01 - Electricity and Protections

Electricity and Protections
Prof. S. C. Tan
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 1

From Fundamental
 All MATTERS are made up of atoms
Electron (-)
(Negatively Neutron
charged atomic (Uncharged
particles) atomic particles)
Proton (+)
(Positively charged
atomic particles)
Nucleus: Center portion of an atom containing protons and neutrons
PROPERTIES OF ATOMS
 Usually same number of protons and electrons
 Protons and electron are
 oppositely charged
 attract each other
 This tends to hold electrons in orbit and makes the
atom overall electrically NEUTRAL
 Atomic number is equal to number of protons in

nucleus
 Atomic number identifies the ELEMENT

Elements - Simplest form of matter
The Periodic Table

Electricity at the Atomic Level (3D)
 Electron Orbits
 Electrons are not static
 They move in different
paths (orbits) around the
nucleus
 Valence Electrons 3D
 Electrons of outermost
orbit
 Being furthest away from
the nucleus, the attraction
is smallest between
electrons and protons
Electricity at the Atomic Level (2D)
Valence Electrons
(easiest to be removed from atom)
Orbits closest to nucleus are filled first

Electron Flow
 An electron from one orbit can knock out an
electron from another orbit.
 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
When an atom loses an

electron, it seeks another
to fill the vacancy.

Electrons Flow
Electricity is created as electrons collide and
transfer from atom to atom
Play Animation

Free Electrons
 Valence electrons of some elements (e.g. pure
metals) are loosely bound to the nucleus and
are called free electrons
 They easily moved out of orbit
 The ability to move or flow is the basis of

current electricity
 If channeled in a given direction, a flow of

electrons occurs --- when flowed through a
conductor it is current electricity

Electrical Materials
 CONDUCTOR
 Contains plenty of free electrons
 Electrons flow easily between atoms
 Material that allows electricity to pass through
 Examples: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum
 INSULATOR
 Contains few free electrons
 Electron flow is difficult between atoms
 Material that prevents flow or transfer of electricity
 Examples: Wood, Mica, Rubber, Plastic, Glass
Identification
Insulators
Conductors
What about
human body?
In practice, both conductors and

insulators go hand in hand
Common Examples
Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
Signal Cables and Power Cables Power Transmission Lines

What is Electricity to You?
 A form of energy made
up of charges that can
produce light, heat, or
motion

Types of Electricity
Voltage (Static) Electricity Current Electricity
 Electric charges collected or  Flow of electric charges
built up on the surface of an carried through a material
such as wire or other
object, which remains until it conductors
can be discharged by means of
electrical current or electric  Examples
discharge
 Power lines
 Examples  Computers
 Lightning  Appliances
 Rubbing hair with balloon

Electric Charge
 Electrons have a negative charge (Q)
measured in coulombs (C)
 charge on a proton is +1.602 x 1019 C
 charge on an electron is 1.602 x 1019 C
 Electrons move round in a closed circuit

from negative to positive charged terminal
(remember like charges repel, opposites
attract) giving rise to an electric current

Interesting Fact
Electricity is everywhere, even in the

human body. Our cells are specialized to
conduct electrical currents. Electricity is
required for the nervous system to send
signals throughout the body and to the
brain, making it possible for us to move,
think and feel.
So, you are intrinsically an electricity

generator and an electrical system!

Electric Current
 A sustained flow of electric charges passing a
cross-section area (point) is called an electric
current
 Since electric current is the movement of electrons

carrying negative charges in a circuit, current and
electrons are in opposite directions
Charge, Current, & Time
 Electric current is given the symbol (I)
 Technically, electric current is the amount of
charge flowing per second (rate of change of
charge) and is given the unit ampere (A)
 A current of 1 A is 1 C of charge transferred in 1 s
at a particular point (i.e., 1 A = 1 C s-1)
Charge transferred
Q in coulombs (C)
I
Current in Amps (A) t time in seconds (s)

Example (1)
(1) Calculate the electric current of one electron
flowing through a cross-section per second?
 Ans:
1 electron carries 1.602 x 1019 C of charge
Current of one electron = 1.602 x 1019 A.
(negative sign of current signifies opposing direction to electron flow)
(2) What does a 1 A current flow physically relate to?

 Ans: It means that there are 6.25 x 1018 (1
A/1.602 x 1019 A) electrons carrying a total of 1
C charges that are passing through a particular
cross section each second in the reverse
direction to the current
Example (2)
(1) What does 3500 mAh signify?
 Ans: Capacity of the battery
 Means battery can be used to drive a
current of 3500 mA for only 1 hour (h)
(2) How long will it last for driving a 50 mA fan?
 Ans: 3500 mAh/50 mA = 70 h
(3) What is the total amount of electric charges the

battery will drive before it goes flat?
 Ans: 1 A = 1 C/s
3500 mA = 3.5 C/s
3500 mAh = 3.5 (C/s) x 3600 (s) = 12600 C
Type of Current Flow: AC vs DC
 Direct Current (DC)
 Electrons travel continuously in unidirectional path, point
to point
Electrons flow
 Alternate Current (AC)

 Electrons travel continuously in both directions on a path,
point to point (within a short vicinity), usually with varying
amplitudes
Electrons flow

Direct Current (DC)
 Constant DC current
 Constant amount of electrons traveling continuously in
unidirectional path
Electrons flow
 Current level is proportional to number of electrons flow

Electrons flow
 Time-varying DC current
Electrons flow

Alternating Current (AC)
 Periodic Sinusoidal AC current
 In positive cycle (time = 0 to T/2 s), electrons flow incrementally
from 0 to maximum and then decrease back to 0 in one direction
Electrons flow +

 In negative cycle (time = T/2 to T s), electrons flow in similar

fashion to positive cycle back in reverse direction
Electrons flow
 The cycle is then repeated

 One complete cycle takes a period of T s or a frequency of f Hz,
i.e., f=1/T

 Half-Wave Symmetrical Periodic Sinusoidal AC current
 Mathematically, the current I(t) can be expressed as
+ +
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 A  
 Ipeak is proportional to the number of electrons flow

 Frequency f is dependent on the speed of a completed cycle
 Time-averaged value of half-wave symmetrical AC current is
0 A (as area of +ve cycle is equal to area of ‒ve cycle)
 Sinusoidal AC current is usually expressed in root mean
square (RMS) value Irms, where 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
A
 Periodic Square-Pulsed AC current
(time taken for +ve cycle is equal to time taken for ‒ve cycle)
 Aperiodic Varying-Amplitude AC current
(Cycle not repeated)

Example (3a)
What kind of waveform do you think this is?
(1) Is it a periodic or aperiodic?
(2) Is it DC or AC?
(3) Does it have a positive, negative, or zero average current?
Current
Answer:
(1) Periodic 2
(2) AC 1
0 Time
(3) Positive average current T 2T

Example (3b)
Current Current
1 1
0 0
Answer: Answer:
(1) Aperiodic (1) Aperiodic
(2) DC (2) AC
(3)Negative averaged current (3)Negative averaged current

Electric Circuit
An electric circuit is a system of conductors
and components forming a complete path
for current to travel
It comprises minimally

an electric power source (or electromotive
force EMF)
an electrical device/appliance (load)
consuming electrical energy
the necessary connecting cables
(conductors)

Current Flow in Electric Circuits
Electric current does not flow on its own (free
electrons in conductors are in random
motions with zero net flow)
Electrons flow
Free electrons basically remain in its position with no net movement
It must be driven by the EMF with a voltage

and the electron flow-path must be a closed
circuit (electrons must flow from negative
end of the EMF source to the positive end of
the EMF source)
Electromotive Force (EMF)
 Electrons gain (kinetic) energy from the EMF while
passing through it and loses (kinetic) energy to the
load while passing through the load. This is how
energy is transferred from EMF to the load
 The strength of the EMF is expressed in voltage and
is measured in volts (V), where 1 V signifies
electrons with a total charge of 1 C passing through
the EMF will gain 1 joule (J) of energy (1 V = 1 J C-1)
 The mathematical relationship of gained energy (E),
EMF voltage (V), and charges (Q) is
E = QV
 Example: A 9 V EMF will give 9 J of energy to each
coulomb of charge passing through it
EMF of Circuits (DC and AC)
DC EMF
AC EMF
Conductors
Load

DC Circuits
DC EMF
Current flow in
a closed circuit
 If the voltage of the DC EMF is maintained between

two points of a circuit, current will flow in one
direction - from high (+) to low (‒) potential
 This is called a direct current (DC) circuit
 Battery-powered circuits are DC circuits
AC Circuits ‒ +
AC EMF Current flow
in a closed
circuit
+ ‒
Current flow
in a closed
circuit
 With the AC EMF, the high & low voltage terminals

switch locations periodically, the current will flow
“back and forth” in the circuit
 This is called an alternating current (AC) circuit
 Circuits powered by electrical outlets are AC circuits
Common Power Sources
(Voltage EMF)
AC mains
(220 Vrms, 50 Hz)
Cells (constant DC voltage

sources, e.g. 1.5 V and 9 V)
 A cell/battery or electrical outlet (AC mains) is a

source of electric potential or voltage - not charge
 The electrons that move in a conductor are
supplied by the conductor - not the voltage
source
 The net charge on a current-carrying conductor is
zero
Engineering Vs Science
 The direction of current flow does not affect what
the current is doing; thus, no difference which
convention is used as long as you are consistent.
 Both Current Flow and Electron Flow are used.
In general, the science disciplines use Electron
Flow, whereas the engineering disciplines use
Current Flow.
 Therefore, we will use Current Flow from now on
Electron Current
Flow Flow

Closing a Circuit
off on
 When the switch is off (we call it an open circuit),

there is no current flow
 When the switch is on (we call it a closed circuit),
there is current flow (light bulb is turned on)
Voltage Level of EMF
on
 If battery voltage is too low (EMF is too weak), light bulb

(load) will not turn on even though switch is turned on
 The battery voltage (EMF) must be sufficiently high to drive
current through the bulb when the switch is turned on
Electric Load
 Electrical energy carried by electrons that

move round the circuit is converted into others
forms of energy
Light bulb: electrical is converted to photons
Electrical motor: electrical is converted to
kinetics
 An electric load can be theoretically

modelled as a resistor with a certain value
of resistance (R)

Resistance
Resistance (R) of a device is a measure
of the difficulty of passing an electric
current through that device
It opposes the movement of electrons.
Higher resistance, less flow of electrons.
This makes it possible to use resistance to
generate heat, control current flow, &
supply correct voltage to devices
The SI unit of electrical resistance is the
ohm (Ω)
Resistance in the Circuit
off on
 Conductors (cables) comprise resistance and can be

modelled as resistors
 Increasing resistance of circuit reduces current,
which causes the bulb to become dimmer
George Simon Ohm
 Discovered and formulated a mathematical
relationship (published in 1827) between:
Current (I)
Voltage (V)
Resistance (R)
 The relationship is known as Ohm’s Law

V = IR
Ohm’s Empirical Findings
George Ohm’s experiments show that for many
conductors, amplitude of current is dependent on
 Voltage - more voltage, more current
 Current is proportional to voltage
 Resistance - more resistance, less current
 Current is inversely proportional to resistance
Quantities Abbreviations Units Symbols

Voltage V Volts V
Current I Amperes A
Resistance R Ohms Ω

Ohm’s Law
Importantly, Ohm’s Law is universally true for

 Both DC and AC circuits
 Both low-frequency and high-frequency circuits
 Both small-signal (low power) and large-signal
(high power) circuits
 Both steady state (static conditions) and
dynamic state (varying conditions)
 Extendable to include reactive (inductive
and capacitive) components of circuits

Example (4)
The flashlight shown uses a 6 V battery
and has a bulb with a resistance of 150 .
When the flashlight is on, how much
current will be drawn from the battery?
Schematic Diagram
IR
+
VT =
VR
-
VR 6V
IR    0.04 A  40 mA
R 150 
Potential Difference
 Potential difference (p.d.) or voltage (V) across
two points in a circuit is the amount of electrical
energy (E) that changes into other forms of energy
when electrons carrying charges (Q) pass between
these points (also known as “voltage drop”)
 It is basically the energy lost per unit charge, and
can be written as
V = E/Q
 Voltage (or p.d.) is measured in volts (V), i.e., 1 V
= 1 J C-1
 If p.d. of a load is 3 V, with 4 C of charges passing
through it, then the energy used up is 12 J
Potential Difference
Electrons “lose” energy when they move

from the negative potential (low voltage)
to the positive potential (high voltage)
Electrons will continue to move as long as
the EMF (voltage) is maintained
As they move the electrons transfer energy
into other forms
This means at any two points the electron
has different amount of energy

Electrical Power
 Power tells us the rate at which electrical
energy is being supplied or consumed, that is
the electrical energy supplied or consumed
each second
Energy in Joules (J)
𝐸
Power in Watts (W) 𝑃=
𝑡 time in seconds (s)
 E.g., an appliance converting 250 J of electrical

energy into another form each second is
consuming electrical power of 250 W

Example (5)
An electric furnace uses 1.8 MJ of

energy over a time of 10 minutes.
Calculate the power output.
E = 1.8 MJ = 1.8 x 106 J
t=10 minutes = 600 s
P=?
Electrical Power (IV relationship)
 Electrical power (P) is also directly related
to the amount of current and voltage
within a system as
𝐸 𝑄𝑉
𝑃= = =𝐼•𝑉
𝑡 𝑡
 Power can therefore be calculated from the
voltage across the EMF/appliance and the
current flowing through it
Electrical Power (I R
2 form)
 Since
𝑃 = 𝐼 • 𝑉 and 𝑉 = 𝐼 • 𝑅
 Therefore
𝑃 = 𝐼•𝐼 •𝑅 = 2
𝐼 𝑅
 Power can be calculated using the
resistance of appliance and the current
flowing through it
Electrical Power (V /R
2 form)
 Since
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐼 • 𝑉 and 𝐼 =
𝑅
 Therefore
𝑉 𝑉2
𝑃= •𝑉 =
𝑅 𝑅
 Power can be calculated using the resistance
of appliance and the p.d. of the appliance
Example (6)
Schematic Diagram
IR
+
VT = VR
-
For example (4), with the flashlight on, the current

flow is 40 mA. How much electrical power is supplied
by the 6 V battery and how much electrical power is
consumed and converted into light?
Power supplied by battery is P = IV = 240 mW
Power consumed by load to produce light is

P = I2R = 240 mW

Power Ratings of Appliance
 Different appliances have different power ratings
 Rated power signifies the estimated consumed

power at the nominal or maximum utilization level
 Actual power usage is dependent on utilization
Voltage and Current Ratings
 Appliances may include their rated voltage and
rated current
 For appliances which use the AC mains supply, the
rated voltage and rated current are expressed in
terms of their root mean square (RMS) values
 RMS values represent the effective value of
an AC system in terms of heating or lighting
effect as compared to a DC system
 For a 220 Vrms, 50 Hz AC system, the peak
voltage is actually around 311 V
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Digital Multimeter
An instrument used to measure the properties of an
electrical circuit, including
Voltage (DC and RMS of AC) Volts
Current (DC and RMS of AC) Amps
Resistance (DC) Ohms

Multimeter (Different Modes)
 Voltage (or p.d.) across any two points can be
measured using a voltmeter by connecting the probes
of the voltmeter across the two measurement points
V (+) V Com ()
 Current flowing through a path can be measured

using ammeter by connecting the probes of the
ammeter such that it is part of the current flow path
A (+) A Com ()
• Positive and negative signs represent polarity and flow
• A negative reading means positive and negative terminals are reversed

Measuring Voltage
 Set multimeter to the proper V range
 Measure across a component
Switch
Battery
Resistor

Light
Measuring Current
 Set multimeter to the proper ADC range
 Circuit flow must go through the meter
Switch
Battery
Resistor

Light
Measuring Resistance
 Set multimeter to the proper Ohms range
 Power must be off or removed from the circuit
 Measure across the component being tested
Switch
Battery
Resistor
Light
Electricity can be very
dangerous!

Lightning Strikes

Lightning Paths

Lightning Strikes -Death
 Each strike can average 100 MV
 Current of up to 100,000 A
 Lightning strikes somewhere
on the Earth every second

Lightning Strikes - Damages
Buildings
TV antenna Electrical Panel

Lightning Protection System
External Protection (Direct Strike)
 Air Termination (Lightning Rods)
 Down Conductors (Bonding Wire
Conductors)
 Earth Termination (Ground Rods)
System designed for

minimum resistive
paths to allow most
direct flow of charges
to earth

Lightning Protection System
 Internal Protection (Indirect Strike)
 Surge Protection Devices (SPD) – Protect electronic devices
by breaking the circuit or shunting surges to ground in the
event of voltage surge on power or communication cables
due to lighting strike or related equipment/system fault

Common Electrical Hazards
 Explosion: Explosions occur when electricity
provides a source of ignition for an explosive
mixture in the atmosphere
 Electrical Fire: Electricity is one of the most

common causes of fires both in the home and in
the workplace. Defective or misused electrical
equipment is a major cause
 Electric Shock: Occurs when the
human body becomes part of the
path through which current flows.
Exposed energy sources from
equipment, cables, and outlets,
are usually the causes
Explosion
Arc Flash happens when electric current
flows through air gap between conductors
e.g. in tripped circuit-breakers, loose
cables, etc.
Light and heat are produced, which may
caused an explosion if flammable or
ignitable substance are present
Prevention by
 Use of Arc Flash protection equipment
 Mechanical switch replacement
 Tightening loose parts

Explosion
Static Electricity built up near flammable or
ignitable substance can cause an explosion
Prevention by
 use of antistatic clothing: footwear, shoes,
gloves etc.
 proper grounding to discharge static electricity
Interesting videos:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKAhx4NdJTs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gilnoPWkAlQ

Electrical Fire Overloaded
Keep water out!

 Outlets or appliances
 Most electrical fires are caused by faulty or overloaded
electrical outlets and appliances (e.g. bulb with a
wattage that is too high etc.)
 Extension cords
 Misuse of extension cords is another cause
 Wiring
 Worn-out cable often causes electrical fire
 Prevention by
 Using right sizing of cables, connectors, and
components in electrical circuits and systems
 Operate equipment/systems below rated current
 Renewal of worn out electrical cables and systems
Electric Shock
 An electric shock occurs when a person comes into
contact with an electrical energy source
 Electrical energy flows through a portion of the
body causing a shock

Electric Shock
 Effects of electric shock on a human body is
dependent on the current and voltage, resistance,
path through the body, and duration of shock

Electric Shock
 Low voltage (domestic) electricity (< 500 V) does
not normally cause significant injury to humans

Self-Protection
Stay dry when using electrical appliance
Use of rubber gloves / shoes / mats
Electrical
Insulators
If unsure if cable or equipment casing is

“live”, check with Test Pen or Voltmeter

Equipment Protection
 Protection devices protect equipment from
electrical damage and human from electric shock
 Most electrical equipment has built in protection
that will sense an increase in current. The
protection device immediately shuts down the
circuit
 There are two types of protection devices used in
the electronics industry:
 Fuses
 Circuit Breakers
 The two types of devices are different, but the
principle of their operation is the same, and they
produce the same results
Fuse
A fuse is the simplest and least expensive
circuit protection device available
It is a metallic component which is placed
within an electrical circuit to monitor the
current that passes through the circuit
Schematic symbol

Fuse Operations
If the current in a protected circuit becomes
excessive the metal part inside of the fuse
heats up and melts, opening the electrical
circuit the fuse is protecting

Fuse Ratings
The most important rating is the current
rating, which is stated in amps and marked
on every fuse
This value is the maximum current level
that the fuse can carry
When selecting a fuse, the fuse value needs
to be just above the normal operating
current of the equipment it protects

Example (7)
What is the appropriate choice of fuse for a
220 V mains appliance with a power rating of
330 W?
𝑃 = 𝐼•𝑉
𝑃 330
∴𝐼= = = 1.5A
𝑉 220
Given that 1.0 A fuse, 1.5 A fuse, 2.0 A

fuse, and 3.0 A fuse are available, which will
you use? 2.0 A and 3.0 A can be used.
Circuit Breakers
 A circuit breaker is really two things in one: a
switch and an indestructible fuse. The function
of the circuit breaker is the same as a fuse
 Circuit Breakers are tripped (break open) if
conductors exceed their ampere values
 They can then be reset to resume operation
Schematic symbol

Electrical System Intrusions
 It is not uncommon that electrical systems is
cut or drilled into
 There are many methods of identifying buried
or concealed electrical conduits and cables
Conduit cut – Location was

right, depth was wrong

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Electricity and Protections

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 1

 Atomic number is equal to number of protons in

 Atomic number identifies the ELEMENT

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 3

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 4

Orbits closest to nucleus are filled first

When an atom loses an

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 7

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 8

 They easily moved out of orbit

 The ability to move or flow is the basis of

 If channeled in a given direction, a flow of

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 9

In practice, both conductors and

Signal Cables and Power Cables Power Transmission Lines

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 12

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 13

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 14

 Electrons move round in a closed circuit

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 15

Electricity is everywhere, even in the

So, you are intrinsically an electricity

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 17

 Since electric current is the movement of electrons

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 19

(2) What does a 1 A current flow physically relate to?

(3) What is the total amount of electric charges the

 Alternate Current (AC)

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 22

 Current level is proportional to number of electrons flow

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 23

 In negative cycle (time = T/2 to T s), electrons flow in similar

 The cycle is then repeated

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 24

 Ipeak is proportional to the number of electrons flow

 Aperiodic Varying-Amplitude AC current

(Cycle not repeated)

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 27

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 28

It comprises minimally

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 29

Free electrons basically remain in its position with no net movement

It must be driven by the EMF with a voltage

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 32

 If the voltage of the DC EMF is maintained between

 With the AC EMF, the high & low voltage terminals

Cells (constant DC voltage

 A cell/battery or electrical outlet (AC mains) is a

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 36

 When the switch is off (we call it an open circuit),

 If battery voltage is too low (EMF is too weak), light bulb

 Electrical energy carried by electrons that

 An electric load can be theoretically

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 39

 Conductors (cables) comprise resistance and can be

 The relationship is known as Ohm’s Law

Quantities Abbreviations Units Symbols

ENGG1310 Electricity and Electronics Electricity and Protections– 43

Importantly, Ohm’s Law is universally true for

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Electrons “lose” energy when they move