FUNCTIONS OF THE

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
1. Metabolism and Tissue Maturation
HORMONES 2. Ion Regulation
helps regulate blood pH, as
– are chemical substances secreted
well as Na+, K+, and Ca+
by endocrine cells into the
concentrations in the blood
extracellular fluids that regulate
3. Water Balance
the metabolic activity of other cells
4. Immune System Regulation
in the body.
production of immune cells
– Can be classified chemically as
5. Heart Rate and BP Regulation
either amino acid-based molecules
6. Control of Blood Glucose and other
or steroids
nutrients
STEROID HORMONES 7. Control of Reproductive Functions
– Made from cholesterol, include the 8. Uterine Contractions and Milk
sex hormones made by the gonads Release
(ovaries and testes) and the
hormones produced by the adrenal
cortex.
HORMONE ACTION
– A given hormone affects only
certain tissue cells or organs,
referred to as target cells or target
organs.

For a target cell to respond to a

hormone, specific protein
receptors to which that
hormone can attach must be
present on the cell’s plasma
membrane or in its interior.
 NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
FEEDBACK LOOPS
– Ductless
Control hormone levels – Release hormones
– Directly into target tissues
1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
– Into bloodstream to be carried
– Hormone release stops in
to target tissues
response to decrease in
Hormones (Greek word hormone – to
stimulus
set into motion)
Stimulus (eating) raises
blood glucose levels 1. PITUITARY GLAND AND
Pancreas releases insulin in HYPOTHALAMUS
response to elevated blood – The pituitary gland is
glucose approximately the size of a pea.
Blood glucose decreases as – It hangs by a stalk from the
it is used by the body or inferior surface of the
stored in the liver hypothalamus of the brain,
Insulin release stops as where it is snugly surrounded
blood glucose levels by the sella turcica of the
normalize sphenoid bone.
2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP It has two functional lobes
– As long as stimulus is present, – the anterior pituitary
action of hormone continues (glandular tissue) and the
Infant nursing at mother’s posterior pituitary
breast → stimulates (nervous tissue).
hypothalamus → → The anterior pituitary gland
stimulates posterior controls the activity of so many
pituitary other endocrine glands
Oxytocin released → (“master endocrine gland”)
stimulates milk production → The release of each of its
and ejection from hormones is controlled by
mammary glands releasing hormones and
Milk release continues as inhibiting hormones produced
long as infant continues to by the hypothalamus.
nurse A. POSTERIOR GLAND/LOBE
– The hypothalamus also makes
MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
two additional hormones,
The major endocrine organs of oxytocin and antidiuretic
the body include: the pituitary, pineal, hormone, which are
thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, and transported along the axons of
adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads the hypothalamic
(ovaries and testes) neurosecretory cells to the
 posterior pituitary for storage.
They are later released into the
blood in response to nerve
impulses from the
hypothalamus.
1. OXYTOCIN
– Is released in significant
amounts only during childbirth
and nursing.
→ It stimulates powerful
contractions of the uterine
muscle during sexual relations,
during labor, and during
breastfeeding.
→ It also causes milk ejection (let-
down reflex) in a nursing
woman.
2. ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)
– a chemical that inhibits or
prevents urine production.
→ causes the kidneys to reabsorb
more water from the forming
urine; as a result, urine volume
decreases, and blood volume
increases.
In larger amounts, ADH also
increases blood pressure by
causing constriction of the
arterioles (small arteries).
For this reason, it is
sometimes referred to as
vasopressin.
B. ANTERIOR PITUITARY
– The anterior pituitary produces
several hormones that affect
many body organs.
1. GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
– Its major effects are directed to
the growth of skeletal muscles
and long bones of the body
➢ At the same time, it causes
fats to be broken down and
used for energy while it
spares glucose, helping to
maintain blood sugar
homeostasis.
2. PROLACTIN
– Its only known target in humans
is the breast.
➢ After childbirth, it
stimulates and maintains
milk production by the
mother’s breasts.
3. GONADOTROPIC HORMONES
(FSH AND LH)
– Regulate the hormonal activity
of the gonads (ovaries and
testes)
➢ In women, the FSH
stimulates follicle
development in the ovaries.
➢ In men, FSH stimulates
sperm production by the
testes.
➢ LH triggers ovulation of an
egg from the ovary and
causes the ruptured follicle
to produce progesterone
and some estrogen.
➢ LH stimulates testosterone
production by the
interstitial cells of the
testes.
 2. PINEAL GLAND
– The pineal gland is a small,
cone-shaped gland that hangs
from the roof of the third
ventricle of the brain.
1. MELATONIN
– The only hormone secreted
from pineal gland in substantial
amounts
→ Believed to be a “sleep trigger”
that plays an important role in
establishing the body’s sleep-
wake cycle.
The level of melatonin rises
and falls during the course
of the day and night.
The peak level occurs at
night and makes us drowsy
The lowest level occurs
during daylight around
noon.
3. THYROID GLAND
– The thyroid gland is located at
the base of the throat, just
inferior to the Adam’s apple.
– It is a fairly large gland
consisting of two lobes joined
by a central mass, or isthmus.
The thyroid gland makes
two hormones, one called
thyroid hormone, the
other called calcitonin.
A. THYROID HORMONE
– Referred to as body’s major
metabolic hormone
Contains two active iodine-
containing hormones,
thyroxine (T4) and
thriiodothyronine (T3)
– Most TRIIODOTHYRONINE is
formed at the target tissues by
conversion of thyronine to
triiodothyronine
→ Thyroid hormone controls the
rate at which glucose is
“burned”, or oxidized, and
converted to body heat and
chemical energy (ATP).
→ Thyroid hormone is also
important for normal tissue
growth and development,
especially in the reproductive
and nervous systems.
1. THYROXINE (T4) &
THRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
Chem class:
Amine
Major Actions:
Stimulates metabolism
Regulated by:
TSH
2. CALCITONIN
Chem class:
Peptide
Major Actions:
Reduces blood calcium ion level
Regulated by:
Calcium ion level in blood
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
– Without iodine, functional thyroid
hormones cannot be made.
– The source of iodine is our diet
(seafoods)
1. GOITER
– is an enlargement of the thyroid
gland that results when the diet
is deficient in iodine.
2. CRETINISM
– Hyposecretion of thyroxine
may indicate problems other
than iodine deficiency. If it
 occurs in early childhood, the
result is cretinism.
1. Results in dwarfism and
mental retardation (if
discovered early,
hormone replacement
will prevent mental
impairment)
3. MYXEDEMA
– Hypothyroidism occurring in
adults results in myxedema
2. Characterized by both
physical and mental
sluggishness (no mental
impairment)
3. Other signs are puffiness
of the face, fatigue, poor
muscle tone, low body
temperature, obesity, and
dry skin (Oral thyroxine is
prescribed to treat this
condition)
4. TUMOR OF THE THYROID
GLAND
– Hyperthyroidism generally
results from a tumor of the
thyroid gland.
❖ Extreme overproduction of
thyroxine results in a high basal
metabolic rate, intolerance of heat,
rapid heartbeat, weight loss,
nervous and agitated behavior, and
a general inability to relax.
5. GRAVES’ DISEASE
– A form of hyperthyroidism
– The thyroid gland enlarges,
– the eyes bulge (exophthalmos)
2. CALCITONIN
– Second important hormone
product of the thyroid gland
→ Decreases the blood calcium
ion level by causing calcium to
be deposited in the bones
4. PARATHYROID GLANDS
– The parathyroid glands are tiny
masses of glandular tissue most
often on the posterior surface
of the thyroid gland.
1. PARATHYROID HORMONE
(PTH)
– is the most important regulator
of calcium ion homeostasis of
the blood.
– Although the skeleton is the
major PTH target, PTH also
stimulates the kidneys and
intestine to absorb more
calcium ions.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
1. TETANY
– If blood calcium ion level falls
too low, neurons become
extremely irritable and
 overactive. They deliver
impulses to the muscles so
rapidly that the muscles go into
uncontrollable spasms (tetany),
which may be fatal.
2. SEVERE
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
– Severe hyperparathyroidism
causes massive bone
destruction. The bones become
very fragile, and spontaneous
fractures begin to occur.
5. THYMUS
– Is located in the upper thorax,
posterior to the sternum.
– Large in infants and children, it
decreases in size throughout
adulthood.
– By old age, it is composed
mostly of fibrous connective
tissue and fat.
1. THYMOSIN
– The thymus produces a
hormone called thymosin
and others that appear to
be essential for normal
development of a special
group of white blood cells (T
lymphocytes) and the
immune response.
6. ADRENAL GLANDS
– The two adrenal glands curve
over the top of the kidneys like
triangular hats.
– It is structurally and
functionally two endocrine
organs in one.
it has parts made of
glandular (cortex) and
neural tissue (medulla)
– The Central Medulla Region is
enclosed by the adrenal cortex,
which contains three separate
layers of cells.
A. ADRENAL CORTEX
The adrenal cortex produces three
major groups of steroid hormones,
collectively called corticosteroids:
1. MINERALOCORTICOIDS
(ALDOSTERONE)
– Are produced by the outermost
adrenal cortex cell layer.
– Are important in regulating the
mineral (salt) content of the
blood, particularly the
concentrations of sodium and
potassium ions.
– These hormones target the
kidney tubules that selectively
reabsorb the minerals or allow
them to be flushed out of the
body in urine.
When the blood level of
aldosterone rises, the
kidney tubule cell reabsorbs
increasing amounts of
sodium ions and secrete
more potassium ions into
the urine.
 When sodium is cortex in response to a
reabsorbed, water follows. rising blood level of ACTH.
Thus, the 3. SEX HORMONES
mineralocorticoids help – In both men and women, the
regulate both water and adrenal cortex produces both
electrolyte balance in body male and female sex hormones
fluids. throughout life in relatively
2. GLUCOCORTICOIDS small amounts.
(CORTISONE AND CORTISOL) – The bulk of the sex hormones
– Glucocorticoids promote produced by the innermost
normal cell metabolism and cortex layer are androgens
help the body to resist long- (male sex hormones), but some
term stressors, primarily by estrogens (female sex
increasing the blood glucose hormones) are also formed.
level.
– When blood levels of
glucocorticoids are high, fats
and even proteins are broken
down by body cells and
converted to glucose, which is
released to the blood.
❖ For this reason, glucocorticoids
are said to be hyperglycemic
hormones.
Glucocorticoids also seem
to control the more
unpleasant effects of
inflammation by
decreasing edema, and
they reduce pain by
inhibiting the pain-causing
prostaglandins.
Because of their anti-
inflammatory properties, HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
1. ADDISSON’S DISEASE
glucocorticoids are often
(Hyposecretion of all the adrenal
prescribed as drugs to
cortex hormones)
suppress inflammation for
– Bronze tone of the skin (suntan)
patients with rheumatoid
– Na and water are lost from the
arthritis.
body
Glucocorticoids are
– Muscles become weak and
released from the adrenal
shock is a possibility
 – Hypoglycemia (↓
glucocorticoids)
– Suppression of the immune
system

2. HYPERALDOSTERONISM
(hyperactivity of outermost cortical
area)
– Excessive water and sodium
ions retention
– High blood pressure
– Edema
– Low potassium ions level
(hypokalemia)
3. CUSHING’S SYNDROME
(excessive glucocorticoids)
– Swollen “moon face” and
“Buffalo hump”
– High blood pressure and
hyperglycemia (steroid
diabetes)
– Weakening of the bones (as
protein is withdrawn to be
converted to glucose)
– Severe depression of the
immune system
4. HYPERSECRETION OF THE SEX
HORMONES LEADS TO
MASCULINIZATION,
REGARDLESS OF SEX.
B. ADRENAL MEDULLA
– When the medulla is stimulated
by sympathetic nervous system
neurons, its cells release two
similar hormones, epinephrine
(adrenaline) and
norepinephrine
(noradrenaline), into the
bloodstream.
Collectively, these hormones are
called catecholamines:
1. EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline)
2. NOREPINEPHRINE
(noradrenaline)
→ Raises blood glucose level;
increase rate of metabolism;
constrict certain blood vessels
– The catecholamines of the
adrenal medulla prepare the
body to cope with short-term
stressful situations and cause
the so-called alarm stage of the
stress response.
– Glucocorticoids, by contrast,
are produced by the adrenal
cortex and are important when
coping with prolonged or
continuing stressors, such as
dealing with the death of a
family member or having a
 major operation (resistance → Its action is basically
stage). hyperglycemic.
→ Its primary target is the liver,
7. PANCREATIC ISLETS which it stimulates to break
– The pancreas, located close to down stored glycogen to
the stomach in the abdominal glucose and to release the
cavity, is a mixed gland. glucose into the blood.
– The pancreatic islets, also called 8. GONADS
the islets of Langerhans, are – The female and male gonads
little masses of endocrine produce sex cells. They also
(hormone-producing) tissue of produce sex hormones that are
the pancreas. identical to those produced by
– The exocrine, or acinar, part of adrenal cortex cells. The major
the pancreas acts as part of the differences from the adrenal
digestive system. sex hormone production are
– Two important hormones the source and relative
produced by the islet cells are amounts of hormones
insulin and glucagon. produced.
1. INSULIN A. OVARIES
– Hormone released by the beta – Besides producing female sex
cells of the islets in response to cells (ova, or eggs), ovaries
a high level of blood glucose. produce two groups of steroid
→ Acts on all body cells, increasing hormones, estrogens and
their ability to import glucose progesterone.
across their plasma 1. ESTROGEN
membranes. – Responsible for the
→ Insulin also speeds up these development of sex
“use it” or “store it” activities. characteristics in women
→ Because insulin sweeps the (primarily growth and
glucose out of the blood, its maturation of the reproductive
effect is said to be organs) and the appearance of
hypoglycemic. secondary sex characteristics at
→ Without it, essentially no puberty.
glucose can get into the cells to Acting with progesterone,
be used. estrogens promote breast
2. GLUCAGON development and cyclic
– Acts as an antagonist of insulin changes in the uterine
– Released by the alpha cells of lining (the menstrual cycle)
the islets in response to a low 2. PROGESTERONE
blood glucose levels. – Acts with estrogen to bring
about the menstrual cycle.
 During pregnancy, it quiets the
muscles of the uterus so that an
implanted embryo will not be
aborted and helps prepare
breast tissue for lactation.
B. TESTES
– In addition to male sex cells, or
sperm, the testes also produce
male sex hormones, or
androgens, of which
testosterone is the most
important.
1. TESTOSTERONE
– Promotes the growth and
maturation of the reproductive
system organs to prepare the
young man for reproduction.
– It also causes the male’s
secondary sex characteristics to
appear and stimulates the male
sex drive.
– It is necessary for continuous
production of sperm.
– Testosterone production is
specifically stimulated by LH.
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING
TISSUES AND ORGANS
9. PLACENTA
– During very early pregnancy, a
hormone called human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
is produced by the developing
embryo and then by the fetal
parts of the placenta.
1. HUMAN CHORIONIC
GONADOTROPIN (hCG)
– hCG stimulates the ovaries to
continue producing estrogen
and progesterone so that the
lining of the uterus is not
sloughed off in menses.
→ In the third month, the placenta
assumes the job of the ovaries of
producing estrogen and
progesterone, and the ovaries
become inactive for the rest of the
pregnancy.
→ The high estrogen and
progesterone blood levels maintain
the lining of the uterus and prepare
the breasts for producing milk.
2. HUMAN PLACENTAL LACTOGEN
(hPL)
– works cooperatively with
estrogen and progesterone in
preparing the breasts for
lactation.
→ Relaxin, another placental
hormone, causes the mother’s
pelvic ligaments and the pubic
symphysis to relax and become
more flexible, which eases birth
passage.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
✓ In late middle age, the efficiency of
the ovaries begins to decline,
causing menopause.
✓ Reproductive organs begin to
atrophy
✓ Ability to bear children ends
✓ Problems associated with estrogen
deficiency begin to occur
(arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis,
decreased skin elasticity, “hot
flashes”)
✓ No such dramatic changes seem to
happen in men.
✓ Elderly persons are less able to
resist stress and infection.
✓ Exposure to pesticides, industrial
chemicals, dioxin, and pother soil
and water pollutants diminishes
endocrine function, which may
explain the higher cancer rates
among older adults in certain areas
of the country.
✓ All older people have some decline
in insulin production, and type 2
diabetes mellitus is most common
in this age group.

❖ THYROID-STIMULATING
HORMONE (TSH)
Chem class:
Protein
Major Actions:
Stimulates thyroid glands
Regulated by:
Thyroxine in blood hypothalamic
hormones

❖ ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC
HORMONE (ACTH)
Chem class:
Protein
Major Actions:
Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids
Regulated by:
Glucocorticoids; hypothalamic
hormones