current name gets selected, Type in the new name.
iv. Press Enter.
Deleting files & folders:
If you do not want certain files or folders, you can delete them. All the files & folders which
are deleted are moved to the recycle bin.
To delete:
i. Select
ii. On the file menu, click delete or press delete.
A warning appears prompting you to confirm the file deletion.
iii. If you want to delete, click yes otherwise No.
Note: To delete a file permanently without moving it to the Recycle bin, select the file & then
press Shift+ Del.

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 WORD PROCESSING
Definition: Word processing is essentially typing, editing, and manipulation of a document
in a desired form.
Units of the Document: Since word-processing is concerned with preparation of a document
(in a desired form), it is essential to know the units of the document:
1. Character: It refers to the alphabets, numerical digits, punctuations and other special
symbols which are commonly used in the text.
2. Word: A word is group of characters that are separated from other group of characters
by some delimiters like, comma, full stop and space.
3. Sentence: A sentence is a group of words preceded and followed by appropriate
delimiting characters.
4. Paragraph: It is a group of one or more sentences, paragraphs are separated by leaving
blank lines between them.
5. Pages: It is the amount of text that can be printed on one page of a paper.
6. Chapters: It is a collection of pages.
7. Documents and files: It is a group of chapters. Usually, a complete document may be
very short such as a memo (or letter) or very long such as a book consisting of several
chapters. These documents are referred as “Files”.
Features of Word-processing:
1. Word-wrap
2. Cursor control
3. Editing
4. Formatting
5. Spell-check
6. Thesaurus
7. Macros
8. Printing
9. File management
10. Mail merge
Word-wrap: In word-processing packages, the text can be continuously typed and the
computer automatically starts a fresh line when a line is filled up. As soon as the length of a
sentence exceeds the right margin, the corresponding word is automatically adjusted in the
following line. This is called “word-wrap”. A paragraph is created only when carriage control
is externally given for a sentence.

Cursor Control: The four directional keys of the keyboard ( ) helps in locating the text
for editing in much the similar manner as that of a pointer or pencil.
Editing: Words or lines can be entered (inserted) or deleted in any part of the text with proper
alignment. Similarly, there is a facility to ‘recover‘ the text which is deleted by mistake or
accidentally. Another important facility is that any ‘word‘ can be replaced by a new word
throughout the file, wherever the old word appears. In addition to these, a block of text (which
is frequently used) can be prepared and moved or copied wherever desired in the file.

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Formatting: The text formatting refers to the way the text is desired to appear on a page. This
includes following functions:
• setting left and right margins
• paragraph settings
• line spacing
• selecting font specifications such as underline, bold, italics, superscripts and subscripts
• setting foot-notes
• number of lines per page
• printing page numbers and headings for ‘Header‘ and ‘Footer’
• table of contents
• indexing the text
Spell-check: Word-processing packages provide checking of spellings facility.
Thesaurus: It provides synonyms (or words with similar meanings).
Macros: A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The ability to
define macros allows us to save a lot of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.
Printing: It gives a ‘hard‘ copy of the text. The printing can be controlled after printing a fixed
number of pages or can be resumed from any specified page number.
File management: This facility allows to create, delete, move & search for files.
Mail merge printing: This facility helps in printing same ‘original’ letter with different
addresses, so that each letter is ‘original and not a carbon copy.
Word processing Packages: Several word-processing packages are available. Some of these
are listed below:
1. MSWORD (SOFT WORD)
2. WORDSTAR
3. CHIRATOR
4. NORTON EDITOR

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 MS-WORD
MS-Word is a word processor. The extension name of MS- word is .doc. It is an application
used to create, edit, print and save a document. It allows the user to insert pictures, tables,
charts, drawings & features that will make the text richer & more interactive. (The term
document refers to a file created using word processor).
How to start MS Word in a computer
Procedure
a) Click the start button
b) Move to program
c) Move to Microsoft word and double click or move to Microsoft office then move to
Microsoft word and double click

The default Word document includes the following layout tools:

• Title bar: displays the document name and the application.
• Menu bar: Contains the list of menus available inside word, each menu contains a
specific set of commands.
• Standard toolbar: provides shortcuts in the form of buttons for frequently performed
tasks.
• Formatting toolbar: Contains a list of formatting options available inside the format
menu.
• Horizontal & Vertical rulers: used for measurement purposes like any normal ruler;
the default unit of measure is in inches.
• White page area: is the space area where you type, edit and format your document.
• Insertion point: is the blinking vertical line that indicates the position on the screen
where text or graphics will be placed.

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 • Task pane: is a small window within the word window that provides shortcuts to
commonly used tasks.
• Scroll bars: are used to move up and down or left and right in a document.
• Status bar: displays the details such as the page number the user is working on, section
no., page no. out of the total pages found in the document, line number, column number
etc.
Standard Toolbar:
This toolbar contains buttons to allow you to perform the basic operations such as opening and
closing a document, moving and printing data.

Function of commonly used buttons

• New: Creates a new blank document based on the default template
• Open: Opens or finds an existing file
• Save: Saves the active file with its current file name, location and file format
• Print: Prints the active file - for more print options go to the File menu and select Print
• Print preview: Shows how the document will look when you print it.
• Spelling & Grammar: Spelling, grammar and writing style checker
• Cut: Removes the selection from the document and places it on the clipboard
• Copy: Copies the selected item(s) to the clipboard
• Paste: Places the content of the clipboard at the insertion point
• Format painter: Copies the format from a selected object or text and applies to other
objects
• Undo: Reverses the last command, use pull-down menu to undo several steps
• Redo: Reverses the action of the Undo button, use the pull-down menu to redo several
steps
• Insert table: Insert a table into the document, or make a table of selected text
• Insert Excel worksheet: Inserts an Excel spreadsheet into the Word document
• Columns: Changes the number of columns in a document
• Drawing: Displays or hides the Drawing toolbar
• Zoom (100%): Enlarge or reduce the display of the active document

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Formatting Toolbar:
The formatting Tool bar is the easiest way to change many attributes of a text.

• Style menu: Allows you to make your text Bold, Italic, underlined… depending on the
style you choose.
• Font: Allows you to change the font by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right
of the font name box. You can view a list of fonts available, you can scroll down to
view more fonts and select the font name you wish to use by clicking on its name.
• Font size: Allows you to change the font size by clicking inside the Font size box and
entering a value or by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of the box to view
a list of sizes available. Select then a size by clicking on it.
Note: A Font size of 11 or 12 is best for paragraphs of text.
• Bold, italic, Underline: Each button respectively allows you to make your text appear
as bold, italic or underlined.
• Alignment: Each button respectively allows you to make your text aligned to the left,
center or right side of the page. You can also justify the text across the page using the
justify button.
• Line spacing: Allows you to set the amount of space that word puts when go to a new
line.
• Text orientation: Allows you to change the typing direction of your text, from left to
right or right to left manner.
• Numbering, Bullets: Allows you to make your text appear as a bullets list or as a
numbering
• Increase / Decrease indent: Allows you to increase or decrease the indentation of your
paragraph in relation to the side of the page.
• Outside Border: Allows you to add a border around a text selection.
• Highlight color: Allows you to change the color behind a text selection.
• Font colour: Allows you to change the colour of the text.

Features of FILE MENU (ALT F):

88
 • New: Opens new Word file (Blank Document file)
• Open: Opens the existing files
• Save: Saves the file with one name
• Save as: Saves the file with more than one name (with different formats)
• Save as Web page: This is used to save a document in a Web style. (With HTML
extension)
• Versions: This is used to do the parts of work in small parts. i.e a bulk ( big/ more)
work can be done in small parts.
• Web Page Preview: This shows the web page in printable form.
• Page set up: To set the margin, paper size, Orientation
• Print: To get the printout. (Specified pages and no. of copies).
• Properties: This gives the details about the document (the type of file, the size of file,
the date of creation, date of modification and file location)
• Send: This is used to send the file document to internet mail to some other person.
• Exit: To close the Ms-word.
To insert a new page, press Ctrl + Enter

Features of EDIT MENU (ALT E):

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• Undo: Will take the previous command (ctrl +Z)
• Redo: Will take the opposite action of undo (Ctrl + Y)
• Cut: Can cut a selected text (Ctrl + X)
• Copy: Can copy a selected text (Ctrl + C)
• Paste: Can paste the selected text (Ctrl + V)
• Del: Removes the selected text
• Find: Used to find the part of text word \ character in the file (Ctrl + F)
• Find Next: (F3) Finding \ finding next: Used to repeat the finding process.
• Replace: Used to replace any part of Text / word / Character with another word/
character. (Ctrl + H)
• Paste special: This will paste the copied (or) cut text in a form of an object. It will
paste in box which Cannot be altered.
• Go To: Curser goes to the specified page, specified line, and specified paragraph.
(Ctrl + G)

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Features of FORMAT MENU (ALT + O):

• Font: used to change the font face, style, size etc.

• Paragraph: Used to set the space between paragraphs and also between the lines
• Bullets: Used to highlight points in number wise / bullet wise.
• Borders & Shades: Used to apply different borders to the table / to the page.
• Columns: Used to write the text in column wise.
• To have a break in columns, a column break is used (insert menu → break →
Columns)
• Ctrl + Shift + Enter
• Drop Cap: Used to drop the letter to different lines.
• Text direction: Used to change the direction of drop cap (Note: To use text direction,
drop cap must be used first)
• Change case: Used to change the case of the text.
• Toggle: This converts lower case letters to upper case & vice –versa in a word.
• Background: This is used to change the back ground colour of the document but the
color can be seen only in the web layout.
• Theme: This is used to change the document, backgrounds with some existing design
background. This shows the background only in the web layout.
• Style: This is used to change the writing fashion of the document which are already
existing.
• Frames: Frames are used to write different documents in one single document.

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Some important features of Tools menu:
Spelling & Grammar: Used to check the spelling and correct the words with related word.
(F7)
Thesaurus: Used to know the synonym (meaning) of the word. (Shift +F7)
Mail merge: used to type the letters with the same matter but different addresses.

MS WORD – Working with files:

Creating a New document:
• Click the New Blank document button on the standard tool bar. (or)
• From the Menu bar, choose File → New, the New document task pane will open, and
select Blank document.
Opening Existing documents:
• Click the open button found on the Standard tool bar. (or)
• From the task pane, select getting started and the select more (or)
• From the Menu bar, select File → Open
Saving a document:
• Click the Save button on the Tool bar. (or)
• From the Menu bar, select File → Save (or)
• Follow the key sequence Ctrl + S
Save dialog box appears. Type the name and click Save.
Printing a document:
• Select File → Print (or)
• Click on the Print button on the Standard Tool bar (or)
• Click Ctrl + P
Print dialog box appears. Select All pages (or) Current page (or) type the page numbers
and also select number of copies according to the requirement and click O.K
Closing a document:
• Select File → close
• Click on the small X found on the right top next to the Menu bar and the Title bar.

MS Word – Editing Text:

Typing and Inserting Text:
To enter text in your document, position the insertion point i.e. a vertical blinking line, where
you want the text to appear and type it in.

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Word will automatically wrap text as it reaches the end of a line. Press enter to start a new
paragraph. When you reach the end of a page, word will automatically break text onto the next
page. If you want, you can start a new page at any point by inserting a page break. To do so,
press ctrl + Enter.
Word offers two modes for adding text to your documents: Insert mode and overwrite mode.
In Insert mode, characters typed are inserted into the text to the left of the insertion point,
pushing any characters to the right of the insertion point further to the right. In overtype mode,
the text you type will replace the existing text.
Note: The Insert key is a toggle key. This means that the same key can be used to switch back
and forth between two different modes.
Selecting Text:
In order to change the format of the text you just typed, it must be first highlighted, i.e selected
with the mouse cursor.
To highlight the whole text or part of it, locate the mouse at the start of the text you wish to
highlight and click the left button, then drag the mouse over the desired text while keeping the
left mouse button pressed.
Shortcuts used for selecting a portion of the text:
• Whole word: Double click within the word.
• Whole paragraph: Triple click within the paragraph.
• Sentence: ctrl + click in a sentence
• Entire document: Edit → select all (ctrl + A)

Deleting text:
• Use the BACKSPACE or the DELETE key to delete text.
• BACKSPACE key will delete text to the left of the cursor and DELETE key will erase
text to the right.
• To delete a large section of text, highlight the text using any of the methods outlined
above and press the DELETE key.
Moving, copying and pasting text:
Cut text:
Highlight the text you need to move and follow one of the methods listed below:
• From the Menu bar, select Edit → cut (or)
• From the standard tool bar, click on the cut button. (or)
• Follow the key sequence Ctrl + X
Copy text:
• From the Menu bar, select Edit → copy (or)
• From the standard toolbar, click the Copy button (or)
• Follow the key sequence Ctrl + C

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Paste Text:
To paste previously cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move the
text to and follow one of the methods listed below:
• From the menu bar, select Edit → Paste (or)
• From the standard Tool bar, click the Paste button (or)
• Follow the key sequence Ctrl + V

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 MS-EXCEL
Spreadsheet is a software that helps to substitute the paper worksheets in the offices.
Spreadsheet displays data in the form of rows and columns. An intersection of row and column
is known as a cell.
MS-Excel is a window-based spreadsheet developed by Microsoft Corporation. It includes all
features of a spreadsheet package like recalculation, graphs & functions. It also provides many
Mathematical, Financial & Statistical functions. Thus, it is used in many scientific and
engineering environments for analyzing data. Excel can even hold graphic objects like pictures
& images.
Some important features of MS-Excel:
1. Window based application: Excel like all other applications has Toolbars, Shortcut
Menus, Auto correct, Online help and Wizards.
2. Workbooks: Workbooks are the files in which worksheets related to a project are held.
3. OLE support: Object linking and Embedding is a feature through which Excel can
contain any object like a document, a picture etc.
4. Maintaining high volume of data: Excel can contain large volume of data. A
worksheet can contain 65536 rows and 256 columns. A single cell can contain a
maximum of 255 characters. One workbook can contain a maximum of 256 worksheets.
5. Availability of functions: Several Mathematical, financial & statistical functions are
available in an Excel package.
6. Availability of Charts & Graphs: MS-Excel allows users to view data entered as
tables in a graphical form as charts, which helps the user to easily understand, analyze
data & compare data.
7. Data Analysis Tools: MS-Excel provides a set of data analysis tools called Analysis
Tool pack.
8. Sorting capability: Excel has the capability of sorting any data in Ascending or
Descending order.
9. Auto fill feature: Excel has the feature which allows to fill cells with repetitive data
such as chronological dates or numbers and repeated text.
Getting started with Excel:
An Excel document is called a workbook. By default, Excel workbook contains 3 worksheets
designated as sheet 1, sheet 2, sheet 3, etc.
The extension name of excel workbook is .xls.
We can start excel in many ways:
1. Start → Programs → Microsoft office → Microsoft Excel → hit enter.
2. Start → Run → Type Excel → hit enter
3. Double click on the Microsoft application Icon.

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Components of the Excel Window:
An Excel window has several unique elements identified in the figure below:

• Rows, columns & cell: In a worksheet, rows are numbered from top to bottom. The
columns are labelled with letters from left to right. Rows are numbered from 1 to 65,536
and columns labelled from A to IV (256 columns).
• Title bar: The title bar contains the name of the program Microsoft Excel and the
default name of the workbook Book1 that would change as soon as you save your file
and give another name.
• Menu bar: The Menu bar contains menus that include all the commands you need to
use to work your way through Excel such as File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools,
Data, Window and Help.
• Tool Bar: Tool Bars are usually shortcuts for menu items. Standard and formatting
toolbars are displayed by default.
• Active cell: The cell in which you are currently working.
• Formula bar: displays the contents of the active cell.
• Name box: displays the cell address of the active cell. Column letter followed by the
row number.
• Worksheet area: The middle portion of screen which occupies a major area is called
worksheet area. In this area, information or data (i.e.) either textual or numerical can be
entered and the results can be displayed. A worksheet is a large work area of 65,536
rows and 256 columns.
• Status bar: located at the very bottom of the screen displays brief information about
activating features within the worksheet area.
• Sheets tabs: appear above the status bar displaying the names of the worksheets.

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Standard Toolbar
The Standard toolbar, located beneath the menu bar, has buttons for commonly performed tasks
like adding a column of numbers, printing, sorting, and other operations. Excel let's you
customize the toolbar or even display multiple toolbars at the same time. The Standard Excel
XP toolbar appears in the figure below.

Formatting toolbar
The Formatting toolbar, located beneath the Standard toolbar bar, has buttons for various
formatting operations like changing text size or style, formatting numbers and placing borders
around cells.

Formula bar & Name box

The formula bar is located beneath the toolbar at the top of the Excel worksheet. Use the
formula bar to enter and edit worksheet data. The contents of the active cell always appear in
the formula bar. When you click the mouse in the formula bar, an X and a check mark appear.
You can click the check icon to confirm and completes editing, or the X to abandon editing.

Name box
The Name box displays the reference of the selected cells in the form of column label followed
by row number.

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Creating a New Workbook:
The steps to create a new workbook are,
1. On the File menu, click New. The new workbook task pane appears at the right side of
the screen.
2. Click blank workbook. A new workbook with 3 worksheets appears.
3. By default, the workbook is named as Book 1, and sheet 1 is the active worksheet &
A1 is the active cell.

Entering data:
You can enter text, numbers and dates in an Excel worksheet.
To enter data of any type,
1. Select the cell by clicking on it.
2. Type in the information.
3. Press the Enter key. When you begin typing, your data also appears in the formula bar.

Editing text:
The easiest way to edit the contents of a cell is to select the cell and then retype the entry. The
new entry replaces the old contents.
Alternatively, to edit the data in a cell, press F2.
Example: Suppose you find that in the cell A3, you have entered the marks as 20 instead of 43,
then click on A3 and type 43 → enter.
You can also edit part of the data in a cell:
• Double click the cell you want to edit. The insertion point appears within the cell.
• Delete the part of the data that you do not wish to keep.
• Retype the data & press enter.

Formatting a worksheet:
Changing the style or appearance of data in a worksheet is called formatting. You can format
the data in a worksheet by:
• Changing the position of data in a cell
• Changing the font, size, style & colour.

Aligning data:
By default, any text you enter in Excel is aligned to the left and any value or number is aligned
to the Right. To change the default alignment, you can use the alignment buttons on the
formatting tool bar.

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Formatting Numbers:
Formatting data in a worksheet includes changing the number of decimal places, displaying
dates, times & fractions and adding currency symbols.
To format the number in a cell, the steps are: Format/Cell/N/umber/Decimal places/2.
Formatting Text: Text can be formatted using the buttons on the formatting toolbar. Font of
a cell, font size can be changed. The font style can also be changed to bold, Italic etc.
Inserting Rows & Columns:
In Excel, rows & columns can be inserted or deleted without affecting the surrounding rows,
columns & cells.
To insert a row,
1. Rest the mouse pointer over the row above which you want to insert the new row.
2. On the Insert menu, click rows.
A row is inserted and the existing row moves down after the new row. Similarly, to insert a
column,
1. Rest the mouse pointer over the column before which you want to insert the new
Column.
2. On the Insert menu, click columns.
Changing Row height & Column width:
By default, every row is 12.75 points high and every column is 8.43 characters wide. As you
fill it with data, however you have to change the size of rows & columns so that it is fitted to
the length of the data.
To Resize a column:
1. Rest the mouse pointer on the column boundary on the right side.
2. The shape of the mouse pointer changes to 

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 3. Drag the boundary until the required width is obtained.
(OR)
1. The column which is to be adjusted is made active by clicking on column letter.
2. The column option is selected from the Format menu.
3. Click on the width option. A dialogue box is displayed.
4. Type in the required size of the column in the text box column width.
Similarly, Row height can also be adjusted by selecting the rows.
Sorting: Highlight the cells that should be sorted and click the sort Ascending (A-Z) button or
Sort Descending (Z-A) button found on the Standard toolbar.
Printing: To print the worksheet, select File → Print from the Menu bar (or) click on the Print
button from the Standard Toolbar (or) follow the key sequence Ctrl + p.
Inserting Page breaks: To set the page breaks within the worksheet, select the row you want
to appear just below the page break by clicking the row ‘s label. Then choose Insert → page
break from the Menu bar.
When you attempt to print a worksheet Excel automatically inserts page break’s view.
File menu → page break preview
The page breaks are shown in dasher lines. If the automatic allocation of page breaks does not
satisfy with your requirements, you can add the page breaks in the required space.
1. Select a cell above which the page break is needed. After that, select the full row until
the data in the sheet exists.
2. select insert → page break
Saving a workbook:
To save a workbook,
• File → Save (or)
• Ctrl +S (or)
• Click on the save button on the Tool bar.
Save dialogue box appears. Type the name and click Save.
Formulas: In Excel. One of the powerful features is formulas. A formula is an equation that is
used to perform calculations on data in a worksheet.
We can use formula to perform Mathematical, Statistical & date/time operations on a single
value or a set of values by using operators. The cells in which formulas are stored, display the
result of the calculation and not the formula.
In Excel, a formula starts with an equal (=) sign and should be followed by the operation to be
performed. We can use any number of operators in a single formula. MS- Excel evaluates the
formula according to the order of precedence of the operators.

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 Operator Operation
( ) Bracket
^ Exponentiation
*, / Multiplication, Division
+/- Addition, Subtraction
& Concatenation
=/>/< Comparisons

Examples of the formula expressions:

a. Suppose the values in the cells C2, D2, E2 are 59, 34, 32 respectively. To add these
values and to have the result in the cell F2,
• Click on the cell in which total marks is to be displayed, i.e F2
• Type “ = (C2 + D2 + E2 )”
• Press Enter
The value “125” will be displayed in F2.
b. Suppose the value of the cell D6 is 8000. Divide the value by 5 and have it in the cell
E6:
• Click the cell E6.
• Type “ = (D6/5)“
• Press Enter
The value “1600” will be displayed in the cell E6.
c. Multiply the value 240 of the cell B3 with the value 65 of the cell C3 and have the result
in the cell I3.
• Click the cell I3
• Type “ = ( B3 * C3) “
• press Enter
The result “15600” will be displayed in the cell I3.
Functions:
A function is a built-in, readymade and frequently used formula that accepts data, perform
calculations & returns results.
To enter a function in a cell,
a) Click the cell in which you want the result of the function to be displayed.
b) Type “=” sign.
c) Type the function name.
d) Type the cell range & other arguments within brackets.
e) Press Enter.
Note: To specify a range of cells, a colon (:) is used between the first & last cell addresses.
Example: =Average(C1:C10)

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Calculates the average of the values in the cells C1 to C10.
Mathematical functions with syntax and purpose:
i. Sum( number1, number2,…) - gives the sum of the values in a specified range
ii. Abs(number) - gives the absolute value of the number
iii. Fact(number) - gives the factorial of the number
iv. Sqrt(number) - gives the square root of the number
v. Log(number) - gives the logarithm of the number
Statistical functions with syntax and purpose:
a. Average(range of cells) - calculates the average of the values in a specified range
b. Stdev(range of cells) - calculates the standard deviation of the given data
c. Mean(range of cells) - calculates the mean of the given data
d. Max(range of cells) - gives the maximum value within the range specified
e. Count() - counts how many numbers are there in the list of
arguments

Function Wizard:
The Function Wizard is a tool in Excel through which a user can enter formulas in the correct
format without any errors. It contains all the functions according to the type such as
Mathematical, Statistical, Date/time, Financial etc.

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Steps to use the function Wizard:
1. The cell in which the function is to be inserted, is selected.
2. Select the function option from the Insert menu. The Function Wizard screen is
displayed. It lists all the functions available.
3. The function needed is selected. Click O.K.
4. A dialogue box is displayed in which arguments are accepted.
5. Enter the arguments. The selected cell on the worksheet will automatically contain the
formula.
6. Click O.K. The result is shown in the selected cell.
Creating Charts:
Charts in Excel are used to represent data pictorially. We can use different types of charts to
represent data.
Types of charts which are available in Excel:
❖ Column charts
❖ Bar chats
❖ Line charts
❖ Pie
❖ XY (Scatter)
❖ Area
❖ Doughnut
❖ Radar
❖ Surface
❖ Bubble
❖ Stock
❖ Cylinder, Cone & Pyramid
Creating a Chart:
i. Enter the data in a table.
ii. Open the Insert Menu and select Chart
iii. In the Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4, select the type of chart you want to make and
click Next
iv. In the step 2 of 4, enter chart source data and click Next
v. In the step 3 of 4, enter the chart options like label of the chart and click Next
vi. In the step 4 of 4, give the chart location where you want the chart to be located and
press Finish.

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Column Chart: Column charts are one of the most common types of graphs used to display
data. A column chart represents data in the form of a series of vertical bars. Each bar represents
a value.
Example, to draw a column chart for the number students undertaking different courses in the
university.
# Course Number
1 BCT 68
2 BIT 78
3 BCOM 84
4 BTECH 56

To construct a bar chart for the above data:

i. Enter the data in a table.
ii. Open the Insert Menu and select Chart
iii. In the Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4, select Column chart and click Next
iv. In the step 2 of 4, enter chart source data
v. In the step 3 of 4, enter the chart options like label of the chart
vi. In the step 4 of 4, give the chart location where you want the chart to be located and
press Finish.

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 Number of Students per Course
90
80
Number of Students 70
60
50
40
30 Number
20
10
0
BCT BIT BCOM BTECH
1 2 3 4
Type of Course

Pie Chart
A Pie chart is used to represent the distribution of a categorical data. In this chart, a circle is
divided into sectors, whose area are proportional to the frequencies or percentages of cases
under various categories.
Data on each variable is entered in the Excel worksheet in a row or column with suitable
headings. Then we select the data of the first series and choose pie chart and proceed as per the
options given in the dialogue box. A separate chart pie chart should be drawn for each data set.
For Example, to draw a pie chart for a number of students undertaking different courses in a
university.
# Course Number
1 BCT 68
2 BIT 78
3 BCOM 84
4 BTECH 56

Number of Students

20% 24% 1 BCT

2 BIT
3 BCOM
29%
27% 4 BTECH

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 Statistical Analysis Tools
Microsoft Excel provides a set of data analysis tools “called the Analysis Tool Pak” that you
can use to save steps when you develop complex statistical or engineering analyses. You
provide the data and parameters for each analysis; the tool uses the appropriate statistical or
engineering macro functions and then displays the results in an output table. Some tools
generate charts in addition to output tables. Related to worksheet functions, Excel provides
many other statistical, financial, and engineering worksheet functions. Some of the statistical
functions are built-in and others become available when you install the Analysis Tool Pak.
Accessing the data analysis tools: The Analysis Tool Pak includes the tools described below.
To access these tools, click Data Analysis on the Tools menu. If the Data Analysis command
is not available, you need to load the Analysis Tool Pak add-in program.

Analysis Tools:
ANOVA: Single factor
ANOVA: Two-Factor with replication
ANOVA: Two-Factor without replication
Correlation
Covariance
Descriptive statistics
F-test two-sample for variances
Histogram
Regression

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t-test: two sample assuming equal variances
t-test: two sample assuming unequal variances
Z-test: two sample for means
Steps to use Analysis Tools:
i. From the Menu bar choose Data Tab and click on Data Analysis.
ii. When the Data Analysis dialogue box appears, click on the one you want.
iii. The corresponding dialogue box appears. Enter the Input range and Output range
(addresses of the cells).
iv. Give the address of the cell where you want the result to be shown.
v. Click OK
vi. The result will be given in the corresponding output format.
Example 1: The following are the results of 5 preschool going children at different levels of
protein content in diet. Compute the correlation coefficient using Excel.
Protein content (%) Weight Gain (gm)
5 30
7 40
10 80
12 100
13 120
Steps:
i. From the Menu bar, choose Data Tab and click on Data Analysis.
ii. Select Correlation in the Data Analysis Dialogue box and click OK.
iii. When the Correlation dialogue box appears, enter the Input range and also give the
output range where you want the result to be shown, clock OK.

iv. The result will be shown in the following format:

Summary output:

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Example 2: Following is the data of head and body weight of 5 insects. Find the regression
equation of X on Y.
Head Weight (X) Body Weight (Y)
20 60
22 64
25 72
27 80
31 84
Steps:
i. From the Menu bar, choose Data Tab and click on Data Analysis.
ii. Select Regression in the Data Analysis Dialogue box and click OK.
iii. When the Regression dialogue box appears, enter the Input Y range and input X
range.
iv. Give the output range where you want the result to be shown, clock OK.

v. The result will be shown in the following format.

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 Example 3: The daily production of two pesticide factories is recorded as follows:
Factory 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
M 12 16 9 13 15 17 20 23
N 8 13 21 16 11 12
Test whether there is any significant difference between two factories at probability level 0.05.
Solution:
Steps:
i. From the Menu bar, choose Data Tab and click on Data Analysis.
ii. Select t-test; two samples assuming equal variances in the Data Analysis Dialogue
box and click OK.
iii. Enter the variable 1 range, variable 2 range and set Hypothesized mean difference
as zero.
iv. Click the check box against Labels in the First row.
v. Give the output range where you want the result to be shown, click O.K.

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vi. The result will be shown in the following format:

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 MS-ACCESS
The Database is an organized collection of data related to a particular topic or purpose. The
database serves as a base from which a desired information can be retrieved, many
meaningful conclusions can be drawn.
A database stored electronically has distinct advantages over a manually organized system.
A database can be maintained in a computer by using a database management system
(DBMS).
DBMS is an application that enables to maintain data in a database. Maintaining data
involves storing, organizing and retrieving data.
MS-Access is a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that is used to store
and manipulate large amount of information. The extension name of Ms-Access file is
.mdb.
Database is widely applied in fields like: Budget analysis, cash flow forecasts, bank account
management, Personal record maintenance and even address of books and diary
maintenance. A part from Ms Access, other examples of database include: Dbase, Clarion
and FoxPro, MySQL, Oracle.
To Start MS Access:
a) Start→ Programs → MS office → Ms-Access → Enter
b) Start → Run → Ms-Access →Enter
An Access Database consists of 7 different Database objects:
i. Tables: Store database data in Rows (records) and columns (fields). Every row
represents a Record. Each piece of information in a record is called a Field.
For instance, a table can contain personal information about all the students in a
college. Every row containing information about a student represents a record. The
records in the student table can include fields such as Admission number, Student
name, Address, Phone number etc.
ii. Queries: used to retrieve information from a database based on specific conditions.
For instance, a Query can be used to extract details about students studying in a
particular class.
iii. Forms: used as interfaces for users to enter, view and modify data in a Table.
iv. Reports: used to present data from tables or Queries in a format of our choice. i.e
the printable form of the table or query or form. We cannot make changes to the
data in a report. We can format the data in a report.
v. Pages: display shortcuts to data access pages in the database. A data access page
displays data stored in a database over the internet.
vi. Macros: used to automate frequently performed tasks. For instance, we can create
a macro to print a report automatically.
vii. Modules: used to perform advanced database operations, such as validating data
against complex conditions.

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TABLE
A table is a collection of records that describe similar data. A database for patients in a hospital
could have tables for admission information and even bills to be paid.
Components of a Table
a. Record: A record is a complete detail about an entry, normally entered in a row e.g.
Name, sex, age, date of birth etc. Record can also be defined as a collection of data
about a person, place or even an event.
b. Field: This is an element of a table that contains a specific item of information on an
item. It can also be said to be a cross of information in a record or database normally
entered in columns fields.
c. Data: This is the material (stuff) that access, stores, organizes and manages for you.
Creating a table
There are three different ways you can create a table by using a blank database. These are:
a. Datasheet view
b. Design view
c. Table wizard
A. Datasheet View
This is database turns into a large sheet similar to that one of Ms Excel enabling you to create
a table.
Steps:
• Click on View
• Choose design view
• Click OK
• Enter your field names

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B. Design View
This is where Access helps you design the table before entering in any records. You design the
fields first.
Steps:
• Select the table option and click on the new button
• Select design view and then click OK
• Enter the field name, Data type and the description
• Set the primary key by right clicking the field you want to set as the primary key. Note
that primary key is optional.
• Click file and then click save
• Type the table name and then click OK
• Click view and then datasheet view
• Enter the records as required
• Click file and then save

Example:
Field Name Data types
Student No Auto Number
Name Text
Marks Number

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C. Table Wizard
This is where a computer asks you questions about the table you want to create. Now basing
on your answers to the question the computer helps you create the table. This can be done
using the steps below:
• In the database window click table
• Click new
• Click table wizard
• Click OK
• From the sample tables select the kind of table you are going to create
• From the sample field select the kind of fields you want for your table
• Click next and type the name of the table
• Click finish

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Working with Database Fields:
Microsoft Access database fields are created by entering a field name and a field data type in
each row of the field entry area of the database table window.
Data types in MS-Access:
The following list summarizes all the field data types available in MS- Access, their uses and
their storage sizes.
• Text: used for text or combinations of text and numbers, such as addresses or for
numbers that do not require calculations, such as phone numbers, or postal codes. Stores
up to 255 characters.
• Memo: Used for lengthy text and numbers, such as notes or descriptions. Stores up to
64,000 characters.
• Number: Used for data to be included in Mathematical calculations, except
calculations involving money. Stores 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes.
• Date / Time: Used for dates and times. Stores 8 bytes.
• Currency: Used for currency values and to prevent rounding off during calculations.
Stores 8 bytes.
• Auto Number: Used for unique sequential or random numbers that are automatically
inserted when a record is added.
• Yes / No: Used for data that can be only one of two possible values, such as yes/ No,
True/False, On/Off.
• OLE object: Used for OLE objects like pictures, graphs and other binary data. Stores
up to 1 GB.

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 TRENDS IN ICT
Every year, new technologies emerge that provide innovative approaches to business
challenges and life’s problems. Some of these stand the test of time and others fall by the
wayside, leaving room for new technological developments and startups to join the race. It can
be difficult to know which emerging tech is worth the investment and which you should pass
over. Some of the technologies include:
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Trend: Generative AI and increased focus on explainable AI and ethical considerations
Generative AI is taking us one step closer to what we’ve always seen from cinematic tech of
the future. ChatGPT, a generative AI technology that utilizes natural language processing and
can generate text based on a prompt, caused quite a stir upon its release in November 2022 as
leaders evaluated the impact of the technology on business applications, but also tried to
anticipate the ethical implications of a technology that can mimic human output.
Examples: Chatbots and Apple’s Siri
Use Cases
• Improve issue resolution times in customer service
• Enhanced marketing automation through focused advertising and social media reach
• Develop routine software code

2. Internet of Things (IoT)

Internet of Things (IoT) uses connected devices, such as wearables and sensors, to provide
more optimal results for businesses.
Trend: Expansion of IoT devices in various industries and increased focus on cybersecurity
IoT devices are becoming increasingly used across various industries. A large part of this
expansion derives from the increasing bandwidths we are seeing with 5G. Running parallel to
that expansion is the need for increased cybersecurity, particularly with respect to IoT. The
open interconnectivity capabilities of IoT have made it a prime candidate for cyberattacks in
the past. Providers will refocus their efforts to help ensure IoT is becoming more secure.
Use Cases
• More options for autonomous transportation
• Monitoring of buildings and the environment for optimized energy usage and
identification of harmful conditions
• Improved fleet management
• Better healthcare monitoring and improved patient outcomes

3. Machine Learning (ML)

Machine learning has helped technology advance significantly in recent years, giving us the
ability to draw insights from massive amounts of data.

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Trend: Continued development of automated machine learning (AutoML)
While machine learning has offered us many applications in the near past, the major
breakthrough in machine learning will involve automated machine learning. Machine learning,
while valuable, is highly resource intensive and consumes a ton of time to develop the learning
models. With AutoML, many of the iterative and mundane tasks, such as data cleansing and
parameter selection, are automated to reduce the burden on technical resources. Using
algorithms rather than humans to build learning models, AutoML also allows non-technical
people to make better use of the technology.
Use Cases
• Enhanced document and text classification, allowing for better identification of
information
• Improved accuracy and speed of data management
• Fast fraud detection

4. 5G Networks
5G networks have been key for increasing speeds, increasing capacity and reducing latency.
The next wave of networks will involve 5G networks that stand alone.
Trend: Development of standalone 5G networks for broader coverage and lower latency
When 5G networks originally rolled out, they were dependent on the 4G core network to
provide data transfer and coverage. This allowed for the initial functionality without
implementing a whole new infrastructure. Now, with the development of 5G standalone (5G
SA) networks, users will have access to greater coverage and will experience lower latency.
Utilizing a cloud-based architecture, 5G SA will provide a better user experience and pave the
way for technologies such as autonomous vehicle automation and precision robotics.
Use Cases
• Reliable remote control of machinery, robotics and other devices
• Secure, controlled and widespread internet access unlimited by geography
• More accurate inventory management across all industries

5. Edge Computing
According to Deloitte, U.S. households have an average of 22 connected devices. Edge
computing may well be the answer to managing big data.
Trend: Growth of edge computing in various industries, including healthcare and
manufacturing
The sheer number of devices being used on a regular basis is staggering and the amount of data
that is created is astronomical in size. If all that data had to cross a network and be processed

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in a data center, users would see very low latency and long wait times for data analysis and
insights. Edge computing allows this data to be processed closer to the point of creation to
minimize the latency and increase speeds. The introduction of more devices in the healthcare
and manufacturing fields is causing the adoption of edge computing to help improve patient
outcomes and reduce delays in supply chain processes.
Use Cases
• Reducing latency in IoT
• Connecting medical devices and in-hospital monitoring
• Optimization of content delivery networks (CDNs)

6. Blockchain
Blockchain is helping to keep data more secure and creating a reliable history of transactions.
The applications extend far beyond that of cryptocurrency.
Trend: Increased adoption in supply chain management and financial services
The rise in supply chain issues and the increased digitization of currency is creating new use
cases for blockchain. With its indelible transaction history, blockchain is helping to give real-
time insight into the tracking of goods from creation to distribution, relieving some of the
bottlenecks that are created in the supply chain. In financial services, blockchain is now being
applied to streamline banking and lending in the face of digitization and reducing operational
risks with verified history.
Use Cases
• Improved supply chain tracking and management
• Better protection of intellectual property
• Secure peer-to-peer transactions

7. Spatial Computing
Spatial computing is making huge strides and improving how we interact with the digital world.
Be prepared for the technology of the future.
Trend: The next step in merging physical and digital worlds after VR and AR
Spatial computing is a complex technology that involves how people interact with digital
content. Using a variety of sensors, cameras and other connected technology, spatial computing
uses 3D interfaces to allow users to create and manipulate content in their physical space. Think
Tony Stark and how he uses the space around him to interact with his technology. Spatial
computing will take us so much farther than virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR),
allowing us to apply technology to help shape our very existence.
Use Cases

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 • Enhance virtual education, business meetings, remote assistance and other
collaborative activities
• Deliver greater design visualization
• Create immersive advertising and marketing campaigns

8. Smart Spaces
Smart spaces will be increasingly used to help optimize different areas.
Trend: The use of AI and IoT technologies to create more intelligent and responsive
environments
Smart spaces use advanced, connected technologies to help monitor a space, provide
information about the area and increase efficiency in that environment. The collection of data
allows people to make informed decisions about the safety and condition of the location, while
allowing for refined usage of that space. Smart spaces will involve a variety of connected
sensors to automate management of that area, including such tasks as adjusting lighting and
temperature.
Use Cases
• Better utilization of energy consumption
• Efficient use of building space and occupancy
• Improved management of health and safety in spaces

9. Homomorphic Encryption
Security concerns make data encryption a necessary task, but the encryption/decryption process
can be time intensive. Homomorphic encryption changes all that.
Trend: Advancements in secure data privacy solutions that allow computation on encrypted
data without decryption
Homomorphic encryption allows for data processing without first having to decrypt the
information. This is valuable because it enhances data security without interrupting business
processes. This will have a huge impact on privacy and compliance as businesses utilize
homomorphic encryption to maintain data integrity while sharing the information with all
required parties.
Use Cases
• Secure transfer of financial, personal or sensitive information or communications
• Increase the integrity of the voting process
• Allow for the development of secure machine learning models

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 10. Metaverse
The metaverse is a term that is gaining traction as more interactions take place in digital spaces.
The metaverse is expected to take us beyond simple simulations into a more advanced digital
world.
Trend: The creation of a shared virtual space where people can interact in a three-dimensional
environment
The metaverse is an emerging technology that would function as a shared, immersive digital
space which can be accessed through augmented reality devices. Ideally, the metaverse would
allow for more connected interactions in a virtual space that go beyond our current virtual-
reality capabilities. The application of the metaverse would ideally allow for more life-like
interaction and better idea sharing without the need for physical proximity.
Use Cases
• Allow for immersive virtual events
• Enhance the quality of remote learning
• Tour real estate properties without being physically present

11. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing

The value provided by 3D printers has already been proven, with advances being made in many
different industries. As we continue to see expanded applications, 3D printing continues to
provide more possibilities for business.
Trend: Expansion of 3D printing materials and applications, including metal and ceramic
printing and use of 3D printing in mass production
3D printing has the potential to help eliminate huge amounts of waste in mass production. In
addition, metal and ceramic printing are adding to the myriad uses for additive manufacturing,
expanding beyond the use cases of plastic-only 3D printing. The expansion of materials is
helping to optimize manufacturing processes while reducing material and machinery costs.
Use Cases
• Development of resilient and bone-like medical implants
• Cheaper and faster production of aerospace components

12. Smart Homes and Cities

Smart homes and cities have put the benefits of IoT to use to benefit families and residents.
Trend: Increased adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) devices in homes and cities, allowing
for greater automation and connectivity
Smart homes and cities will allow for efficiency at scale, with more connectivity options to
bring together homes and even entire cities. Smart homes and cities can maximize energy
usage, while helping to increase the safety of public spaces, reduce bottlenecks in transportation

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and public services, create greater sustainability practices and make use of forms of renewable
energy.
Use Cases
• Optimized occupancy in residential and business buildings
• Efficient energy storage and usage across spaces
• Enhance monitoring and safety of public spaces

13. Robotics and Automation

Expanded applications for robotics and automation will sooner offer new and exciting ways to
innovate.
Trend: Development of more sophisticated robots with advanced sensing capabilities and
increased focus on robot-human collaboration
Robotics will soon allow for better interactions between humans and robots. Technological
advances in the field and recent prototypes demonstrate heightened interactions between robots
and their surroundings, with improved capabilities of interacting with their surrounding
environment. These breakthroughs will enable greater safety, increased automation and
enhanced efficiency.
Use Cases
• Automated manufacturing and quality assurance
• Expanded space exploration
• Eliminate employee dangers in the workplace

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 NETWORKING AND INTERNET
A network is an arrangement that enables two or more computers to communicate (talk) to
each other.
What is a Network?
A Network is a group of connected computers that allow people to share information and
equipment, such as Printers.

Network Size
A network can be any size. For example, a small business can create a network by
connecting as few computers for sharing files. A network can also connect millions of
computers to exchange information all over the World.
The World’s largest network is the Internet.
Network Format
Sneakernet
Before networks, people used floppy disk to exchange information between computers.
This method of exchanging information is known as a Sneakernet. Sneakernet is slower
and less reliable than a computer network.
A computer network eliminates the need for Sneakernet.
Permanent Networks
Most companies use permanent network to transfer information. Most permanent network
use cables to link computers together. The computers and cables on a permanent network
stay connected and in place at all times.
Temporary Network
A temporary network is a network connection that is established for a brief time and then
disconnected. The most common type of temporary network occurs when an employee
connects a computer at home to a computer at work using a Modem.
Network Advantages
Sharing Information: You can use a network to exchange information with other people.
Information can be any form of data, such as document created in a word processing
program or information provided by a database.
Sharing Resources: Computers connected to a network can share equipment and devices
called resources. The ability to share resources reduces the cost of buying computer
hardware. For example, instead of having to buy Printer for each person on a network
everyone can share one central Printer.
Sharing Programs: Networks also allow people to access a copy of a program stored on
a central computer. Such Word processing program or Spreadsheet. Individuals can use

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their own computers to access and run the programs. By sharing programs, a company can
avoid having to install a copy of the program on each person’s computer.
Working Together: Before computer networks, many companies used one large
expensive computer to perform complex tasks. Now most companies use a network with
several smaller computers. The computer on a network are less expensive and make it easier
to complete complicated tasks. For example, multiple computers can be set up to help keep
track of sales. One computer can process order, another computer can keep track of
inventory and the last can arrange for delivery.
Communication: Networks allow people to communicate and exchange messages with
each other easily and efficiently. Communicating with the other people on a network is
especially usefully useful when people are working together on the same project. Messages
are often delivered within seconds of being sent. Using a network also makes it possible to
hold meetings with people in another office or even on the other side of the world.
Types of Networks
There are many different types of networks used in businesses and organizations. Since
each business and organization has its own needs, each network is unique.
The size of a network can often determine which type of network a business or organization
should use. Different sized network transmit data in different ways. For example, a network
with 1,000 users is organized differently and requires a variety of components not found
on a network with only five users.
1. Local Area Networks (LAN): A Local Area Network is the most common type of
network found in businesses. Local area networks connect computers and devices
located to each other, such as in one building. Usually, local area network connects no
more than 100 computers.
Ex: Set of interconnected computers within an office.

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2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): A Metropolitan area network is collection of
local area networks. Metropolitan area network connects geographic area such as a city
or town.
Ex: The computers in all branches of an office within a city.

3. Wide Area Networks (WAN): A wide area networks connects local and metropolitan
area networks together. The networks that make up a wide area network may be located
throughout a country or even around the world. When a single company owns and
controls a wide area network the WAN is often referred to as and enterprise network.
Ex: Computers in different branches of a Globalized company.

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Note: Network Cost
The size and type of network determine its cost. The larger the network the more the
network is to be build, set up and maintain. In addition to needing extra hardware and
cables, a large network also requires specialized cabling and computers to link users and
devices that are far apart.
Network Hardware
Network hardware includes the physical components that make up a network. All networks
require special network hardware. They include:
Computers: The most important job of a network is to link computers together. When
computers are linked the people using the computers can work more especially computers
connected to a network do not have to be the same type. Many networks contain different
types of computers such as IBM compatible and Macintosh.
Resources: A network resource is any device computers on a network can use. The most
type of resource is a printer. All of the people on a network can send documents to a printer
that is connected to the network. Other examples of network resources are fax machines,
tape backup units and file storage devices such as hard drives.
Cables: Cables are the wires that connect computers and resources on a network. Many
different kinds of cables can be used, depending on the type and size of the network. The
type of cable can often determine how quickly information will transfer through the
network. For some network, some networks, many miles of cable may be required.
Connectors: A connector is any device that joints two networks together. When two
networks are connected all the computers on both networks can exchange information. The
most common type of connector is called a bridge.
Network interface cards: A Network interface card (NIC) is a device that joins a cable to
a computer interface card are installed inside a computer. The edge of the card can be seen
at the best back or the computer. An NIC has a port where the network cable plugs in.
Network Software
Network software consists of the programs run by computers to a network.
Network Operating system: The most important software on a network is the Network
Operating System (NOS) organizes and manages all the actives on a network. On most one
central computer is usually responsible for running the network operating system.
Network Drivers: A network driver is the software on a computer that allows the computer
to use a network interface card to communicate with the network.
Application Software
Application software consists of the software that runs on computers connected to a
network. Application software includes word processors, spreadsheets and drawing
programs. Application software can be stored on each computer connected to the network
or a central computer that is used only for storing application software

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Server Software: A server is a computer that makes information and available to other
computers on a network. Server software enables the server to perform a specific task. For
example, mail server software must be compatible with the network operating system
Management Software: Most networks that contain more than 20 computers usually run
special management software allow network administrators to organize and manage a
network more efficiently.
Classification of Networks
Peer To Peer Networks versus Client/Server Networks

Peer – To – Peer Networks

Peer-to-peer networks allow computers on a network to share their data and resources. Each
computer on a peer-to-peer network stores is own information and resource. There no
central computers that control the network
A peer-to-to peer network should not be used if more than 10 computers will be connected
to a network. They will be easier to manager on a network that is controlled by a central
computer called a Server.
Client/Server Networks
Client/Server Networks are created using a central computer that serves information to
other computers, which are referred to as Clients.
A clients/Server network is often the most efficient way to connect 10 or more computers.
Server: A Server is a computer that makes information and resources available to other
computers on a network. A server is usually a more powerful computer than the other
computers on a network.

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General Tips
When you want to write a message at Yahoo page
Step 1 – On the menu bar -click New if want to write a new message a new page will be
displayed. First position the cursor on the top bar and write the
E-mail address of the person you are sending the message.
On the bottom bar (written subject) you write the subject matter i.e. Greetings, Application
letter or it’s a Project etc.
Then last but not least position the cursor on your page (working space area) to write what
you want to write. Then thereafter click send on the menu bar to send your message. (if
message is sent you will get a confirmation- that message is sent) when there is a failure
also you will be fed with information that message not sent – with a reason as to why the
message was not sent).
Step 2 – But there is case where by you have received a message from your friend, you
read the message and you want to reply instead of clicking New on the menu bar just click
Reply, this helps you so much because when the page is displayed for you to reply the
message it comes automatic with the E-mail address, in other words there is no need for
you to write the Email Address instead you write the subject matter and the message you
want to send.
Step 3 – When you want to attach files –first you write the E-mail Address, subject matter,
followed by a brief note. Then click Attach files on the menu bar- another dialogue box
will appear click Browse –then another dialogue box will appear (Locations) i.e My
computer, My Documents, Desktop so here you choose the location where you have saved
your files i.e. My Documents, Desktop, Flash disk, Cd etc. Then when you have open the
location where you saved your file, locate where the file is and then double click the file it
will bring you back to Browse area
Click attach file.
But in other machines/computers when you double click the file you want to send it attaches
the files automatic you won’t go back to browse area any more.
NOTE. If the file you are sending is attached successfully/reached safely to the intended
destination, you won’t see any error message on your screen/web page.
Google-This a search engine, basically it is used for searching information’s of different
kind. i.e. Nation media, Authors, Government issues, international issues etc.

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 INTERNET
Background
Where did the Internet come from?
The internet began in the mid 1960’s when the U.S Department of Defense was concerned
about how its communications network could survive a nuclear attack. The DOD paid for
a university consortium to develop a communication system that could continue to function
if one or many of its communication centers was not connected or working.
The DOD created its own private Internet based on their design, and split the University
network into separate entity that was managed by the National Science Foundation. This
allowed the Internet to freely evolve and expand both its size and capabilities. The
University legacy still exists in the unrestricted access and usage of the Internet.
Who owns Internet?
The Internet isn’t one thing; it is a bunch of connected computers.
Various organizations, companies and people own the computers. Each has agreed to abide
by the rules of the Internet so that all may benefit from Internet.
Is the U.S Government involved with the Internet?
Not anymore. In the beginning of 1994, the U.S. Government handed over the Internet to
its users. This is what led to the explosive growth of the Internet. Prior to 1994 you had to
ask the governments permission to join the Internet.
They had fairly strictly rules and regulations about who could join, and what activities were
permitted. With the deregulation the U.S. Government left the Internet business to its users.
Who pays for the Internet?
In the end the users pay for the Internet. This done by fees to access the internet, as well as
organizations and companies supporting the computers that comprise the Internet. The
theory is that the benefits to be gained by the exchange of Information and ideas outweigh
the costs associated with supporting the Internet.
Is there an Internet company?
Yes, but it doesn’t run the Internet. The Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC)
Provides information service that help the Internet run.
They set the rules of communications that everyone has agreed to abide too, as well as
register domain names and provide directory/database services.
Internet connection helps us to:
i. Read information on a wide range of topics
ii. Send or receive E-mail
iii. Download useful programs such as virus detectors, file compression, decompression
utility etc.,

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iv. Share your opinions and your knowledge on a variety of topics through various new
groups.
v. Chat with other people anywhere in the world
vi. View interesting video‘s listen to music or wander through a 3-D world.
Requirements for connecting to the internet
a) Modem: A modem is a peripheral device that allows a computer to connect and
communicate with other computers. Modem stands for Modulator Demodulator.
b) Web Browser: A browser is a software program that is necessary in order to view web
pages on the web. Ex: Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox,
Microsoft outlook express etc.
c) Telephone line: A telephone line is required to transfer data from one computer to
another. The computer is connected to a modem, which, in turn, connected to a
telephone line.
d) Subscription with Internet service provider (ISP): ISP‘s are companies that provide
access to the internet. We need subscription with any ISP to get an Internet connection.
Some of the ISPs in Kenya are Safaricom, JTL, and Zuku etc.

World Wide Web (WWW)

It refers to the collection of information accessible on the internet. The web is similar to a
library. It consists of millions & millions of pages of text, pictures, sounds and animation
on various topics. These pages, called web pages are stored on different computers that are
connected to the internet. The web pages have links between them i.e when we click a
certain word or picture in a page, it will take us to another page. These words or pictures
that help to move from one page to another are called hyperlinks. A collection of related
web pages is known as a web site. A web site can be accessed by means of a unique name
assigned to it.
Internet was initially designed for the transmission of text basing on the protocols
mentioned. In order to transmit a graphically designed web page complete with pictures,
embedded sound and animation a special language was designed which is referred to as
Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML). HTML uses special text codes to define the
various elements of a web page.
The WWW support a protocol called Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). All internet
servers cannot support HTTP and so the web can be regarded as a subset of the larger
internet. HTTP provides a method of transmitting a professionally laid out page over the
text-based internet.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): Each web site has a unique address commonly
referred to as a URL. A URL specifies the exact location of the web page on the internet.
A typical web address or URL looks as http://www.microsoft.com/catalog/navigation.asp

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Explanation of the example URL:
URL Element Explanation
http Identifies protocol necessary to retrieve the file.
WWW Indicates that the site is on the world wide web
Microsoft Indicates the name of the web site
.com Indicates the domain type of the web site
/catalog/navigation.asp Specifies the path of the file stored on the web server‘s hard
disk

E-Mail
E-mail or electronic mail is a service for sending or receiving messages electronically
through a computer network. The electronic mail uses various technologies that support
electronic transmission of text, data and graphics.
Some of the features of E-mail are:
1. It is much faster than the normal mail. Messages can be sent within a matter of seconds
to any part in the world.
2. It can be sent to many people at the same time.
3. E-mail is cheaper than a phone call and an ordinary mail
4. It can access information and file libraries on request.
5. E-mail user can have a mail box which is accessed through a computer terminal
6. an E-mail message consists of two parts:
a. a header specifying the address of the sender and the address of the receiver
b. the text of the message
7. The mailing system allows selecting messages for reading, displaying, saving, deleting,
forwarding and replying.
8. Mailing list can be created to send the same message to a group of people

E-Mail Address: An E-Mail address consists of three parts:

a. The person’s Login name
b. @ sign
c. Domain name
A domain represents organization, network, and country name

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Example: student@mmu.ac.ke in this Statistics is the user name and his account is in the
domain mmu.ac.ke. Both the names are separated by the @symbol.
Search Engines:
Search engines are utilities used to search for information on the web. A user interface is
provided where you can enter the word or phrase you are searching for. The search engine
looks for the keywords we have entered and returns the results of the search, providing
links to relevant Web sites for us to choose from. Some commonly used search engines are
MSN, Alta Vista, Google, and Yahoo! search etc.

References
7. Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts ITE 115, David Beskeen.
Cengage Learning, 2008.
8. Introduction To Computers, 6th Edition - Peter Norton
9. Fundamental of Computers, 4th Ed. PHI – Rajaraman V.
10. Sinah P.K. Computer Fundamentals: Concepts, Systems & Applications, BPB
Publications, 4th Ed.

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