02 - Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, and Their Circuits

Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor,
and RLC Circuits
Prof. S. C. Tan
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 1

Basic Circuit Elements
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of
circuit elements involving one or more
signal or power sources, and one or more
loads
The most basic circuit elements are the
resistor, inductor and capacitor
Circuit
Symbol

Resistor
 A resistor is a physical two-terminal energy-
dissipative device
 It possesses a constant value of electrical
resistance to convert electrical energy into
heat energy

Unit of Resistance
 Resistance opposes or resists the flow of electrons
 The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm
 The symbol for ohm is Ω

Law of Resistance
 ALL electrical conductors have a small resistance
 The resistance (R) of a conductor
a. is not a physical device, but is inherently present
b. varies directly with its length (L)
c. varies inversely with its cross-sectional area (A)
s. is dependent on the nature (resistivity ρ) of the material
e. is dependent on the temperature of the conductor
 Temperature is neglected for the time being

Resistance (R) of Conductors

Example (1)
What is the resistance of R1 and R2?
𝐿1
𝑅1 = 𝜌1 𝑑
𝜋( 21 )2 R1
0.1 𝑚
= 640 Ωm ∗ 0.04 𝑚 2
d1=4 cm I
𝜋∗ 2
= 50929.6 Ω, ρ1=640 Ωm L1=10 cm
𝐿2 R2
𝑅2 = 𝜌2 𝑑
𝜋( 22 )2
d2=2 cm I
0.2 𝑚
= 0.46 Ωm ∗ 0.02 𝑚 2 ρ2=0.46 Ωm L2=20 cm
𝜋∗ 2
= 292.8 Ω
Relationship of V, I, and R
From Ohms Law (V = RI) Polarity of p.d. is reverse
of polarity of EMF
I / Amps +
p.d. = V
‒
 Straight line through the
origin tells us that
Constant R current is directly
proportional to voltage
 Ratio (gradient) of V/I is
constant and is equal to
p.d. / Volts resistance of the circuit
Example (2)
The figure shows the graph of potential difference across a

cable against its current. Find the resistance of the cable
𝑉
𝑅= = Gradient of the graph
𝐼
𝑉
𝑅= =5Ω
𝐼

Power Loss of Resistance
 When current passes through resistance, some
of the energy carried by the current will be
converted into heat
 This causes a loss in the electrical energy, and
is known as power loss
 The power loss on resistance R is
𝑃= 2
𝐼 𝑅 or 𝑃 = 2
𝑉 /𝑅
where I is the current through the resistance and
V is the potential difference across the resistance

Conductor
 A good conductor has a small resistance and a
small power loss as heat
 In contrast, a poor conductor has relatively higher
resistance and is power lossy
 Electrical cables are made very good
conductors with minimal power loss
 The resistance of conductors can be equivalently
modelled as a physical resistor in electrical
circuit diagram
 This resistor is not a physical device but a
representation of the conductor resistance
Electrical Loads
 Electrical loads (fan, computer, light bulb etc.) and
electrical power loss are equivalently modelled as a
physical resistor in electrical circuit diagram

Resistor vs Resistance
Know the difference that:
Resistance is NOT resistor
Conductor and electrical load are not
resistors, but can be modelled as one for
circuit calculation
The resistor we are referring to is an actual
physical device that is introduced into
electrical circuit to perform specific
applications

Resistor Applications
Resistors are used
 For limiting current in electric circuits
 For lowering voltage levels in electric circuits
(using voltage divider)
 As current provider
 As a sensor (e.g., photoresistor detects light
condition, thermistor detects temperature
condition, strain gauge detects load condition)
 In electronic circuits, resistors are used as pull-
up and pull-down elements to avoid floating
signal levels
Resistor Rating
Resistors are rated in Watts (W)
This defines its upper power limit and

should not be violated
A higher power-rated resistor can

dissipate more power than a lower
power-rated resistor

Resistor Types
Most resistors have color bars to indicate

their resistance (fixed) value
There are usually 4 to 6 bands of color on a
resistor
Resistor Value
wide gap
 The right most color bar indicates the resistor
tolerance (wide gap exist between this and next bar)
 The color bar immediately left to the tolerance bar,
indicates the multipliers C (in tens).
 To the left of the multiplier bar are the digits,
starting from the last digit to the first digit
Resistor Colour Codes

Resistors - 4 and 5 bands

Example (3)
• First band is yellow - first digit is 4

• Second band is violet - second digit is 7
• Third band is red - multiplier is 102
• Resistor value is 47102  5%()
• Resistor value is between 4465  to 4935 
Variable Resistor
The relationship between length of the
material and resistance allows us to make
a variable resistor (or rheostat)
Variable
Resistor
Symbol

Actual Variable Resistor
A B
Incoming current slider
Outgoing current
 If the slider is moved in the direction A→B, the

resistance will increase because the length of
wire through which the current passes increases
 Variable resistors can be used as volume or
brightness controls on televisions, volume
control on audio systems, light dimmer switches
Variable Resistor: Rotary Potentiometer
Trimmer resistors: used to calibrate and fine-tune circuits

RECAP: Name the Component
Resistor Fuse Battery Ammeter
Voltmeter Switch Lamp

Cell
Variable resistor
Different Types of Circuits
There are different ways to connect
cells/battery and components (such
as lamps) to create a circuit:
 series
 parallel
 a mixture of both

Series Vs Parallel Circuits
Series Circuits Parallel Circuits
 Components are  Both ends of the
connected end-to-end components are
 Only a single path for connected together
current to flow through  There are multiple paths
each component for current to flow
Components
(i.e., resistors, batteries, loads, etc.)

Kirchhoff’s Laws (1845)
 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws are
two laws that are used to
describe the current and
voltage behaviour of electric
circuits
 The two laws are
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 Both laws are applicable to

DC circuits and AC circuits
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The principle of conservation of energy implies
that the sum of the EMFs in any closed loop is
equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in
that loop
+ ‒
+
The sum of all the voltages
‒ around a loop is equal to
zero, i.e.,
‒ + v1 + v2 + v3 - v4 = 0

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 Principle of conservation of electric charge implies
that at any node (junction) in an electrical circuit,
the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal
to the sum of currents flowing out of that node
 Current entering a node is assigned positive sign.
Current leaving a node is assigned a negative sign
The current entering any

junction is equal to the
current leaving that junction,
i.e., i2 + i3 = i1 + i4
Series Circuits
 A circuit that contains only one path for current flow
 If the path is open anywhere in the circuit, current
stops flowing to all components

Series Circuit Characteristics
+ ‒ + ‒ + ‒
 One electric current path from positive to negative

 The current is the same at each point
I1  I 2  I 3
 Current flowing through resistors creates P.D. of V1
to V3
Series Circuit Characteristics
+ ‒
Equivalent
 Relationship of voltages (KVL) circuit
Vs  V1  V2  V3
 The total resistance of the circuit in series
Rtotal  R1  R2  R3
Series Circuit Summary
 Current through every series component is equal
 Total resistance (RT) is equal to the sum of all of
the resistances (i.e., R1 + R2 + R3)
 Sum of all the P.D. voltage drops (VR1 + VR2 +
VR3) is equal to the total applied EMF voltage (VT)
[KVL] I + V
T - R1
+ +
VT VR2
- -
- V +
RT R3

Disadvantages of Series Circuits
 When one component fails, the whole circuit
fails
 While the current is the same at all points, the

EMF is divided among the components (e.g.
bulbs), and they may be unequal
 The more components (e.g. bulbs) there are

in the circuit, the lower is the EMF applied on
each component (e.g. each light bulb will be
dimmer)

Illustration: Series Circuit
For the series circuit shown on slide 33, use
the laws of circuit theory to calculate the
following:
•The total resistance (RT)
•The current flowing through each
component (IT, IR1, IR2, & IR3)
•The voltage across each component (VT,
VR1, VR2, & VR3)
•Use the results to verify Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law
Total Resistance:
RT  R1  R2  R3
RT  220   470   1.2 k
RT  1900   1.9 k
Current Through Each Component:
VT
IT  (Ohm's Law)
RT V
12 v
IT   6.3 mAmp
1.89 k I R
Since this is a series circuit:

IT  IR1  IR2  IR3  6.3 mAmp
Voltage Across Each Component:
VR1  IR1  R1  (Ohm's Law)
VR1  6.349 mA  220 Ω  1.397 volts

VR2  IR2  R2 (Ohm's Law)
VR2  6.349 mA  470 Ω  2.984 volts
V
VR3  IR3  R3 (Ohm's Law)

I R
VR3  6.349 mA  1.2 K Ω  7.619 volts

Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
VT  VR1  VR2  VR3
12 v  1.397 v  2.984 v  7.619 v
12 v  12 v
Resistor with a larger
resistance will have a
larger P. D. across it
Example (4)
 Given VBAT=6 V, Rcopper=0.1 Ω, and Rbulb=5 Ω,
calculate the
a) Current I flowing through the bulb
b) Power consumed by the bulb
c) Power loss of the circuit
d) Potential difference of the bulb
e) Total voltage drop of the copper wire

Example (4)
Total resistance of the circuit is I
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 +𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 5.2 Ω
+
(a) Current I
𝑉𝐵𝐴𝑇 6
Vbulb
𝐼= = = 1.154 A ‒
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 5.2
(b) Power consumed by bulb
𝑃𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 = 1.1542 × 5 = 6.656 W
(c) Power loss of circuit
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 (2𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ) = 1.1542 × (0.2) = 0.266 W
(d) Potential difference of bulb
𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 = 𝐼𝑅𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 = 1.154 × 5 = 5.770 V
(e) Total voltage drop of copper wire
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝐵𝐴𝑇 − 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 = 6 − 5.770 = 0.23 V
Parallel Circuits
A circuit that contains more than one path
for current flow
Even if a component is removed, it does
not affect the flow of current in other
current paths in reaching other components
current current

Parallel Circuit Characteristics
 More than one current

path – components are
+ ‒ connected to different
branches
+ ‒  Each voltage is equal to

supply voltage (EMF)
+ ‒ VS  V1  V2  V3

Parallel Circuit Characteristics
 Relationship of currents (KCL)
I T  I1  I 2  I 3
 The total resistance of the
circuit in series
1 1 1 1
  
RT
R R R 1 2 3
Equivalent
+ ‒ circuit
Parallel Circuit Summary
 Voltage across all parallel components is equal
 The total resistance (RT) is equal to the reciprocal of
the sum of the reciprocal of individual resistances:
1 1 1 1 1
   RT 
R T R1 R 2 R 3 1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3
 Sum of all currents in each branch (IR1+IR2+IR3) is
equal to the total current (IT) [KCL]
IT
+ + + +
VT VR1 VR2 VR3
- - - -
RT
Advantages of Parallel Circuits
 When one component fails, the rest of the
circuit continues to work
 While the EMF voltage applied across all
components is the same, the current flowing
through each component may be different
 Addition of new components does not affect the
original current flow of each component (bulbs
in parallel are each as bright as a single bulb)
 If more resistors are connected in parallel, the
total resistance RT will always decrease as there
are more branches through which electricity can
flow, thereby increasing the total current drawn
Illustration: Parallel Circuit
For the parallel circuit shown on slide 44,
use the laws of circuit theory to calculate
the following:
•The total resistance (RT)
•The voltage across each component (VT,
VR1, VR2, & VR3)
•The current flowing through each
component (IT, IR1, IR2, & IR3)
•Use the results to verify Kirchhoff’s
Current Law
Total Resistance:
1
RT 
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3
1
RT  RT  346.59 = 350 
1 1 1
 
470  2.2 k 3.3 k
Voltage Across Each Component:

Since this is a parallel circuit :
VT  VR1  VR2  VR3  15 volts
Larger resistance,
Current Through Each Component: smaller current
VR1
IR1  (Ohm's Law)
R1
VR2 15 v
IR2    6.818 mA = 6.8 mA V
R2 2.2 k 
V 15 v I R
IR3  R3   4.545 mA= 4.5mA
R3 3.3 k 
VT 15 v
IT    43.278 mA = 43 mA
RT 346.59 

Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
IT  IR1  IR2  IR3
43.278 mA=31.915 mA+6.818 mA+4.545 mA

43.278 mA (43 mA)  43.278 mA (43mA)

Home Exercise
With your understanding of the parallel
circuit, proof the equation:

Combination Circuits
 Contain both series and parallel arrangements
 What would happen if you removed light 1?
Or light 2? Or light 3?
2 3

Example (5)
 Calculate the total resistance Rtotal.
Why?

Potential Divider Circuit
A voltage divider consists of two devices,
usually resistors, connected in series.

Potential Divider Circuit
The current in each resistor is calculated using
Ohm’s Law
 It stays the same throughout the circuit
 In a voltage divider circuit
 If the resistance of one resistor is increased,

the voltage across this resistor will increase
 This means the other voltage must decrease
Law of Voltage Division
R1
V1  VS
R1  R2
R2
V2  VS
R1  R2
R1
V1  VS
RT V1 is the voltage across R1
V2 is the voltage across R2
R2 VS is the supply voltage
V2  VS
RT RT is the total resistance
Law of Current Division
(Demo Q1 and Q2 [4 min, 5 min])
Can you show how the equation is derived?

Home Exercise
If R2 increases, which voltage and current in
the circuit will increase?
I1
+
A. I3, V2 R1 V1
B. I2, V2 +
C. I1, V1 V I3 I2
D. I3, V1 +
R3 R2 V2

Series Connection of Cells
• Current is the same for each cell

Parallel Connection of Cells
I1 I2
• Ideally, both batteries provide equal currents to the

load, i.e., I1 = I2 = 0.5I

AC Circuits
 ALL DISCUSSIONS ABOVE (PAGES 25 to
59) ARE APPLICABLE TO AC CIRCUITS,
i.e., CIRCUITS WITH AC EMF SOURCE
 These include
 Parallel and Series Circuits
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 Law of Voltage Division
 Law of Current Division

AC Resistive Circuits
 A pure resistance is connected to the AC supply

source (similar to AC source powering a lamp etc.)
 This resistive circuit behaves like a DC circuit with
the same type of opposition to its AC current
AC Resistive Circuits
Vm v = Vm sin ωt
i = v/R = Im sin ωt
Im Im= Vm/R
 Voltage and current waveforms are

sinusoidal and of same frequency
 They are in phase with each other
 Current through circuit varies with the voltage

applied and can be determined using Ohm’s law
 Current magnitude depends on the effective values
of applied voltage and resistance in the circuit
Series AC Resistive Circuit
 Current through each element is the same and

its magnitude is dependent on the applied
voltage and total resistance of the circuit
 Regardless of the number of series connected
resistors, the current is always in phase with
the applied voltage
Example (6)
A circuit has an RMS AC voltage source of 280 V and
two heating elements of 40  and 60  connecting in
series respectively. What is the voltage drop across
each heating element?
ANS:
Total circuit resistance,
RT = R1+R2 = 40 + 60 = 100 
RMS current flowing through the circuit,
IR1 = IR2=IT=V/RT=280/100 = 2.8 A
RMS voltage drop across heating element-1,
V1 = IT R1 = 2.8 × 40 = 112 V
RMS voltage drop across heating element-2,
V2 = IT R2 = 2.8 × 60 = 168 V
Parallel AC Resistive Circuit
 Voltage across each branch is the same

 Individual currents are in phase with applied voltage
 Magnitude of individual current through a resistor is
dependent on voltage applied and resistance value
 High resistor gives a lower current flow, and vice-
versa. Currents follow the voltage waveform (i.e., in
phase with it) regardless of their magnitudes
Example (7)
A circuit has an RMS AC voltage source of 240 V
applied across two parallel heating elements of 390 
and 1 k respectively. What is the effective current
flowing through each of the heating elements?
ANS:
Voltage across each resistor is same, i.e.,
V = V1 = V2
RMS current through heating element-1 is
IR1 = V1/R1 = 240/390 = 0.615 = 615 mA
RMS current through heating element-2 is
IR2 = V2/R2 = 240/1000 = 0.24 = 240 mA

Capacitors
 Capacitors are two-terminal devices that possess a
specific measure of capacitance for storing energy in
the form of electrostatic charges on their conductive
plates
 The unit of capacitance is Farads (F)
 Typical capacitors you can buy are in the range of F,
mF, µF, nF and pF

Capacitor Construction
 A basic capacitor has two parallel plates that are

separated by a dielectric insulating layer, of which
no current can flow through the capacitor
 The material of the dielectric determines the
capacitor type, and the common types are: mica,
ceramic, electrolytic, tantalum and polyester-film
Polarised Capacitor
 Some capacitors are polarised and can only be

connected one way around
 +ve terminal of capacitor must be connected to the
higher potential (+ve) terminal of the EMF and the
remaining terminal of capacitor to the lower potential
(-ve) terminal of the EMF
 Electrolytic capacitors are polarised
 They are used in DC circuits
Charging a Capacitor
 When capacitor is connected across DC supply, it
charges up to the value of the applied voltage (KVL)
Electrostatic Charge
Develops on the Plates
 Capacitor will maintain or hold this charge

indefinitely as long as the supply voltage is present
Electrostatic Field
Stores energy

Capacitance of a Capacitor
 Capacitance is the amount of charge that a
capacitor can store per unit volt applied
 It is directly proportional to charge and inversely

proportional to voltage, i.e.,
Q
C or Q  CV
V
where
C is capacitance in Farads (F)
Q is the total charge stored (C)
V is voltage across capacitor (V)
Energy Stored in Capacitor
The total energy stored in a capacitor in
joules (J) is
2
1 2 𝑄
𝑤𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 or 𝑤𝐶 =
2 2𝐶
where
C is capacitance in Farads (F)
Q is the total charge stored (C)
V is voltage across capacitor (V)

Discharging a Capacitor
 Apply a discharging component (here a
short circuit (see (b)) across the capacitor.
(Safer to use a resistor!)

Capacitor Value Codes
 Physically large capacitors have their values printed
directly on the case
 Smaller capacitors are labeled using a code:
 2-digit code: the number represents the value of
the component in pF
Example: 15 = 15 pF
 3-digit code: first two digits represent the value
of the component in pF and third digit represents
a 10’s multiplier
Example: 473 = 47 x 103 pF = 47 nF
 3-digit plus one letter code: same as 3-digit code
except that the letter represents tolerance of
capacitance (note that different system exist)

Example (8)
1500 μF 10 pF and 47 pF 10 x 104 pF

= 0.1 μF
10 x 102 pF  10% = 1000  100 pF

Capacitor Labels
 Consider a ‘6.3 V 1500 mF’ capacitor
shown in the figure
 Note that:
 Connecting to the correct polarity (ve
polarity to lower potential of voltage
supply) is important, otherwise,
capacitor can explode
 Maximum voltage across the capacitor
should not exceed 6.3 V, otherwise
(leakage or) breakdown may occur
 Capacitance of 1500μF means the
capacitor holds 1500 μC of charge for
every 1 V of voltage across it
Q: What is the maximum amount of charge the

capacitor can hold without breaking down?
Capacitance Measurement
The digital reading
LCR meter shown
will allow you to
simply place the Insert Fig 10.20
capacitor between
the provided clips
with the proper
polarity and the
meter will display
the level of
capacitance

Capacitors in Series
+ ‒ + ‒ + ‒
 Capacitors in series have the same current flowing

through them as IT = IC1 = IC2 = IC3
 Each capacitor stores the same amount of
electrical charge, Q regardless of its capacitance,
i.e., QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 => VC1 ≠ VC2 ≠ VC3
 Equivalent capacitance CT of series capacitors is
1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
Capacitors in Parallel
C T = C1 + C 2 + C3
+ + + + = 0.1uF+0.2uF+0.3uF
= 0.6uF
‒ ‒ ‒ ‒
 Capacitors in parallel have a “common voltage”

supply across them giving: VC1=VC2=VC3=VAB=12V
 When capacitors are connected together in parallel
the total or equivalent capacitance, CT is equal to
the sum of all individual capacitors added together
CT = C 1 + C2 + C3

General Equations for Ceq
 Parallel Combination  Series Combination
 If P capacitors are in  If S capacitors are in

parallel, then series, then:
1
P
 S
1 
Ceq   C P Ceq   
p 1  s 1 C s 

Example (9)
Figure (a) shows a circuit with capacitor C1 at 5 V
potential that is connected in series with switch S
and capacitor C2 at 0 V potential. When switch S
turns on, capacitor C2 is charged by C1, as shown in
(b). After a sufficiently long period, C2 is fully
charged and no current flows between C1 and C2 as
shown in (c). What is the voltage V1 and V2 for (c)?
S S S
5V + 1μF 0V V1
+ 1μF
V2
+ 1μF
V1
+ 1μF
V2
+ 1μF
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
(a) (b) (c)

Example (9)
For (a), the charges Q1 stored by C1 is obtained as
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 = 1 ∗ 10−6 F ∗ 5 𝑉 = 5 ∗ 10−6 C
There is no charge stored in Q2. Total charge Qt of circuit
is
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 5 ∗ 10−6 C
For (c), the voltage of C1 and C2 are equal as they are in
parallel, i.e., 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
The charges hold by the capacitors are
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉1
𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
Example (9)
Since C1=1 ∗ 10−6 F and C2=1 ∗ 10−6 F,
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
The total amount of charge in the circuit (does not change)
remains at 5 ∗ 10−6 C, i. e. ,
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄1 +𝑄2 = 5 ∗ 10−6
Therefore, 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 0.5𝑄𝑡 = 2.5 ∗ 10−6 C
The voltage of the capacitors are obtained as
𝑄2 2.5 ∗ 10−6 C
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = = −6
= 2.5 V
𝐶2 1 ∗ 10 F
Capacitors in AC Circuits
When an alternating sinusoidal voltage is
applied to the plates of an AC capacitor, the
capacitor is charged firstly in one direction
and then in the opposite direction,
changing polarity at the same rate as the
AC supply voltage.
The instantaneous change in voltage across
the capacitor is opposed by the fact that it
takes a certain amount of time to deposit
(or release) the charge onto the plates and
is given by V = Q/C.
Voltage-Current Relationship
 Current always leads voltage by 1/4 of a cycle or /2

= 90o “out-of-phase” with the potential difference
across the capacitor because of the charging and
discharging process
 Other than the 90o phase-shift, the voltage and
current of the capacitor are also correlated by its
reactance
Capacitive Reactance
 In resistor, the opposition to current flow is its
resistance. For capacitor, the opposition to
current flow is called Capacitive Reactance
 Capacitive reactance (XC) is also measured in
Ohm’s (similar to resistance of resistors)
 Capacitors charge and discharge proportionally
to the rate of voltage change across them
a faster voltage change results in higher
current flow
thus, reactance of an AC capacitor is
“inversely proportional” to the frequency of
the supply
Capacitive-Reactance Equation
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝜔𝐶
where XC is Capacitive Reactance in Ohms,
ƒ is the frequency in Hertz (Hz) and C is
the AC capacitance in Farads. When dealing
with AC capacitance, we can also define
capacitive reactance in terms of radians,
where Omega, ω (rad/s) equals 2f

V-I Amplitude
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑋𝐶
 Impedance decreases towards zero as frequency

increases, acting like a short circuit.
 As frequency approaches zero or DC, the capacitor
reactance increases to infinity, acting like an open
circuit, which is why capacitors block DC.

Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency
Capacitive reactance is
“inversely proportional
to frequency” and has a
high value at low
frequencies and a low
value at higher
frequencies as shown.

Capacitor Applications
(Demo Q3 to Q5 [4 min, 3 min, 7 min])
Capacitors are used

 For storing energy in electric circuits
 For coupling AC signal and decoupling DC
signal
 For smoothing and filtering noise in signals
 As a component of a tuned resonant (LC)
circuit

Inductors
 Inductors are two-terminal devices that possess
inductance which stores energy in the form of
magnetic flux when a current passes through it
 The unit of inductance is Henry (H)
 Inductors available can range from µH, mH, and H.

Inductor Construction
Ring inductor
 Inductors are formed with wire tightly wrapped

around a central core that is either a straight
cylindrical rod or a continuous ring
 Inductors are categorized according to the type of
inner core they have, for example, hollow core
(free air), solid iron core or soft ferrite core
Energizing an Inductor
 When the inductor is connected across a DC

supply, the inductor magnetically energizes (as it
converts current into magnetic field) up to a
current (I), of which the value will be proportional
to the magnitude of the applied voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R) that
exists in its power flow path, i.e., I = V/R.
Energy Stored in Inductor
The total energy stored in the inductor in
joules (J) is
1 2
𝑤𝐿 = 𝐿𝐼
2
where
L is inductance in Henry (H)
I is current flowing through inductor (A)

Inductors in Series
 Inductors in series have the same current flowing

through them as I = IL1 = IL2 = IL3
 Sum of the individual voltage drops across each
inductor can be found using Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL) where, VT = V1 + V2 + V3
 Equivalent inductance LT of series inductors is
LT = L1 + L2 + L3

Inductors in Parallel
 Inductors in parallel have a “common voltage”

supply across them giving: VL1=VL2=VL3=VAB
 The sum of the individual currents flowing through
each inductor is IT = I1 + I2 + I3
 When inductors are connected together in parallel,
the total equivalent inductance, LT is
1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3
Example (10)
What is the equivalent inductance Le of the circuit?
30nH
Le
1.25nH
0.47µH
Ans:
Le =1/[1/1.25 n + 1/(30 n + 470 n)]
=1.247 nH

Inductors in AC Circuits
 Circuit comprises a pure inductance L connected

across a sinusoidal voltage V(t) = Vmax sin ωt
 Voltage causes a current to flow and rise from zero
to its maximum value
 Before the current can reach its maximum value,
the voltage changes polarity, i.e., the current is
delayed
Voltage-Current Relationship
Current always lags voltage by 1/4 of a

cycle or /2 = 90o “out-of-phase” with the
potential difference across the inductor
Inductive Reactance
 For inductor, the opposition to current flow is
called Inductive Reactance
 Inductive reactance (XL) is measured in Ohm’s
(similar to resistance and capacitive reactance)
 Inductors energize and de-energize inversely in
proportion to the rate of voltage change across
them
a faster voltage change results in lower
current flow
thus, reactance of an AC inductor is
“proportional” to the frequency of the supply

Inductive Reactance-Equation
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
where XL is Inductive Reactance in

Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz
(Hz) and L is the AC inductance in
Henry, and in terms of radians,
Omega ω (rad/s) equals 2f

Inductive Reactance Vs Frequency
Inductive reactance is
“proportional to
frequency” and has a low
value at low frequencies
and a high value at
higher frequencies

V-I Amplitude
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑋𝐿
 Impedance decreases towards zero as frequency

decreases to zero (DC), acting like a short circuit.
 As frequency increases, the inductive reactance
increases towards infinity, acting like an open
circuit, which is why inductors block high-frequency
AC current
Inductor Applications
Inductors are used
 For storing energy in electric circuits
 As chokes to block AC signal and bypasses DC
signal
 For smoothing and filtering noise in signals
 As a component of a tuned resonant (LC)
circuit

Mixture of RLC Circuits

Example (11) I (t) 1
What are the instantaneous +

I2(t) I3(t)
current values of I2 and I3 at V(t)
1mF
1mH
𝒕=𝝅/𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 and 𝒕=𝝅/𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎?
From the voltage source, the angular
V(t)=10sin(1000t)(V)
frequency is 𝜔 = 1000 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑
Reactance of the inductor is 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 1000 ∗ 1 mH = 1 Ω
𝑠
1 1
Reactance of the capacitor is 𝑋𝐶 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 =1Ω
𝜔𝐶 1000 𝑠 ∗1 mF
10 V
𝐼2 𝑡 = sin 1000𝑡 − 0.5π = −10 cos 1000𝑡 (𝐴)
1Ω
10 V
𝐼3 𝑡 = sin 1000𝑡 + 0.5π = 10 cos 1000𝑡 (𝐴)
1Ω
Concluding Remarks
What you have learnt are only the
basics of R, L, and C and their circuits
In reality, electric circuits involved more
than one of these components at a time
and are connected in different
configurations
This will NOT BE COVERED in this course
You can learn about this by taking the
course ELEC2346: Electric Circuit Theory

02 - Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, and Their Circuits

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02 - Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, and Their Circuits

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Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor,

and RLC Circuits

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 1

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 2

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ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 6

= 50929.6 Ω, ρ1=640 Ωm L1=10 cm

The figure shows the graph of potential difference across a

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 9

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 10

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 12

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 13

This defines its upper power limit and

A higher power-rated resistor can

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 15

Most resistors have color bars to indicate

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 18

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 19

• First band is yellow - first digit is 4

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 21

 If the slider is moved in the direction A→B, the

Trimmer resistors: used to calibrate and fine-tune circuits

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 23

Voltmeter Switch Lamp

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 25

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 26

 Both laws are applicable to

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 28

The current entering any

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 30

 One electric current path from positive to negative

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 33

 While the current is the same at all points, the

 The more components (e.g. bulbs) there are

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 34

Since this is a series circuit:

VR1  IR1  R1  (Ohm's Law)

VR1  6.349 mA  220 Ω  1.397 volts

VR3  IR3  R3 (Ohm's Law)

VR3  6.349 mA  1.2 K Ω  7.619 volts

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 37

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 39

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 41

 More than one current

+ ‒  Each voltage is equal to

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 42

Voltage Across Each Component:

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 48

43.278 mA=31.915 mA+6.818 mA+4.545 mA

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 49

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 50

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 51

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 52

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 53

 In a voltage divider circuit

 If the resistance of one resistor is increased,

Can you show how the equation is derived?

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 56

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor– 57