Heading:

● Committee: UNEP
● Topic: In a world where climate change poses a sizable threat to future generations, how
sustainable is the usage of nuclear energy and what dangers does it come with?
● Country: India
● School: DPS International School

Topic Background
● What is the definition of the topic? : Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the
nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of protons and neutrons. This source of energy can be
produced in two ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several parts – or fusion –
when nuclei fuse together. (International Atomic Energy Agency)

● Where does the topic take place? : Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in
India. As of November 2020, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear power
plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW. Nuclear power produced a total of 43
TWh in 2020-21, contributing 3.11% of total power generation in India (1,382 TWh). 10 more
reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 8,000 MW.
(wikipedia)

● Who is involved? : The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre is India's premier nuclear research
facility, headquartered in Trombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. It was founded by Homi
Jehangir Bhabha as the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay in January 1954 as a
multidisciplinary research program essential for India's nuclear program. (wikipedia)

● How many people does it affect? : In 2021, about 3.2 percent of the domestic production of
electricity in India was derived from nuclear energy.The volume of the electricity generated
by nuclear sources in India fluctuated since 1998, reaching a maximum in 2001, 2002 and
again in 2011 and 2012, with around 3.7 percent of the total share. Since 2011, the nuclear
share of the electricity production has decreased steadily. (statista)

● Where, and in what ways? At high doses, ionizing radiation can cause immediate damage to
a person's body, including, at very high doses, radiation sickness and death. At lower doses,
ionizing radiation can cause health effects such as cardiovascular disease and cataracts, as
well as cancerChildren and adolescents can be more sensitive to the cancer-causing effects of
ionizing radiation than adults because their bodies are still growing and developing. Also,
children and adolescents usually have more years of life following radiation exposure during
which cancer may develop.(national cancer instituite)
Nuclear energy carries a lot of significance for India. On 3rd December, 2021, Mr. Anil
Kakodkar, the former chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, stated that India can’t
meet the net-zero target without nuclear power. He also added that the nuclear power grid
alone helps India to provide low-cost power and assist in Grid balancing. In the long run, the
country is planning to increase the percentage contribution of nuclear energy to 25% of the
total power capacity. The recent Jiatapur project in Maharashtra is projected to bring 21,000
crores (US$ 2.8 billion) in revenues for the government and create 50,000 jobs. Nuclear
 energy is also considered to be greener as compared to traditional power sources. (Indian
Brand Equity Foundation)

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Nuclear energy in India

Among all the developing nations, India is the only one to have generated electricity using
indigenously developed, demonstrated, and deployed nuclear reactors. India ranks third in terms of
electricity production worldwide by producing 1207 TWh of electricity. Nuclear energy is the
fifth-largest source of electricity for India. India also stands at seventh position in terms of the
number of nuclear reactors, with over 23 nuclear reactors in 7 power plants across the country which
produces 6780 MW of nuclear power. With an aim to increase its atomic power contribution from
3.2% to 5% by 2031, this surge in the nuclear energy contribution in India will help the country lead
towards a more sustainable and economic future.

What is Nuclear energy? What are the benefits of Nuclear energy?

Nuclear power is an efficient way of boiling water to create steam, this steam is used to turn turbines,
which creates electricity. Compared to other forms of renewable energy Nuclear energy is considered
beneficial, because of its smaller land footprint and the amount of waste it produces. Nuclear energy
uses 360 times less amount of land as compared to wind farms and 75 times less land as compared to
solar photovoltaic plants. Nuclear fuel is energy-dense as a 1-inch-tall Uranium pallet is equivalent to
120 gallons of oil and about 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas.

Significance of Nuclear power to India

Nuclear energy carries a lot of significance for India. On 3rd December, 2021, Mr. Anil Kakodkar, the
former chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, stated that India can’t meet the net-zero target
without nuclear power. He also added that the nuclear power grid alone helps India to provide
low-cost power and assist in Grid balancing. In the long run, the country is planning to increase the
percentage contribution of nuclear energy to 25% of the total power capacity. The recent Jiatapur
project in Maharashtra is projected to bring 21,000 crores (US$ 2.8 billion) in revenues for the
government and create 50,000 jobs. Nuclear energy is also considered to be greener as compared to
traditional power sources.
India’s Nuclear Energy Program

The main objective of India’s nuclear energy program was the utilization and development of Atomic
energy for peaceful purposes. India wanted to develop a cheap and efficient power source and use
nuclear energy for various other research purposes like basic sciences, astronomy, astrophysics,
cancer research and education. India’s nuclear program has an ambitious three-stage power
production program; this program was meant to be a closed fuel cycle program in which every stage
feed into each other. To put this in perspective in the first stage of the nuclear fuel cycle the spent
nuclear fuel still contains 96% of reusable material, this material is used again in the second stage and
the spent fuel of the second stage is reused for the third stage. This creates a closed chain where the
fuel is being reused and recycled to maximize efficiency.

The country was able to successfully reach the first stage of the nuclear energy program in 2013 with
over 22 nuclear reactors in 7 nuclear power plants. The country produces 6780 MW of nuclear
energy. The country has already generated 755 billion units of electricity and has saved 650 million
tons of CO2 emissions.

Government Initiatives to assist the nuclear energy boom

India is currently on the second stage of its ambitious nuclear program. The country is planning to
construct 12 new nuclear power reactors by 2024. This will further reduce the price from Rs 4 (US$
0.05) per unit to Rs 3 (US$ 0.03) per unit. This fall in the prices will further help to drive the country’s
nuclear ambitions forward. The country will have their first-ever northern reactor by 2024. The
country has 9 nuclear reactors already under construction, which will add 6700 MW of nuclear
capacity. The country also has approved and sanctioned 12 more reactors with an additional capacity
of 9000 MW. In 2019 the government had allotted the Department of Atomic energy a budget of
Rs.10,000 crore (US$ 1.31 billion) and had a proposal to increase the budget by 10,000 crores (US$
1.31 billion) per year for the next 10 years. The country has approved to set up the largest nuclear
power plant in Jaitapur, Maharashtra. This power plant will produce 9900 MW of energy and will be
the world’s most powerful nuclear power plant, which will create thousands of jobs. This project is
going to be in collaboration with the French government.

The government has made several steps to increase nuclear power plant output in the country.
● Amending the Atomic Energy Act to allow public-sector companies to form joint ventures to
build nuclear power plants.
● Resolution of issues relating to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (CLND) Act and the
establishment of an Indian Nuclear Insurance Pool (INIP).

Future of Nuclear energy in India

India’s nuclear power could provide a reliable solution to India’s power demand as against wind and
solar that is not available round the clock. This could further lead to a reduction in India’s
contribution to global Green House Gases (GHG) which stood at 6.55%, with energy sector
contributing a little over two-third towards it. India’s current nuclear power capacity of 6,790 MW is
expected to increase to 22,480 MW by 2031. This in turn is going to assist the country in meeting zero
energy targets along with other clean energy sources. [Indian Brand Equity Foundation]
 ************************************************

India’s Nuclear Power Capacity

Why in News?
India’s nuclear power capacity experienced a significant increase. By 2021-22, it had risen to 47,112
Million Units.
■ In 2017, the government gave simultaneous approval for 11 indigenous pressurized heavy
water reactors with a total capacity of 7,000 MegaWatts.

What is the Status of India’s Nuclear Energy?

■ About:
○ Nuclear energy is the fifth-largest source of electricity for India which contributes
about 3% of the total electricity generation in the country.
○ India has over 22 nuclear reactors in 7 power plants across the country which
produces 6780 MW of nuclear power. In addition, one reactor, Kakrapar Atomic
Power Project (KAPP-3) has also been connected to the grid in January- 2021.
● 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light
Water Reactors (LWRs).
● KAPP-3 is the India’s first 700 MWe unit, and the biggest indigenously
developed variant of the PHWR.
■ Recent Developments:
○ Joint Ventures with Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs):
● Government has also allowed Joint Ventures with PSUs to enhance India's
nuclear program.
● As a result, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is now in
two joint ventures with the National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
(NTPC) and the Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL).
○ Expansion of Nuclear Installations:
● In the past, India's nuclear installations were mostly located in South India or
in Maharashtra and Gujarat in the west.
● However, the government is now promoting its expansion to other
parts of the country. As an example, the upcoming nuclear power
plant in Gorakhpur town of Haryana, which will become operational
in the near future.
○ India’s Indigenous Move:
● The world's first thorium-based nuclear plant, "Bhavni," using Uranium-233,
is being set up at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu.
● This plant will be entirely indigenous and will be the first of its kind. The
experimental thorium plant "Kamini" already exists in Kalpakkam.
■ Challenges:
○ Limited Domestic Resources: India has limited domestic resources of uranium, which
is the fuel for nuclear reactors.
 ● This has forced the country to import a significant portion of its uranium
requirements, making the country's nuclear energy program vulnerable to
global market conditions and political tensions.
○ Public Opposition: The construction of nuclear power plants often faces opposition
from local communities due to concerns over the safety of the reactors and the
potential impact on the environment.
○ Technical Challenges: The development of nuclear power plants involves complex
technical challenges, including the design and construction of reactors, the
management of nuclear waste, and the maintenance of nuclear safety standards.
○ International Sanctions: India is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT) and has faced international sanctions in the past for its nuclear weapons
program.
● This has limited its access to advanced nuclear technology and fuel supplies
from other countries.
○ Regulatory Barriers: The regulatory framework for the development of nuclear power
in India is complex and has been criticised for being slow and bureaucratic, leading to
delays in the implementation of projects.

How India Can Enhance its Nuclear Power Capacity?

■ Overcoming Public Opposition: Addressing public concerns and increasing public awareness
about the safety of nuclear power is critical to overcoming opposition to the construction of
new reactors.
○ This can be achieved through transparent communication and consultation with local
communities, as well as the implementation of rigorous safety standards.
■ Technical Innovation: To overcome the technical challenges faced by the nuclear energy
sector, India needs to focus on innovation in reactor design, waste management, and safety
systems.
○ This could involve investment in research and development and the deployment of
advanced technologies.
■ Financial Sustainability: To overcome the financial challenges faced by the nuclear energy
sector, India needs to find ways to make nuclear energy more cost-competitive with other
forms of energy.
○ This could involve reducing construction and operation costs, as well as developing
innovative financing models.
■ Improving International Collaboration: India needs to strengthen its international
partnerships to overcome the limitations posed by international sanctions and access to
advanced nuclear technology and fuel supplies.
○ This could involve the development of joint ventures with other countries, the
participation in international research initiatives, and the negotiation of nuclear trade
agreements
[dristiias.com]

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Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of protons
and neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split
into several parts – or fusion – when nuclei fuse together.

The nuclear energy harnessed around the world today to produce electricity is through nuclear
fission, while technology to generate electricity from fusion is at the R&D phase. This article will
explore nuclear fission. To learn more about nuclear fusion, click here.

What is nuclear fission?

Nuclear fission is a reaction where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei,
while releasing energy.
For instance, when hit by a neutron, the nucleus of an atom of uranium-235 splits into two smaller
nuclei, for example a barium nucleus and a krypton nucleus and two or three neutrons. These extra
neutrons will hit other surrounding uranium-235 atoms, which will also split and generate additional
neutrons in a multiplying effect, thus generating a chain reaction in a fraction of a second.
Each time the reaction occurs, there is a release of energy in the form of heat and radiation. The heat
can be converted into electricity in a nuclear power plant, similarly to how heat from fossil fuels such
as coal, gas and oil is used to generate electricity.

Nuclear fission (Graphic: A. Vargas/IAEA)

How does a nuclear power plant work?

Inside nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors and their equipment contain and control the chain
reactions, most commonly fuelled by uranium-235, to produce heat through fission. The heat warms
the reactor’s cooling agent, typically water, to produce steam. The steam is then channelled to spin
turbines, activating an electric generator to create low-carbon electricity.
Find more details about the different types of nuclear power reactors on this page.
Pressurized water reactors are the most used in the world. (Graphic: A. Vargas/IAEA)

Mining, enrichment and disposal of uranium

Uranium is a metal that can be found in rocks all over the world. Uranium has several naturally
occurring isotopes, which are forms of an element differing in mass and physical properties but with
the same chemical properties. Uranium has two primordial isotopes: uranium-238 and uranium-235.
Uranium-238 makes up the majority of the uranium in the world but cannot produce a fission chain
reaction, while uranium-235 can be used to produce energy by fission but constitutes less than 1 per
cent of the world’s uranium.

To make natural uranium more likely to undergo fission, it is necessary to increase the amount of
uranium-235 in a given sample through a process called uranium enrichment. Once the uranium is
enriched, it can be used effectively as nuclear fuel in power plants for three to five years, after which
it is still radioactive and has to be disposed of following stringent guidelines to protect people and the
environment. Used fuel, also referred to as spent fuel, can also be recycled into other types of fuel for
use as new fuel in special nuclear power plants.

What is the Nuclear Fuel Cycle?

The nuclear fuel cycle is an industrial process involving various steps to produce electricity from
uranium in nuclear power reactors. The cycle starts with the mining of uranium and ends with the
disposal of nuclear waste.

Nuclear waste
The operation of nuclear power plants produces waste with varying levels of radioactivity. These are
managed differently depending on their level of radioactivity and purpose. See the animation below
to learn more about this topic.

Radioactive Waste Management

Radioactive waste makes up a small portion of all waste. It is the by-product of millions of medical
procedures each year, industrial and agricultural applications that use radiation and nuclear reactors
that generate around 11 % of global electricity. This animation explains how radioactive waste is
managed to protect people and the environment from radiation now and in the future.
The next generation of nuclear power plants, also called innovative advanced reactors, will generate
much less nuclear waste than today’s reactors. It is expected that they could be under construction
by 2030.
Nuclear power and climate change
Nuclear power is a low-carbon source of energy, because unlike coal, oil or gas power plants, nuclear
power plants practically do not produce CO2 during their operation. Nuclear reactors generate close
to one-third of the world’s carbon free electricity and are crucial in meeting climate change goals.
To find out more about nuclear power and the clean energy transition, read this edition of the IAEA
Bulletin.

What is the role of the IAEA?

● The IAEA establishes and promotes international standards and guidance for the safe and
secure use of nuclear energy to protect people and the environment.
● The IAEA supports existing and new nuclear programmes around the world by providing
technical support and knowledge management. Through the Milestones Approach, the IAEA
provides technical expertise and guidance to countries that want to develop a nuclear power
programme as well as to those who are decommissioning theirs.
● Through its safeguards and verification activities, the IAEA oversees that nuclear material and
technologies are not diverted from peaceful use.
● Review missions and advisory services led by the IAEA provide guidance on the activities
necessary during the lifetime of production of nuclear energy: from the mining of uranium to
the construction, maintenance and decommissioning of nuclear power plants and the
management of nuclear waste.
● The IAEA administers a reserve of low enriched uranium (LEU) in Kazakhstan, which can be
used as a last resort by countries that are in urgent need of LEU for peaceful purposes.
[International Atomic Energy Agency]

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Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained
from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of
electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear
power plants. Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope
thermoelectric generators in some space probes such as Voyager 2. Generating electricity from fusion
power remains the focus of international research.
Most nuclear power plants use thermal reactors with enriched uranium in a once-through fuel cycle.
Fuel is removed when the percentage of neutron absorbing atoms becomes so large that a chain
reaction can no longer be sustained, typically three years. It is then cooled for several years in on-site
spent fuel pools before being transferred to long term storage. The spent fuel, though low in volume,
is high-level radioactive waste. While its radioactivity decreases exponentially it must be isolated
from the biosphere for hundreds of thousands of years, though newer technologies (like fast
reactors) have the potential to reduce this significantly. Because the spent fuel is still mostly
fissionable material, some countries (e.g. France and Russia) reprocess their spent fuel by extracting
fissile and fertile elements for fabrication in new fuel, although this process is more expensive than
producing new fuel from mined uranium. All reactors breed some plutonium-239, which is found in
the spent fuel, and because Pu-239 is the preferred material for nuclear weapons, reprocessing is
seen as a weapon proliferation risk.
The first nuclear power plant was built in the 1950s. The global installed nuclear capacity grew to 100
GW in the late 1970s, and then expanded rapidly during the 1980s, reaching 300 GW by 1990. The
1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the Soviet
Union resulted in increased regulation and public opposition to nuclear plants. These factors, along
with high cost of construction, resulted in the global installed capacity only increasing to 390 GW by
2022. These plants supplied 2,586 terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity in 2019, equivalent to about
10% of global electricity generation, and were the second-largest low-carbon power source after
hydroelectricity. As of September 2022, there are 437 civilian fission reactors in the world, with
overall capacity of 393 GW,[1] 57 under construction and 102 planned, with a combined capacity of 62
GW and 96 GW, respectively. The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating
over 800 TWh of zero-emissions electricity per year with an average capacity factor of 92%. Average
global capacity factor is 89%. Most new reactors under construction are generation III reactors in
Asia.
Nuclear power generation causes one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated
compared to other energy sources. Coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydroelectricity each have
caused more fatalities per unit of energy due to air pollution and accidents. Nuclear power plants
emit no greenhouse gases. One of the dangers of nuclear power is the potential for accidents like the
Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011.
There is a debate about nuclear power. Proponents contend that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable
energy source that reduces carbon emissions. The anti-nuclear movement contends that nuclear
power poses many threats to people and the environment and is too expensive and slow to deploy
when compared to alternative sustainable energy sources.

By 2015, the IAEA's outlook for nuclear energy had become more promising, recognizing the
importance of low-carbon generation for mitigating climate change. As of 2015, the global trend was
for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced by the number of old plants being
retired. In 2016, the U.S. Energy Information Administration projected for its "base case" that world
nuclear power generation would increase from 2,344 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2012 to 4,500 TWh in
2040. Most of the predicted increase was expected to be in Asia. As of 2018, there are over 150
nuclear reactors planned including 50 under construction.] In January 2019, China had 45 reactors in
operation, 13 under construction, and plans to build 43 more, which would make it the world's
largest generator of nuclear electricity. As of 2021, 17 reactors were reported to be under
construction. China built significantly fewer reactors than originally planned, its share of electricity
from nuclear power was 5% in 2019] and observers have cautioned that, along with the risks, the
changing economics of energy generation may cause new nuclear energy plants to "no longer make
sense in a world that is leaning toward cheaper, more reliable renewable energy".In October 2021,
the Japanese cabinet approved the new Plan for Electricity Generation to 2030 prepared by the
Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and an advisory committee, following public
consultation. The nuclear target for 2030 requires the restart of another ten reactors. Prime Minister
Fumio Kishida in July 2022 announced that the country should consider building advanced reactors
and extending operating licences beyond 60 years.
As of 2022, with world oil and gas prices on the rise, while Germany is restarting its coal plants to
deal with loss of Russian gas that it needs to supplement its Energiwende, many other countries have
announced ambitious plans to reinvigorate ageing nuclear generating capacity with new investments.
French President Emmanuel Macron announced his intention to build six new reactors in coming
decades, placing nuclear at the heart of France's drive for carbon neutrality by 2050. Meanwhile in
the United States, the Department of Energy, in collaboration with commercial entities, TerraPower
and X-energy, is planning on building two different advanced nuclear reactors by 2027, with further
plans for nuclear implementation in its long term green energy and energy security goals.
[wikipedia]

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The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was an agreement signed in 1968 by several of the major
nuclear and non-nuclear powers that pledged their cooperation in stemming the spread of nuclear
technology. Although the NPT did not ultimately prevent nuclear proliferation, in the context of the
Cold War arms race and mounting international concern about the consequences of nuclear war, the
treaty was a major success for advocates of arms control because it set a precedent for international
cooperation between nuclear and non-nuclear states to prevent proliferation.

U.S. Ambassador Llewellyn E. Thompson, signs nuclear non-proliferation treaty as Soviet Foreign
Minister Andrei A. Gromyko watches in Moscow, Russia, on July 1, 1968. (AP Photo)
After the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963, leaders of
both nations hoped that other, more comprehensive agreements on arms control would be
forthcoming. Given the excessive costs involved in the development and deployment of new and
more technologically advanced nuclear weapons, both powers had an interest in negotiating
agreements that would help to slow the pace of the arms race and limit competition in strategic
weapons development. Four years after the first treaty, the two sides agreed to an Outer Space
Treaty that prevented the deployment of nuclear weapons systems as satellites in space. Of far
greater import, Soviet and U.S. negotiators also reached a settlement on concluding an international
non-proliferation treaty.

By the beginning of the 1960s, nuclear weapons technology had the potential to become widespread.
The science of exploding and fusing atoms had entered into public literature via academic journals,
and nuclear technology was no longer pursued only by governments, but by private companies as
well. Plutonium, the core of nuclear weapons, was becoming easier to obtain and cheaper to process.
As a result of these changes, by 1964 there were five nuclear powers in the world: in addition to the
United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, all of which obtained nuclear capability
during or shortly after the Second World War, France exploded its first nuclear bomb in 1960, and the
People’s Republic of China was not far behind in 1964. There were many other countries that had not
yet tested weapons, but which were technologically advanced enough that should they decide to
build them, it was likely that they could do so before long.
The spread of nuclear weapons technology meant several things for international lawmakers. While
the only countries that were capable of nuclear strike were the United States, its close ally Britain,
and the Soviet Union, the doctrine of deterrence could be reasonably maintained. Because both sides
of the Cold War had vast stocks of weapons and the capability of striking back after being attacked,
any strike would likely have led to mutually assured destruction, and thus there remained a strong
incentive for any power to avoid starting a nuclear war. However, if more nations, particularly
developing nations that lay on the periphery of the balance of power between the two Cold War
superpowers, achieved nuclear capability, this balance risked being disrupted and the system of
deterrence would be threatened. Moreover, if countries with volatile border disputes became
capable of attacking with nuclear weapons, then the odds of a nuclear war with truly global
repercussions increased. This also caused the nuclear states to hesitate in sharing nuclear technology
with developing nations, even technology that could be used for peaceful applications. All of these
concerns led to international interest in a nuclear non-proliferation treaty that would help prevent
the spread of nuclear weapons.

Although the benefits to be derived from such a treaty were clear, its development was not without
controversy. A ban on the distribution of nuclear technology was first proposed by Ireland in a
meeting of the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1961. Although the members approved the
resolution, it took until 1965 for negotiations to begin in earnest at the Geneva disarmament
conference. At that time, U.S. negotiators worked to strike a delicate balance between the interest in
preventing further transfer of the technology that it shared with the Soviet Union and the desire to
strengthen its NATO allies by giving several Western European nations some measure of control over
nuclear weapons. The plan for a nuclear NATO threatened to scuttle the talks altogether, and the
United States eventually abandoned it in favor of reaching a workable treaty. A more difficult problem
involved the question of bringing non-nuclear nations into line with the planned treaty. Nations that
had not yet developed nuclear weapons technology were essentially being asked to give up all
intentions to ever develop the weapons. Without this agreement on the part of the non-nuclear
powers, having the nuclear powers vow never to transfer the technology would likely not result in any
real limitation on the number of worldwide nuclear powers. After two years of negotiations, the
nuclear powers managed to make enough concessions to induce many non-nuclear powers to sign.
The final treaty involved a number of provisions all aimed at limiting the spread of nuclear weapons
technology. First, the nuclear signatories agreed not to transfer either nuclear weapons or nuclear
weapons technology to any other state. Second, the non-nuclear states agreed that they would not
receive, develop or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons. All of the signatories agreed to submit to the
safeguards against proliferation established by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Parties
to the treaty also agreed to cooperate in the development of peaceful nuclear technology and to
continue negotiations to help end the nuclear arms race and limit the spread of the technology. The
treaty was given a 25-year time limit, with the agreement that it would be reviewed every 5 years.
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was, and continues to be, heralded as an important step in the
ongoing efforts to reduce or prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. Still, it had one major drawback
in that two nuclear powers, France and the People’s Republic of China, did not sign the agreement,
nor did a number of non-nuclear states. Of the non-nuclear states refusing to adhere, and thereby
limit their own future nuclear programs, of particular importance were Argentina, Brazil, India, Israel,
Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and South Africa, because these powers were close to being capable of the
technology. In fact, in 1974, India joined the “nuclear club” by exploding its first weapon. Pakistan
tested its first atomic bomb in 1983.
[office of the historian]

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The environment is a casualty of conflict. Always. And when the environment suffers, people suffer.
We saw the tragic impacts of this in 1945 after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. By the end of
1945, 140,000 deaths in Hiroshima and 74,000 deaths in Nagasaki were attributed to the impacts of
the atomic bombings. Since then, science has laid out unequivocally, the enormous impacts on
human health and the environment. Death. Destruction of property and livelihoods. Radiation
exposure. Fatal cancers. Altered DNA in the genes of plants and animals disrupting the web of life, i.e.
nature on which we all depend.

This enormous tragedy has been compounded by the deplorable reality: that we have not yet learnt
our lesson. In his visit to Hiroshima a few months ago, the UN Secretary-General spoke of the “sheer
absurdity of nuclear weapons.” Almost 13,000 nuclear weapons are being held. Stockpiles are being
upgraded. And in almost every geopolitical crisis we face in the world today, the threat of potential
nuclear annihilation is a common theme. This would be unbelievable if it were not true.
As the world reels from the triple planetary crisis: the crisis of climate change; the crisis of
biodiversity loss; and the crisis of pollution and waste, nuclear war is not something we can afford to
add to the challenges we face. Even small-scale use of nuclear warheads could deplete the ozone
layer, raise global temperatures even further, and hasten the effects of global warming. The use of
less than 10 per cent of today’s global nuclear arsenals could nearly stop all rain over India and
central China and reduce precipitation globally by 15 to 30 per cent.

The UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons must be our guiding light to realise a world
without nuclear weapons – the vision expressed clearly by hibakushas. We must also invest further in
truly understanding the impacts of ionizing radiation on the environment and human health so that
we are able to be further studied as many issues, such as trans-generational effect, low dose
exposure etc. are yet to be clarified. We see an important role here for the UN Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), the UN body focused on the scientific aspects of
effects of ionizing radiation. This is a programme of UNEP, together to International Atomic Energy
Agency and World Health Organization and one that we at UNEP remain deeply committed to. And
finally, we must remember that any pursuit of nuclear warfare goes against the grain and spirit of the
recent UN General Assembly resolution – reaffirming the human right of all people to a clean,
healthy, and sustainable environment. In implementing this resolution, we have a strong roadmap to
commit ourselves to intergenerational justice – a moral obligation to future generations. So to end in
the words of the UN Secretary-General let us “Finish the work that the hibakushas have begun. Carry
their message forward. In their names, in their honor, in their memory — we must act.”
Unep.org

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Arms control and disarmament are essential for peace and security. This can help countries to focus
more on socioeconomic development, human well-being and prosperity. Weapons, also called arms,
bring a lot of pain and sorrow. Weapons can be a source of international tension between countries,
mistrust and instability. Excessive stockpiling of arms can both cause and prolong war. Poorly
regulated weapons in wars kill thousands of civilians annually, including many children. The explosive
remnants of these weapons continue to cause harm long after the armed conflict has ended. They
can harm a country’s post-conflict recovery and prevent return to a normal life. They may make roads
and land inaccessible and their very presence is a source of dread for local populations. For over a
century the international community has worked to minimize the effects of war. For instance, efforts
have been made to address the adverse impact of weapons by limiting or banning the use of some of
them and by protecting vulnerable groups and civilians from the scourge of war. On several occasions
this determination has brought results: some very dangerous weapons have been outlawed and the
use of some others has been strictly regulated. But more needs to be done. The advancement of
digital technologies holds great promise, but if not developed and applied in a responsible manner,
also poses untenable risks and challenges to international security and stability
At the UN, countries continue to work to limit arms and regulate their use. All countries, including
major military powers, take part in these negotiations to strengthen the security and the safety of
their citizens and build confidence between countries. The efforts on disarmament and arms control
progress slowly and have to continuously adapt to the political environment and to meet the
challenges of today and the future. Advances in science and technology occur at a rapid pace and
bring many benefits to all our lives. However, these advances also bear the risk of being misused.
New disruptive weapon technologies will increase the speed of the warfare, redefine how it is fought,
where it will take place and who will be involved and affected. It is important that we all act and
innovate responsibly to ensure sustainable development on our planet.
There are certainly more things you can do for disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation than
those listed above. The first step is always the most important: build a community of people that has
a shared sense of purpose and make sure that there is a balance of girls and boys; be sure that you
are well informed and have all the facts straight; allow for a diversity of opinions in the group and
have a clear and meaningful message to deliver. Use the creative skills you already have to spark
engagement and discussion – in art, music, debate, writing, filmmaking, social media. Make your
voice heard, become an agent for change and help others engage too.
Unitednations.org

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India's three-stage nuclear power program was formulated by Homi Bhabha, the well-known
physicist, in the 1950s to secure the country's long term energy independence, through the use of
uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India. The
ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of India to be utilised in
meeting the country's energy requirements. Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as India has
only around 1–2% of the global uranium reserves, but one of the largest shares of global thorium
reserves at about 25% of the world's known thorium reserves However, thorium is more difficult to
use than uranium as a fuel because it requires breeding, and global uranium prices remain low
enough that breeding is not cost effective.
India published about twice the number of papers on thorium as its nearest competitors, during each
of the years from 2002 to 2006. The Indian nuclear establishment estimates that the country could
produce 500 GWe for at least four centuries using just the country's economically extractable thorium
reserves.

The first Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor has been repeatedly delayed – and is currently expected to
be commissioned by October 2022 – and India continues to import thousands of tonnes of uranium
from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbekistan. The 2005 Indo–US Nuclear Deal and the NSG
waiver, which ended more than three decades of international isolation of the Indian civil nuclear
programme, have created many hitherto unexplored alternatives for the success of the three-stage
nuclear power programme.

Stage I – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor

The Narora Atomic Power Station has two IPHWR reactors, the first stage of the three stage program
In the first stage of the programme, natural uranium fueled pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR)
produce electricity while generating plutonium-239 as by-product. PHWRs was a natural choice for
implementing the first stage because it had the most efficient reactor design in terms of uranium
utilisation, and the existing Indian infrastructure in the 1960s allowed for quick adoption of the PHWR
technology. India correctly calculated that it would be easier to create heavy water production
facilities (required for PHWRs) than uranium enrichment facilities (required for LWRs). Natural
uranium contains only 0.7% of the fissile isotope uranium-235. Most of the remaining 99.3% is
uranium-238 which is not fissile but can be converted in a reactor to the fissile isotope
plutonium-239. Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D2O) is used as moderator and coolant. Since the
program began, India has developed a series of sequentially larger PHWR's under the IPHWR series
derived from the original Canadian supplied CANDU reactors. The IPHWR series consists of three
designs of 220 MWe, 540 MWe and 700 MWe capacity under the designations IPHWR-220,
IPHWR-540 and IPHWR-700 respectively.

Indian uranium reserves are capable of generating a total power capacity of 420 GWe-years, but the
Indian government limited the number of PHWRs fueled exclusively by indigenous uranium reserves,
in an attempt to ensure that existing plants get a lifetime supply of uranium. US analysts calculate this
limit as being slightly over 13 GW in capacity.[43] Several other sources estimate that the known
reserves of natural uranium in the country permit only about 10 GW of capacity to be built through
indigenously fueled PHWRs.[44][45][46][47] The three-stage programme explicitly incorporates this
limit as the upper cut off of the first stage, beyond which PHWRs are not planned to be built.[48]

Almost the entire existing base of Indian nuclear power (4780 MW) is composed of first stage PHWRs
of the IPHWR series, with the exception of the two Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) units at Tarapur. The
installed capacity of Kaiga station is now 880 MW consisting of four 220 MWe IPHWR-220 reactors,
making it the third largest after Tarapur (1400 MW) (2 x BWR Mark-1, 2 x IPHWR-540) and
Rawatbhata (1180 MW) (2 x CANDU, 2 x IPHWR-220). The remaining three power stations at
Kakrapar,[51] Kalpakkam[52] and Narora[53] all have 2 units of 220 MWe, thus contributing 440 MW
each to the grid. The 2 units of 700 MWe each (IPHWR-700) that are under construction at both
Kakrapar[51][54] and Rawatbhata, and the one planned for Banswara would also come under the first
stage of the programme, totalling a further addition of 4200 MW. These additions will bring the total
power capacity from the first stage PHWRs to near the total planned capacity of 10 GW called for by
the three-stage power programme.[48][49]

Capital costs of PHWRs is in the range of Rs. 6 to 7 crore ($1.2 to $1.4 million) per MW, coupled with a
designed plant life of 40 years. Time required for construction has improved over time and is now at
about 5 years. Tariffs of the operating plants are in the range of Rs. 1.75 to 2.80 per unit, depending
on the life of the reactor.[58] In the year 2007–08 the average tariff was Rs. 2.28.

India is also working on the design of reactors based on the more efficient Pressurized Water Reactor
technology derived from the work on the Arihant-class submarine program to develop a 900 MWe
IPWR-900 reactor platform to supplement the currently deployed PHWR's of the IPHWR series.

Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactor

In the second stage, fast breeder reactors (FBRs) would use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel made from
plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium. In
FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the
mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239. Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to
"breed" more fuel than they consume. Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can
be introduced as a blanket material in the reactor and transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the third
stage.

The surplus plutonium bred in each fast reactor can be used to set up more such reactors, and might
thus grow the Indian civil nuclear power capacity till the point where the third stage reactors using
thorium as fuel can be brought online, which is forecasted as being possible once 50 GW of nuclear
power capacity has been achieved. The uranium in the first stage PHWRs that yield 29 EJ of energy in
the once-through fuel cycle, can be made to yield between 65 and 128 times more energy through
multiple cycles in fast breeder reactors.

The design of the country's first fast breeder, called Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), was done
by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR). Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd (Bhavini),
a public sector company under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), has been given the
responsibility to build the fast breeder reactors in India. The construction of this PFBR at Kalpakkam
was due to be completed in 2012. It is not yet complete. The date of commission has been delayed to
October 2022 from the previous date in 2019.

Doubling time
Doubling time refers to the time required to extract as output, double the amount of fissile fuel,
which was fed as input into the breeder reactors.[a] This metric is critical for understanding the time
durations that are unavoidable while transitioning from the second stage to the third stage of
Bhabha's plan, because building up a sufficiently large fissile stock is essential to the large
deployment of the third stage. In Bhabha's 1958 papers on role of thorium, he pictured a doubling
time of 5–6 years for breeding U-233 in the Th–U233 cycle. This estimate has now been revised to 70
years due to technical difficulties that were unforeseen at the time. Despite such setbacks, according
to publications done by DAE scientists, the doubling time of fissile material in the fast breeder
reactors can be brought down to about 10 years by choosing appropriate technologies with short
doubling time.

Stage III – Thorium Based Reactors

A sample of thorium
A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of
thorium-232–uranium-233 fuelled reactors. This would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in
principle can be refueled – after its initial fuel charge – using only naturally occurring thorium.
According to the three-stage programme, Indian nuclear energy could grow to about 10 GW through
PHWRs fueled by domestic uranium, and the growth above that would have to come from FBRs till
about 50GW.[b] The third stage is to be deployed only after this capacity has been achieved.

According to replies given in Q&A in the Indian Parliament on two separate occasions, 19 August
2010 and 21 March 2012, large scale thorium deployment is only to be expected "3–4 decades after
the commercial operation of fast breeder reactors with short doubling time". Full exploitation of
India's domestic thorium reserves will likely not occur until after the year 2050.

Parallel approaches
As there is a long delay before direct thorium utilisation in the three-stage programme, the country is
looking at reactor designs that allow more direct use of thorium in parallel with the sequential
three-stage programme.[72] Three options under consideration are the Indian Accelerator Driven
Systems (IADS),[73] Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) and Compact High Temperature
Reactor.[74][63][75] Molten Salt Reactor may also be under consideration based on some recent
reports and is under development.

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)

Of the options, the design for AHWR is ready for deployment. AHWR is a 300 MWe vertical pressure
tube type, boiling light water cooled and heavy water moderated reactor, using uranium233–thorium
MOX and plutonium–thorium MOX.[80] It is expected to generate 65% of its power from thorium and
can also be configured to accept other fuel types in full core including enriched uranium and
uranium–plutonium MOX.[81] There was a plan for constructing such an AHWR with a
plutonium–thorium core combination in 2007.[82] This AHWR design was sent for an independent
pre-licensing design safety review by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), the results of which
were deemed satisfactory.[83] AHWR would offer very little growth for the fuel build up that is
essential for wide deployment of the third stage, and perhaps the impact on the accumulated fissile
material could even be negative.

The AHWR design that will be taken up for construction is to be fueled with 20% low enriched
uranium (LEU) and 80% thorium. The low enriched uranium (LEU) for this AHWR design is readily
available on the world market. As of November 2011, construction will start after the site is identified
in 6 months time. It will take another 18 months to get clearances on regulatory and environmental
grounds. Construction is estimated to take six years. If everything goes according to plan, AHWR
could be operational in India by 2020. In Aug 2017 the AHWR location was still not announced.
[wikipedia]