Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098

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Fuel Communications
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/fuel-communications

Study on the effect of dimethyl ether and diesel-castor biodiesel blends on

emission and combustion characteristics
Samuel Tamrat a, *, Venkata Ramayya Ancha b, Rajendiran Gopal c, Ramesh Babu Nallamothu a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adama science and technology university, Adama, Ethiopia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The biodiesel from Castor was, investigated with a water-cooled four-stroke diesel engine of model CT 110 with
Biodiesel blends B0, B5, and B10 without and with dimethyl ether (DME) of 2 % and with a fixed load of (80 %) to study the
Castor combustion and emission. The biodiesel was made by alkaline transesterification with NaOH as a catalyst. Using
Combustion
established test protocols, the fuels’ characteristics, including their viscosity, surface tension, heating value, flash
Dimethyl ether
Emission
point, and elemental makeup, were measured. Experimental research is used to determine how the pressure and
heat release rate affect the performance characteristics of both reference fuel and the blends. The combustion
studies are conducted with engine speeds of 1800, 2400, and 3000 rpm and emissions were analyzed with engine
speeds starting from 1600 rpm to 3000 rpm with exhaust gas analyzer Gunt, CT159.02 digital analyzer. From the
combustion analysis when the blend ratio increases the cylinder pressure (CP) and heat release rate (HRR) also
increase due to oxygen molecules in the biodiesel. The addition of DME to biodiesel blends reduces carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions relative to neat diesel and biodiesel blends. With the increase of diesel castor biodiesel
blends, nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions decreased as a result of the reduction in the HRR. The effect of castor
diesel biodiesel blend on the NOX emissions shows, that when the blend ratio increased the NOX emissions also
increased. When DME is added to a higher blend ratio of castor biodiesel, the engine is operated only at higher
engine speed. Specifically, for B10 NOX emission was detected after engine speed of 2500 rpm. When the engine
ran with DME for blends of castor biodiesel the engine was not operated at low engine speed. The increase of
diesel castor biodiesel blends in the case of DME mixture unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions increased. The
finding of this research work was as the biodiesel blend increased the cylinder pressure and heat release rate also
increased. So, using sustainable biodiesel-diesel blends made from castor oil with DME additive it is advisable to
operate diesel engines for better emission regulation.

1. Introduction petroleum-derived fuels leads to environmental deterioration as a

The rising demand for fossil energies, decreasing oil reserves, the rise
in oil prices, and air pollution problems have increased the interest in
alternative fuels. The increasing demand for diesel engines is because of
enhanced fuel economy and low emissions. Diesel engines are
commonly used in many different industries because of their high effi­
ciency [1]. Diesel engines are preferred over spark ignition engines in
almost all heavy-duty applications as demonstrated [1,2]. Taking into
account the ongoing compound growth rate of fossil fuel use and the oil
reserves, the depletion time of different fossil fuels will be completed in
a few years [3]. Simultaneously, the extensive utilization of
consequence of persistent emissions of various contaminants and poses
difficulties for sustainability as demonstrated [4,5]. To summarize, the
depletion of petroleum reserves, adverse consequences of air pollution,
and the potential for global warming resulting from the release of
greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide have prompted scien­
tists and policymakers to explore workable and financially sustainable
substitutes for traditional liquid fuels as demonstrated [6,7]. Biodiesel
appears to be a promising replacement for diesel among the many
possible options.
Many feedstocks, including waste or used cooking oil, edible and
inedible vegetable oils, and animal fats (such as hog lard and cow

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: samuel.tamirat1@astu.edu.et (S. Tamrat).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfueco.2023.100098
Received 27 October 2023; Received in revised form 15 November 2023; Accepted 27 November 2023
Available online 29 November 2023
2666-0520/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S. Tamrat et al.
tallow), can be used to make biodiesel [8,9]. To prevent potential con­
flicts with the food supply, non-edible oils are preferred over edible oils
while manufacturing biodiesel. Many non-edible oil-seed species exist,
including Madhuca indica (Mahua), Pongamia pinnata (Karanja), Aza­
dirachta indica (Neem), and Jatropha curcas (Jatropha) which have
been used to produce biodiesel as demonstrated [10]. Castor oil plants
grow quickly and are typically observed as branching perennial shrubs
or, on rare occasions, as small soft-wooded trees. Furthermore, castor
plants can thrive on marginal sites that are unsuitable for the production
of food crops and can tolerate extreme climatic conditions like droughts.
Because castor seeds have a larger potential oil yield than other
non-edible oil seeds, they are a promising resource for the extraction and
processing of biodiesel as demonstrated [11,12]. Castor seeds, usually
contain 40–55 % of oil, a very high potential as compared to (soybean:
15–20 % (w/w), sunflower: 25–35 % (w/w), rapeseed: 38–46 % (w/w),
and palm: 30–60 % (w/w) as demonstrated [13]. However, raw castor
oil is not recommended for direct engine usage because of its excep­
tionally high viscosity and high water content. Because of non-edible oil
and its availability in many countries castor oil is converted to biodiesel
[14].
The typical petroleum oils, such as gasoline and diesel, can be
replaced by a variety of alternative fuels, including hydrogen, natural
gas, biofuels, gas to liquid, coal to liquid, biomass to liquid, and
dimethyl ether as demonstrated [15,16]. Vegetable oils have less sulfur
content, high cetane numbers, are highly oxygenated, have greater
combustion efficiency, and have a lower amount of emission [17]. DME
is the most basic ether and is an organic molecule with the formula
CH3OCH3. DME can be made directly from scratch or indirectly. Under
normal circumstances, DME is a colorless, nontoxic, mildly narcotic, and
highly combustible gas as demonstrated [18,19]. DME’s physical char­
acteristics are comparable to those of liquefied petroleum gas. As a
result, DME is regarded as a clean diesel fuel substitute for petroleum
[20,21]. Recent research works on the use of DME additives as an
innovative fuel additive to improve engine performance and emissions
characteristics [22]. Combustion of DME fuel is associated with low
NOx, HC, and CO emissions [23]. The new alternative fuel dimethyl
ether (DME) shows very promising results concerning emissions.
Despite the aforementioned literature, it should be noted that there is
still little and sometimes inconsistent research on castor oil biodiesel
compared to other biodiesels. Further comprehensive research is needed
to understand the performance of castor oil biodiesel and its mixes with
conventional diesel and DME, both at the fundamental level and under
engine-specific situations. Recent studies have shown that adding
chemical substances to diesel engines can be a creative way to increase
engine efficiency and lower emissions. The studies that created the
research gap in this area used a single diesel engine and a castor-based
diesel-biodiesel blend with substantial emissions of CO and HC. There­
fore, to reduce emissions, it is essential to assess castor diesel-biodiesel
mixtures with 2 % DME added to the biodiesel blend. Within this
framework, the current investigation looked at the emissions and com­
bustion of diesel engines using mixes of castor diesel and biodiesel with
2 % DME. Reducing pollutants, utilizing castor-based sustainable
biodiesel-diesel blends, and figuring out the best operating circum­
stances for diesel engines are the goals of this project.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Materials
In this study, the castor beans used were obtained from a local
market in Ethiopia and the extraction was conducted at Adama Science
and Technology University. Crude castor oil was extracted from castor
beans with the combination of a hydraulic machine having a capacity of
pressing 10 tons and solvent extraction using petroleum ether. The
castor oil was converted to castor oil biodiesel by the transesterification
method and its properties were measured and compared with the ASTM
2
Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098
biodiesel standard. A single-stage transesterification was used for the
biodiesel production of castor methyl ester because the free fatty acid of
the oil was found value less than 2 by using the titration method. For
emissions measurement, an exhaust gas analyzer placed on the line of
the engine exhaust gas was used to analyze the main pollutants (HC,
CO2, CO, O2, NOx) measured by Gunt, CT159.02 digital analyzer. The
detailed specification of the exhaust gas analyzer is indicated in Table 1.
The combustion and emission characteristics have been performed at
Jimma University using a CT 110 single-cylinder engine. The detailed
specification of the test engine is explored in Table 2.
2.2. Experimental setup
For the present investigation, a naturally aspirated, water-cooled
four-stroke direct injection diesel engine CT 110 was used. For emis­
sions measurement, the exhaust gas analyzer Gunt, CT159.02 digital
analyzer placed on the line of the engine exhaust gas was used to analyze
the main pollutants (HC, CO2, CO, O2, NOx). The combustion engine is
connected to the asynchronous electric motor in the CT 110, which is
operated as a dynamometer.
Experiments were conducted for B0, B5, and B10 without and with
dimethyl ether of 2 % to study the combustion and emission phenomena.
The combustion studies are conducted with 1800, 2400, and 3000 rev/
min engine speed with fixed load (80 %). The emissions were analysed
with different engine speeds starting from 1600 rpm to 3000 rpm with
fixed load.
2.3. Uncertainty analysis
The highest mean percentage uncertainty (Ūmax) predicted for en­
gine exhaust emissions and engine combustion performance is shown by
the accuracy connected with the measuring instruments, as shown in
Table 3.
3. Result and discussion
In this research paper, the combustion and emission were analyzed
for three blends of biodiesel with and without DME. The results of the
studies from the extraction to combustion and emission are summarized
in the following sections.
3.1. Characterization of biodiesel fuel and dimethyl ether
In this research work production of biodiesel, measuring the prop­
erties of biodiesel, and testing of combustion and emission characteris­
tics of biodiesel in diesel engine. The influence of dimethyl ether on the
combustion and emission of the engine was also studied. Characteriza­
tion results of diesel, biodiesel fuel, and dimethyl ether are summarized
in Tables 4 and 5 respectively. The result of the physio-chemical prop­
erties of the oil samples was within the limit of the ASTM standard
requirement of fuel for diesel engine propulsion. The flash point of
biodiesels was 75.50C and 73.4 ◦ C respectively for B10, and B5, which is
higher than that of pure Petro diesel at 72.3 ◦ C. Therefore, biodiesel is
safer for fire hazards during storage and custody transfer of fuel. The
cloud point, of biodiesel was less than 0 ◦ C, which is higher than pure
diesel fuel with a cloud point of 0 ◦ C. Hence, the biodiesel produced from
Table 1
Exhaust gas analyzer specification.
Parameters Specification
Nominal/ Power 0.2KW
Type Gunt, CT159.02
Volt 230V
Frequency 50hz
Fabrication number 237,653
S. Tamrat et al. Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098

Table 2 Where γ is the ratio of specific heats, cp/ cv for diesel heat-release it is
Engine specification. 1.3 to 1.35, P cylinder pressure, V cylinder total volume, and θ crank
Engine parameters Specification angle. The cylinder pressure and heat release rate, for the tested diesel
biodiesel fuel with a fixed load of B0, B5, and B10 with and without
Engine Model EA300-E2-NB1
Company Kubota dimethyl ether are compared for the engine speed of 1800 rpm, 2400
Type of stoke Four-stroke diesel engine rpm, and 3000 rpm (Fig. 1).
Cooling system Water-cooled
Cylinder arrangement Single cylinder 3.2.1. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 1800 rpm
Maximum power 7.5 kW@3000 min-1
Engine displacement 309 cm3
The variation in-cylinder gas pressure related to crank angle (CA) for
Bore x stroke 75 mm x 70mm the tested fuels at a fixed load of 80 % and an engine speed of 1800 rpm
Compression ratio 23:1 without and with DME are indicated in Fig. 2a and b respectively. The
Oil Capacity 1,3 L peak cylinder pressure measured for the tested fuels B0, B5, and B10 were
Noise level 95 dB(A)
65.51 bar, 67.9 bar, and 70 bar respectively as shown in Fig. 2a. It is
Rotameter 30…300 L/h
Temperature sensor, exhaust gas temperature 0…1000 ◦ C noted that B10 was the maximum cylinder pressure recorded at a crank
Circulating pump h, 12V angle of 337.9◦ . The peak heat release rate was 17.1 J/ ◦ CA, 17.14 J/
◦
CA, and 17.8 J/ ◦ CA for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 2a.
It is noted that B10 had the maximum heat release rate recorded at the
Table 3
Accuracy and uncertainties. Table 5
Measured Instrument Measuring Accuracy Ūmax Chemical properties of dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3).
parameters range % (%) Parameters Value range
NOx Kane AUTO plus gas 0–5000 ppm ± 12 PPM 17.5 Molecular weight, g/mol 46
analyzer Oxygen content – mass% 34.8
CO CT159.02 Exhaust 0–10% vol ± 0.06% 8.7 Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio-Kg/Kg 9.1
gas analyzer vol Lower heating value-KJ/Kg 28,800
HC CT159.02 Exhaust 0–2500 ppm ± 3 ppm 6.2 Boiling point ◦ C − 24.9
gas analyzer Viscosity -Kg/m-s@25◦ C Kg/m-s Est 0.12–0.15
Speed CT 110.20 0–5000 rpm ±12rpm 0.51 Vapor pressure @25 ◦ C -bar 5.1
Ignition temperature - ◦ C 235
Specific gravity @–24.7 ◦ C 0.724
castor has to be used in a hot climate so additives should be added to Cetane number 55
lower the freezing point of the fuel. The biodiesel produced from castor
was safer for storage and handling because biodiesel is denser than Petro
diesel, as indicated in Table 4. The boiling point of the biodiesel has a
higher initial boiling point that affects the starting of engines at lower
temperatures and causes higher fuel consumption during starting.
Moreover, at lower engine speeds the unburned hydrocarbon emission is
due to this property.

3.2. Combustion analysis

Combustion characteristics are an important feature reflecting the

combustion efficiency of the engine, and significantly affect the engine
performance and emission. Normally, two key parameters such as heat
release rate (HRR) and pressure rise rate (PRR) are used to evaluate
combustion characteristics as demonstrated [24]. The heat release rate
of the engine is estimated from the cylinder pressure using a single
model first law of thermodynamics as shown in Eq. (1) [25,26].
( ) ( )
γ dv γ dP
HRR(θ) = P(θ)X + V(θ)X (1)
γ− 1 dθ γ− 1 dθ Fig. 1. Schematic representation of engine test rig setup.

Table 4
Physio-chemical properties of diesel and biodiesel blends.
NO Physio-chemical properties Limit ASTM Test results of blends
6751–07b B10 B5 B0

1 Density@15 ◦ c, g/ml Report D1298 0.857 0.8525 0.85

2 Density@20 ◦ c, g/ml Report D1298 0.852 0.85 0.84
3 Flashpoint ( ◦ C) Max. 100 D93 75.5 73.4 72.3
4 Cloud point, 0C Report D2500 − 1 -1 0
5 Pour point, 0C Report D97 <-8 <-8 <-8
6 Kin.viscosity@100 ◦ C, mm2/s 1.9 - 6 D445 3.2865 3.2013 3.1637
7 Cetain Index Min. 47 D976 47.56 50.46 52.905
8 ASTM color Max. 3 D1500 1<x<1.6 1<x<1.6 1
9 Water & segment,%V Max. 0.03 D2709 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03
10 Acidity, mg KOH/g 0.5 D974 0.0308 0.02421 0.0112
11 Ash content, mass% Max. 0.01 D482 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002
12 Calorific value, Cal/g Report __ 10,678 10,790 11,200

3
S. Tamrat et al.
Fig. 2. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 1800 rpm engine speed.
crank angle of 369.8◦ . When 2 % dimethyl ether was mixed, the peak
cylinder pressure measured for the tested fuels B0, B5, and B10 were
57.12 bar, 58.3 bar, and 47.1 bar respectively as shown in Fig. 2b. It is
noted that B5 was the maximum cylinder pressure recorded at a crank
angle of 370.6◦ . The peak heat release rate was 17.6 J/ ◦ CA, 21.7 J/ ◦ CA,
and 13.5 J/ ◦ CA for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 2b. It is
noted that B5 was with the maximum heat release rate recorded at the
crank angle of 365.2◦ . The result of the study showed the cylinder
pressure was reduced when DME was used. The maximum percentage of
reduction of cylinder pressure due to DME was 32.7% for the B10. Also,
the maximum reduction of heat release rate due to DME was 24.2% for
the B10. But for the blend B0 and B5, the heat release rate shows an
increment when DME is incorporated. When the percentage of castor
biodiesel was increased, the addition of 2 % DME resulted in a consid­
erable reduction in cylinder pressure. Hence, for better combustion
performance 2 % DME additive is recommended for B0 and B5. This
result is supported by previous researchers [27,28].
3.2.2. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 2400 rpm
When the engine is operated at the speed of 2400 rpm the maximum
cylinder pressure measured for the tested fuels B0, B5, and B10 were 60.1
bar, 61.4 bar, and 61.76 bar respectively as shown in Fig. 3a. It is noted
that B10 was with the maximum cylinder pressure at 373.8 ◦ CA. The
peak heat release rate was 17.1 J/ ◦ CA, 17.14 J/ ◦ CA, and 17.8 J/ ◦ CA for
B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 3a. It is noted that B5 had the
maximum heat release rate of 365.2 ◦ CA. When 2 % dimethyl ether was
mixed, the peak cylinder pressure measured for the tested fuels B0, B5,
and B10 were 60.1 bar, 58.5 bar, and 53.6 bar respectively as shown in
Fig. 3b. It is noted that B0 was with the maximum cylinder pressure of
378 ◦ CA. The peak heat release rate was 21.6 J/ ◦ CA, 17.3 J/ ◦ CA, and
Fig. 3. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 2400 rpm engine speed.
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Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098
15.1 J/ ◦ CA for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 3b. The
result of the study at the engine speed of 2400 rpm showed that a
reduction of cylinder pressure when DME was added. The maximum
percentage of reduction of cylinder pressure due to DME was 13.16% for
the B10. Also, the maximum reduction of heat release rate due to DME
was 15.16% for the B10. But for the blend B0 and B5, the heat release rate
shows an increment when DME is added. The inclusion of 2 % DME
resulted in a notable decrease in cylinder pressure for the castor bio­
diesel percentage increase. Hence, for better combustion performance 2
% DME additive is recommended for B0 and B5. This result is supported
by previous researchers [27,28].
3.2.3. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 3000 rpm
The variation in-cylinder gas pressure related to crank angle (CA) for
the tested fuels at a fixed load of 80 % and an engine speed of 3000 rpm
without and with DME are indicated in Fig. 4a and b respectively. The
maximum cylinder pressure measured for B0, B5, and B10 were 61.5 bar,
63.4 bar, and 60.9 bar respectively as shown in Fig. 4a. It is noted that B5
was the maximum cylinder pressure 369.3 ◦ CA. The peak heat release
rate was 17 J/ ◦ CA, 20.9 J/ ◦ CA, and 19.2 J/ ◦ CA for B0, B5, and B10
respectively as shown in Fig. 4a. It is noted that B5 was with the
maximum heat release rate at 365.5 ◦ CA. When 2 % dimethyl ether was
mixed, the peak cylinder pressure measured for B0, B5, and B10 were
47.9 bar, 62 bar, and 49.7 bar respectively as shown in Fig. 4b. It is noted
that B5 was the maximum cylinder pressure at 373.2 ◦ CA. The peak heat
release rate was 17 J/ ◦ CA, 22 J/ ◦ CA, and 19.1 J/ ◦ CA for B0, B5, and B10
respectively as shown in Fig. 4b. It is noted that B5 was with the
maximum heat release rate at 372 ◦ CA. The result of the study showed
the cylinder pressure was reduced when DME was added. The maximum
percentage of reduction of cylinder pressure due to DME was 22.1% for
S. Tamrat et al.
Fig. 4. Cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 3000 rpm engine speed.
the B0. Also, the maximum reduction of heat release rate due to DME
was 0.52% for the B10. But for the blend B5, the heat release rate showed
an increment of 5 % when DME was added. The addition of 2 % DME
resulted in a considerable decrease in cylinder pressure for the castor
biodiesel percentage rise. Hence, for better combustion performance 2 %
DME additive is recommended. The DME improves the combustion
performance and cylinder pressure due to its high cetane number. From
the combustion analysis when the blend ratio increases the cylinder
pressure and heat release rate also increase due to the presence of ox­
ygen molecules in the biodiesel which is similar to the previous research
works [29].
3.3. Emission characteristics analysis
3.3.1. Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
The variation of CO emissions of the diesel-biodiesel blends of B0, B5,
and B10 at constant engine load and at different engine speeds without
DME is indicated in Fig. 5a and with DME is presented in Fig. 5b. The
maximum CO emission at 3000 rpm were 1.06, 1.0003 and 0.59 % vol
for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 5a. When DME was
added, the maximum CO emission was 0.095, 0.008, and 0.042 % vol for
B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 5b. Addition of DME to
biodiesel blends decreased, and the CO emission as compared to neat
diesel and biodiesel blends due to the oxygen content [30]. This result is
supported by other research [31]. When 2 % of DME is mixed with diesel
biodiesel fuels, the CO emission increases as the castor biodiesel blend
ratio increases as shown in Fig. 5b, which is supported by Lahane and
Subramanian [32]. The increment of the CO emission with engine speed
was in line with earlier investigations [33–36]. As indicated in Fig. 5b
the minimum operating speed range of the biodiesel-diesel blend with 2
Fig. 5. CO emission Vs. engine speed.
5
Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098
% DME were 2500, 1900, and 2100 rpm for B10, B5, and B0 respectively.
From this result, the addition of DME to a higher blend ratio of castor
biodiesel operates only at higher engine speeds.
3.3.2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission
As indicated in Fig. 6a and b, the CO2 emission for neat diesel and all
blends are increased with engine speed. Other researchers also found the
same result on the relation of CO2 emission for neat diesel and all blends
with engine speed [33,34]. When compared to diesel fuel, castor bio­
diesel blends have less CO2 emission throughout operation speed for
both with and without DME due to complete combustion at higher
speed. The DME tends to reduce the CO2 emission for the neat diesel and
all castor biodiesel. The maximum CO2 emission was 6.41, 4.84 and 5.1
% vol at 3000 rpm for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 6a.
When dimethyl ether was added, the maximum CO2 emission was 5.7,
3.15, and 3.37 % vol at 3000 rpm for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as
shown in Fig. 6b. The addition of DME to higher blend ratio of castor
biodiesel-diesel, operates at higher engine speeds. The minimum engine
operating speeds were 2500, 1900, and 2100 rpm for B10, B5, and B0
respectively as shown in Fig. 6b.
3.3.3. Nitrogen oxide (NOX) emission
The NOX emission was strongly affected by the oxygen amount, and
combustion temperature [37]. With the increase of diesel castor bio­
diesel blends, NOX emissions decreased as a result of a reduction in the
HRR. As indicated in Fig. 7a B10 has the maximum NOX emissions. The
inclusion of DME with B10 has minimum NOX emissions as shown in
Fig. 7b. NOX emissions increased as the castor biodiesel-diesel blend
ratio rose as seen in Fig. 7a. This result output was the same with [38].
Other related studies showed DME reduces NOx emission when mixed
S. Tamrat et al. Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098

Fig. 6. CO2 emission Vs. engine speed.

Fig. 7. NOX emission Vs. engine speed.

with diesel and biodiesel blends [39].
In this research when DME is added to a higher blend ratio of castor
biodiesel the engine was operated at a higher engine speed. Specifically,
for B10 the engine was operated after 2500 rpm. The maximum NOX
emission was 222, 195, and 233 ppm at 2900 rpm for B0, B5, and B10
respectively as shown in Fig. 7a. When dimethyl ether was added, the
maximum NOx emission was 246, 266 ppm at 2900 rpm, and 191 ppm at
2800 rpm for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 7b. The
reduction of NOx emission as DME additive was incorporated also re­
ported by earlier research works (Agarwal et al., 2015)[24,40,41].
3.3.4. Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions
As indicated in Fig. 8a UHC emissions increased with engine speed.
As indicated in Fig. 8b, UHC emissions decreased as engine speed
increased for the blends of B0 and B5. But for B10, the UHC emissions
increased with engine speed. The addition of DME for blends of castor
biodiesel-diesel did not operate the engine at a lower speed. The increase
of castor biodiesel ratio in the blends with the inclusion of DME,
increased the UHC emissions as shown in Fig. 8b. The maximum UHC
emissions with the inclusion of DME was observed for the B10 as shown
in Fig. 8b. As the biodiesel blend ratio increased the UHC emissions also
increased as seen in Fig. 8b, this result output where the same as [38].
The maximum UHC emission was 48, 26 ppm at 3000 rpm and 29 ppm
at 2900 rpm for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 8a. Addition
of DME with the castor biodiesel-diesel blends, showed maximum UHC
emission of 19 ppm at 2100 rpm, 20 ppm at 1900 rpm, and 36 ppm at
3000 rpm for B0, B5, and B10 respectively as shown in Fig. 8b. This
research indicates, reduction of UHC emission when DME additive was
added. Also, the result of this research work is the same as the earlier
research works [35,40,42].

Fig. 8. UHC emission Vs. engine speed.

6
S. Tamrat et al.
4. Conclusion
The effects of mixing diesel and castor oil biodiesel with DME on the
combustion and emission characteristics of a compression ignition en­
gine have been investigated experimentally. There are two sections to
the experiments. Measurements of the physio-characteristics of diesel,
biodiesel, and their mixtures are presented in the first section. To
examine the emission characteristics of various blended fuels, experi­
ments were conducted in the second section to compare their funda­
mental combustion properties in an engine test rig. The cylinder
pressure and heat release rate, for the tested diesel and biodiesel-diesel
fuel at a fixed load of 80 % for B0, B5, and B10 with and without dimethyl
ether are compared at 1800 rpm, 2400 rpm, and 3000 rpm. The
following significant conclusions are drawn: -
i. The flash point of biodiesels was 75.50C and 73.4 ◦ C respectively
for B10, and B5, which is higher than that of pure Petro diesel at
72.3 ◦ C. Therefore, biodiesel is safer to fire hazards during stor­
age and custody transfer of fuel.
ii. The greater initial boiling point of castor biodiesel makes it more
difficult to start engines at lower temperatures and results in
increased fuel consumption during starting.
iii. During the experimental study when the percentage of castor
biodiesel increased, the addition of 2 % DME resulted in a
considerable reduction in cylinder pressure B0 and B5.
iv. The addition of DME to biodiesel blends decreased the CO
emission compared to neat diesel and biodiesel blends. As the
diesel-biodiesel blend ratio increased the NOX emissions also
increased as a result of reduction in the HRR.
v. In this research when DME is added to a higher blend ratio of
castor biodiesel the engine is operated only at higher engine
speed. Specifically, for B10 the engine was operated after a speed
of 2500 rpm.
vi. With the increase of biodiesel-diesel blends with DME, as the
blend ratio increased the UHC emissions also increased.
Funding statement
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Samuel Tamrat: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
Methodology, Writing – original draft. Venkata Ramayya Ancha: Su­
pervision, Investigation, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Rajendiran Gopal: Supervision, Investigation, Validation, Writing –
review & editing. Ramesh Babu Nallamothu: Supervision, Investiga­
tion, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Adama Science
and Technology University for their fund Grant number ASTU/SP-R/
097126, material support, and their valuable assistance.
7
Fuel Communications 17 (2023) 100098
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