TOPIC 2 REVIEW

MASS SPECTROMETER
That has 5 steps :
1. Vaporisation -> the sample is being vaporised, must be in gaseous state so that its
particles can move through the machine
2. Ionisation -> the vapour is bombarded with high energy of electrons, to remove
the electrons to form positive ions
3. Acceleration -> electric field cause the accelerate to make the same kinetic energy
4. Deflection -> deflection is depends on mass of the ion and the charge on the ion,
deflected by the magnetic field
5. Detection -> magnetic field gradually increasing which increases deflection

ISOTOPES
Relative atomic mass : the wighted mean mass of element’s isotope that compared to
1\12th of the mass of the carbon 12
Relative isotopic mass : the mass of an tom of an isotopes that compared to 1\12th of the
mass of the carbon 12
Name charge Mass location
Proton +1 1.007 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1.009 Nucleus
Electron -1 5,486 x 10^-4 Outer shells

IONISATION ENERGIES
The energy that require to remove the electron from its outer shells
• Successive ionisation energy -> is the process to remove the electrons
A. Always increases the electrons is being removed to get closer to the nucleus
B. therefore, strong attraction between the nucleus and the electrons, the more energy Is
required to remove the electrons.
C. the big jumps in ionisation energy shows that removal from the electron from a shell
to get closer to the nucleus
1. First ionisation energy -> the energy needed to remove 1 electrons from 1 mole of
gaseous atoms to form 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions
2. Second ionisation energy -> energy needed to remove 1 electrons from 1 mole of
gaseous 1+ ions to form 1 mole of gaseous 2+ ions
3. Third ionisation energy -> the energy needed to remove 1 electrons from 1 mole
of gaseous 2+ ions to form 1 mole of gaseous 3+ ions

• Trends in ionisation energy

There are 3 factors that affect the first ionisation energy of an element :
1. The energy of an electron -> electrons in quantum shells is further from the
nucleus have high energy so they require less energy to be removed, ionisation energy
will be lower
2. Nuclear charge -> the more protons the stronger attraction between the electrons
being removed and the nucleus. Decreases the energy of electrons and increases the
ionisation energy.
3. Electron electron repulsion -> repulsion between the high energy of an electron.
Decreases the ionisation energy (atoms in the same orbitals, atoms in different quantum
shell, shielding)
Two major trends in ionisation energy in the periodic table are found :
1. Accros the period -> the IE is increasing, increases the nuclear charge (which
result the outermost electron being strongly to the nucleus) extra shielding effect.
2. Down a group -> the IE decreases, the number of quantum shells increases, the
electron being removed further away from the nucleus and the more shielding from the
inner electrons.
Sheilding : more protons, more energy required (IE is low)

• Atomic Radii
The distance from the 2 nucleus to the boundary if the electron
The atomic radii decreases across the period because the electrons are pulled closer to the
nucleus so the atomic radii getting smaller.(no extra shielding effect)
• Melting and boiling temperature
The metallic bonds increases across the period because the metal ions have delocalised
electrons and protons, causes the strong force of attraction between the delocalised
electrons and protons.
NOTE
Why the ionisation energy is an endothermic process?
Because energy is required to break the force of attraction between the nucleus and
electron being removed.

TOPIC 3 REVIEW
IONIC BONDING
Electrostatic force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
Occurs in solid materials (throughout a giant lattice structure)
4. IONIC COMPOUND
• Solid at room temperature -> strong electrostatic force of attraction between the
positive and negative charge ions
• High melting and boiling point -> takes a lot of energy, strong electrostatic force
of attraction
• Conduct electricity -> free to move when dissolve or molten
• Soluble in water (non polar solvent)

1. IONIC COMPOUND (GIANT LATTICE STRUCTURE)

• Ionic crystals are giant lattices of ions
• It forms bcs electrostatically attracted in all directions to ions (opposite charge)
• Sodium chloride, are packed together alternately in lattice
• The shape is cube for sodium chloride

4. IONIC CHARGES
The greater the charge of an ion, the stronger the ionic bond, the higher the melting\
boiling point

ions with high charge density > ions with a low charge density
3. IONIC RADII
• Smaller ions get pack closer together, the electrostatic attraction gets weaker, have
stronger ionic bonding.
• Ionic compounds with small, closely packed ions have higher melting \ boiling
points than ionic compounds made of large ions.
2 trends In ionic radii :
• The ionic radius increases down a group -> ionic radius increases as the atomic
number increases (extra electron shells are added)
• Isoelectronic ions -> isoelectronic ions decreases, atomic number
increases,Electrons are attracted to the nucleus more strongly, pulling them closely, the
ionic radius decreases.
*Isoelectronic : ions of different atoms with the same number of electrons.
• POLARISATION (covalent character)
The distortion of the electron density of anion
Polarising power -> the ability of cation to distort the anion.
1. Some covalent character ->The electrons cloud of the anion is being distorted by
the cation.
2. More covalent character -> the electron of anion has being distorted by the cation
so much and the orbitals start to overlap will have the covalent structure ex. A higher
melting \ boiling point
Polarisation will be increased by :
1. A cation with a high charge and small size
2. An anion with that has high charge and large size.
(This is because the electrons are further away from the nucleus and there is more
repulsion between the electrons, and easily to wards or move to the cation)
*Covalent character : The partial sharing of electrons between atoms that have an ionic
bond.
COVALENT BOND
An electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei and the shared pairs of
electrons.
1. Have high melting points
2. Extremely hard - very strive binds all through the lattice arrangement
3. Good thermal conductors
4. Insoluble
5. Cannot conduct electricity
• The 2 types orbital overlapping :
1. Sigma bond -> head on overlapping (2s orbitals, 2p orbitals, and head on s and p
orbital)
2. Pi bond -> sideways overlapping, it only exists between atoms with double\triple
bond.
Why sigma bond is stronger than the pi bond?
Sigma bond : largely located directly between the two nuclei, produce large force of
attraction between the nuclei and the bonding pairs of an electron.
Pi bond : the high area of electron density of pibond is largely located above and below
the sigma bond. Reduces the force attraction between the nuclei, causes the pi bond
weaker (easily to broke)
• BOND LENGTH AND BOND STRENGTH
1. Bond length -> the distance between the 2 nuclei of 2 atoms that covalently
bonded.
2. Bond strength -> measured in terms of the amount of energy required to break 1
mole in gaseous state.
As the bond length increases, bond strength decreases and vice versa
• Electronegativity
Is a measure tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond

1. Electronegativity across a period

Increases because the number of protons (nuclear charge) increases.