Descriptive Statistics

- Frequency count and percent distribution- it cannot give u a summary of data

- Measures of central tendency—u need to consider the nature of data-nominal, ordinal, interval
- Measures of variation (SD/Variance)-a measure of spread- more or less spread/varied
- Main objective: to make/give a description

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

- To make predictions/inferences based on the analysis and interpretation

- Significance difference between our variables according to measure (test of comparison)
- Relationship/correlations—variable is correlated with variable b
- Significant influence/predicators/indicators--- prediction

WHAT TO CONSIDER

- Problem
- Nature of the data
 Shape of the distribution (normal or skewed)
 Level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio)
- The number of variables involved
 Univariate (1 variable)
 Bivariate ( variables)
 Multivariate (3 or more variables)

PURPOSE: COMPARISON

EX. IF YOU WANT TO DETERMINE IF THERE IS A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 3 SAMPLES AND IT
IS NORMALL DISTRIBUTED AND ATLEAST INTERVAL--- POSSIBLE YUNG T-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT
SAMPLES PERO THRICE GAGAMITIN PERO PWEDE RIN ONE-WAY ANOVA LANG—IF THERE’S
SGINIFICANT DIFFERENCE-POST HOC

Parametric Test (more powerful) Non-Parametric Test

- At least interval (interval or ratio) - Ordinal or nominal
- Normally distributed - At least interval but it did not satisfy the
normality
- T-test for one sample - One sample Wilcoxon Test
- Comparison between the sample mean
and population mean
- T-test for independent samples Mann-Whitney U Test
- Comparison of two means of
independent groups
- T-test for dependent samples/paired Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
sample t-test
- two correlated means
- action research or questions that deal
with pre-tests and post tests- diagnostic
and assessment test
- One-way ANOVA (equal variances Kruskal-Wallis
 assumed)/ Brown Forsythe (equal - If sig. it requires further test. Pairwise
variances not assumed) comparison test
- - test for homogeneity—that shows that
there are equal variances assumed)
- If significant- it requires for further test
(post hoc test)
- Post-Hoc Test (equal variances assumed)-
Bonferroni, duncan, Scheffer test—or not
assumed (Tamhane)
- If three ir more na sa dependent samples: FRIEDMAN TEST
- REPEATED—MEASURES ANOVA

STATISTICAL ASSUMPTIONS

 Assumptions
- Requirements of inferential test
- Directions for appropriate use of a product
- Explain when it is and isn’t reasonable to perform a specific statistical test

- What is the problem about—if to describe—none—if inferential—check if it is for

comparison/differences/exploring relationships

 Parametric Test
- T-test, ANOVA
- Designed for data that have certain characteristics, including approximately normal distributions
- Check for the nature of data—is it at least interval data?
- More assumptions here compared to non-parametric
 Non Parametric Test
- Often used when the assumptions of a parametric test are violated
- For categorical

COMMON ASSUMPTIONS

 HOMOGENEITY OF VARIANCES
- Is it equal or not equal?—Critical assumptions; Levene’s Test (not equal-critical assumption
because it affects result)
 NORMALITY
- A symmetrical bell-shaped or normal curve
 INDEPENDENCE OF OBSERVATIONS
- Assumptions that there is no relationship between the scores for one person and those of
another person—affected by using non-random sampling like snowball sampling---it can be that
one individual recommends with same characteristics as him/her; selecting a class homogenous,
cut off grades
 LINEARITY
- Two variables are related in a linear function; directly correlated
DETERMINING THE SHAPE OF DISTRIBUTION
 Considerations in determining the appropriate test to use in the data
 Research Problem
- Descriptive
- Inferential problem
 Shape of distribution
- Normal/skewed
 Number of variables
- Uni/bi/multi-variate

Shape of distribution

 Histogram/Stem and Leaf Plots

- 1 Highest frequency(uniform)- unimodal, 2-bimodal, 3 or more-multimodal
 Boxplot
- Symmetrical with the mean and median in the center
 Measures of central Tendency
- Negatively/positively/normal distribution
 Skewness/Kurtosis
- Skewness—a measure of symmetry
- Kurtosis- measure of whether the data are heavy-tailed or light-tailed relative to a normal
distribution—LEPTOKURTIC (ABOVE NORMAL CURVE); MESOKURTIC(NORMAL); PLATRYKURTIC
(BELOW THE NORMAL CURVE)

The rule of thumb seems to be:

- If the skewness is between -0.5 and 0.5, the data are fairly symmetrical
- If the skewness is between -1 and -0.5 or between 0.5 and 1, the data are moderately skewed.
- If the skewness is less than -1 or greater than 1, the data are highly skewed
 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test (K-S test)
- Compares your data with a known distribution and lets you know if they have the same
distribution
- It Is commonly used as a test for normality to see if your data is normally distributed. It’s also
used to check the assumption of normality in Analysis of Variance
 Shapiro-Wilk Test
- Is a way to tell if a random sample comes from a normal distribution. The test gives you a W
value; small values indicate your sample is not normally distributed (you can reject the null
hypothesis that your population is normally distributed if your values are under a certain
threshold)
USE KOLMOGOROV SMIRNOV TEST TO TEST NORMALITY OF THE DATA

- KNOW THE TYPE OF DATA—IF INTERVAL/RATIO- CHECK IF NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED OR NOT

- We do not need to check normality if the sample size is more than 30 because 30 is largely
enough

ANALYZE-LOCATE NON-PARAMETRIC TEST/STATISTICS (FOR THE WHOLE GROUP/ONE GROUP ONLY)—

LOCATE ALL ITEMS

How will we know if the data is normally distributed?

-if p<0.05 reject HO (null hypo). If HO is accepted, mean is normally distributed.

ONE SAMPLE T-TEST

Problem: Is there a significant difference between the mean content of colas given to the pupils during
the outreach activity and its label (8oz)?

Objective: to compare the mean content of colas with the content claimed by the Cola’s company

STEP 1: STATE HO AND HA

Ho: There is no significant difference between the mean content of colas given to the pupils during the
outreach activity and its label (8oz).

Ha: There is significant difference between the mean content of colas given to the pupils during the
outreach activity and its label (8oz).

Step 2: level of significance= 0.05 (can be changed after generating results)

Step 3: Possible Test (one-sample t-test or one-sample Wilcoxon test)

 If interval/numerical, it is possible to use a parametric test

1. The purpose is to compare one sample (mean of 15th content of colas) to a population sample
(label in the 8oz cola)
2. The data is ratio and it is normally distributed by 1-KS Test (p=0.22663). check normality using
one-sample AS

With the preliminary test, the appropriate test for the data is a one-sample t-test.

Step 4: Generate the result

- In case the data is below 0.01, try to regenerate the result by trying 0.01 as the level of
significance.

Degree of freedom= n-1

Step 5: Decision

Ex. Reject the null HO. There is significant difference between the mean content of colas given to the
pupils during the outreach activity and its label.
Step 6: Interpretation

Table 1 displays the one-sample t-test result on the significant difference between the mean content of
colas given to the pupils during the outreach activity and its label

As gleaned in the table 1, the mean content of colas given during the outreach program was 7.47 oz. This
mean content was lower than the content labeled in the cola’s bottle. Moreover, the one-sample t-test
result shows that there was a significant difference between the sample mean content and the 8oz cola’s
label. This indicates that the colas given to the pupils were significantly lower than 8oz. This further
means that the colas given did not pass the quality control of the Cola’s company. Thus, the colas were
donated instead of bringing back to the company.

T-TEST FOR IMPAIRED SAMPLES

STEP 5: REJECT HO

STEP 6:
T-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES

(KATULOY SA 2: BY KS, p=.58023 and p=.52666 male and female groups respectively)

(katuloy sa 3- f is 0.0029, p=.957184. with the preliminary test, the appropriate test for the data s a t-test
for independent samples)
Step 4:
One-way ANOVA