Since the late 1800s, cell research has been – The “headquarters” or the control

exceptionally fruitful and has provided us with the

following four concepts collectively known as the
center
cell theory: – contains the cell’s genetic material
CELL DNA and directs cell activities
– the basic structural and functional DNA is also absolutely
unit of living organisms. necessary for cell reproduction
The activity of an organism – Although the nucleus is most often
depends on the collective oval or spherical, its shape usually
activities of its cells. conforms to the shape of the cell
According to the principle of
NUCLEUS HAS 3
complementarity, the activities of
RECOGNIZABLE STRUCTURES:
cells are dictated by their structure
1. Nuclear envelope
(anatomy), which determines
2. Nucleolus
function (physiology).
Continuity of life has a cellular 3. Chromatin
basis.
– The cell is the smallest living unit.
– The cell contains all parts necessary
to survive in a changing world.
– Loss of cell homeostasis underlies
virtually every disease.
The human body contains 50
to 100 trillion cells.
Living cells are about 60%
water.
CELLS 3 MAIN PARTS:
1. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
1. Nucleus
– Is a double membrane barrier
2. Plasma membrane
located at the nuclear
3. Cytoplasm
boundary.
– It allows some but not all
substances to pass through it,
but substances pass through
it much more freely than
elsewhere because of its
relatively large pores.
MOST CELLS ARE COMPOSED
NUCLEOPLASM
OF FOUR ELEMENTS:
– nuclear membrane encloses
1. Carbon
this jellylike fluid in which
2. Hydrogen
other nuclear elements are
3. Oxygen
suspended.
4. Nitrogen
2. NUCLEOLUS
– Nucleus contains one or more
dark-staining nucleoli
– Sites of ribosome assembly
– Ribosomes migrate into the
cytoplasm through nuclear
pores to serve as the site of
protein synthesis
3. CHROMATIN
– Composed of DNA wound
around histones (proteins)
– Scattered throughout the
nucleus and present when the
cell is not dividing
– Is a loose network of “beads on
a string” that is scattered
throughout the nucleus.
– When a cell is dividing to form
two daughter cells, the
chromatin threads coil and
condense to form dense,
rodlike bodies called
chromosomes PHOSPHOLIPID
ARRANGEMENT IN THE PM
1. HYDROPHILIC
– Transparent barrier for cell – water loving
contents – polar “heads” are oriented on
– Contains cell contents the inner and outer surfaces of
– Separates cell contents from the membrane
surrounding environment 2. HYDROPHOBIC
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL IS – water fearing
CONSTRUCTED OF: – nonpolar “tails” form the
1. Two layers of phospholipids center (interior) of the
arranged “tail to tail” membrane
2. Cholesterol and proteins scattered This interior makes the
among the phospholipids plasma membrane
3. Sugar groups may be attached to relatively impermeable to
the phospholipids, forming most water-soluble
glycolipids molecules
 ROLE OF PROTEINS – Created by buttonlike
Responsible for specialized membrane thickenings of adjacent plasma
functions: membranes
A. Enzymes 3. GAP JUNCTIONS
B. Receptors for hormones or other (Communicating junctions)
chemical messengers – Allow communication between
C. Transport as channels or carriers cells
ROLE OF SUGARS – Hollow cylinders of proteins
A. Glycoproteins (connexons) span the width of
– branched sugars attached to the abutting membranes
proteins that abut the – Molecules can travel directly
extracellular space from one cell to the next
B. Glycocalyx through these channels
– the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area
on the cell’s surface
CELL MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
Cells are bound together in three
ways:
→ Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act
as an adhesive or cellular glue
→ Wavy contours of the membranes
of adjacent cells fit together in a
tongue-and-groove fashion
→ Special cell membrane junctions
are formed, which vary structurally
depending on their roles
MAIN TYPES OF CELL
JUNCTIONS
1. TIGHT JUNCTIONS
– Impermeable junctions – The cellular material outside the
– Bind cells together into nucleus and inside the plasma
leakproof sheets membrane
– Plasma membranes fuse like a – Site of most cellular activities
zipper to prevent substances (factory floor)
from passing through – Includes:
extracellular space between 1. Cytosol
cells 2. Inclusions
2. DESMOSOMES 3. Organelles
– Anchoring junctions, like rivets,
that prevent cells from being
pulled apart as a result of
mechanical stress
 CYTOPLASM’S THREE MAJOR
COMPONENTS:
1. CYTOSOL
– is semitransparent fluid that
suspends the other elements.
– Dissolved in cytosol are
nutrients & a variety of other
solutes.
– contains nutrients &
electrolytes
2. INCLUSIONS
– are chemical substances that
may or may not be present,
depending on the specific cell
type.
– most inclusions are stored
nutrients or cell products
floating in the cytosol.
3. ORGANELLES
– Are specialized cellular
compartments that are the
metabolic machinery of the RIBOSOMES
cell. – Made of protein and ribosomal
– Each type of organelle is RNA
specialized to carry out a – Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
specific function for the cell as a – Found at two locations:
whole. Free in the cytoplasm
– Many are membrane-bound, As part of the rough
allowing for compartmentalization
endoplasmic reticulum
of their functions
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
MITOCHONDRIA
– Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that
– Powerhouses” of the cell
carry substances within the cell
– Liver & muscle cells use huge
– coil and twist through the
amounts of ATP & have 100s of
cytoplasm
mitochondria.
– Continuous with the nuclear
– Mitochondrial wall consists of a
membrane or network within the
double membrane with cristae on
cytoplasm
the inner membrane
– Two types:
– Carry out reactions in which oxygen
1. Rough ER
is used to breakdown food into ATP
2. Smooth ER
molecules
1. ROUGH ER 2. SMOOTH ER
– Studded with ribosomes – Lacks ribosomes
– Synthesizes proteins – Functions in lipid metabolism
– Transport vesicles move cholesterol & fat synthesis and
proteins within cell breakdown
– Abundant in cells that make – Detoxification of drugs and
and export proteins pesticides
– all of the building materials of
cellular membranes are formed
– Appears as a stack of flattened
either in it or on it
membranes associated with
cell’s membrane factory
tiny vesicles
– Modifies and packages proteins
arriving from the rough ER via
transport vesicles
– Found close to the ER and is the
principal “traffic director” for
cellular proteins.
– Produces different types of
packages:
1. Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
2. In-house proteins and lipids
(pathway 2)
1. As the protein is synthesized on 3. Lysosomes (pathway 3)
the ribosome, it migrates into
the rough ER tunnel system.
2. In the tunnel, the protein folds
into its functional shape. Short
sugar chains may be attached
to the protein (forming a
glycoprotein).
3. The protein is packaged in a tiny
membranous sac called a
transport vesicle.
4. The transport vesicle buds from
the rough ER and travels to the
Golgi apparatus for further
processing.
– Membranous “bags” that contain
digestive enzymes
– Enzymes can digest worn-out or
nonusable cell structures
especially abundant in WBC
called phagocytes, the cells
that dispose of bacteria and
cell debris
→ Function as cellular “stomachs”
→ House phagocytes that dispose of
bacteria and cell debris

– Membranous sacs of oxidase

enzymes that use molecular oxygen
to:
→ Detoxify harmful substances
such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
→ Break down free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals)
→ Free radicals are converted to
hydrogen peroxide and then to
water
– Replicate by pinching in half or
budding from the ER
– Network of protein structures that
extend throughout the cytoplasm
→ Provides the cell with an internal
framework that determines cell
Shape
Supports organelles
Provides the machinery for
intracellular transport
3 TYPES OF ELEMENTS FORM
THE CYTOSKELETON:
1. Microfilaments (largest)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules (smallest)
1. MICROTUBULES
– determine the overall shape of
a cell and the distribution of
organelles.
→ provide structural support
2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
– maintain cell shape and provide
internal guy wires to resist
pulling forces on the cell.
3. MICROFILAMENTS
(ACTIN AND MYOSIN)
– are most involved in cell
motility and in producing
changes in cell shape.
– Rod-shaped bodies (lie at right
angles to each other)
– made up of a pinwheel array of nine
triplets of fine microtubules.
– The paired centrioles collectively
called the centrosome, lie close to 1. FIBROBLAST
the nucleus. – cell has an elongated shape, like
→ Generate microtubules the cable-like fibers that it
→ Direct the formation of mitotic secretes.
spindle during cell division – It has an abundant rough ER
and a large Golgi apparatus
→ To make and secrete the
Surface extensions found in some cells
protein building blocks of these
1. CILIA
fibers.
– move materials across the cell
Secretes cable-like fibers
surface
2. ERYTHROCYTE (RBC)
Located in the respiratory
– Its biconcave disc shapes
system to move mucus
provides extra surface area
2. FLAGELLA
for the uptake of oxygen
– projections formed by the
and streamlines the cell
centrioles which are
so, it flows easily through
substantially longer
the bloodstream.
→ propel the cell
→ Carries oxygen in the
The only flagellated cell in
bloodstream
the human body is sperm
3. MICROVILLI
– are tiny, fingerlike extensions of
the plasma membrane
→ Increase surface area for
absorption

1. EPITHELIAL CELL
– Packs together in sheets
→ Intermediate fibers resist
– The human body houses over 200
tearing during rubbing or
different cell types
pulling
– Cells vary in size, shape, and
– hexagonal shape
function
– has abundant intermediate
Cells vary in length from
filaments and desmosomes
1/12,000 of an inch to over
that resist tearing when the
1 yard (nerve cells)
epithelium is rubbed or pulled.
Cell shape reflects its
specialized function
1. SKELETAL, CARDIAC, AND
SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS 1. NERVE CELL (NEURON)
– Contractile filaments allow cells – Receives and transmits
to shorten forcefully messages to other body
move the bones structures
pump blood – The processes are covered with
change size of internal an extensive plasma
organs to move subs membrane, and a plentiful ER
around the body synthesizes membrane
components and signaling
molecules called
neurotransmitters.

1. FAT CELLS
– huge spherical shape of a fat
cell is produced by:
large lipid droplet in its
cytoplasm.

1. WHITE BLOOD CELLS

➢ such as the macrophage
a phagocytic cell
– Digests infectious 1. OOCYTE (FEMALE)
microorganisms – Largest cell in the body
– extends long pseudopods – Contains several copies of all
(“false feet”) to crawl through organelles, for distribution to
tissue to reach infection sites. the daughter cells
→ many lysosomes within the cell → Arise when the fertilized egg
digest the infectious divides to become an embryo.
microorganisms (such as 2. SPERM (MALE)
bacteria) that it “eats.” – Built for swimming to the egg
for fertilization
– Flagellum acts as a motile whip
 ➢ Regulatory substances
Hormones
Cells have the ability to:
Neurotransmitters
➢ Metabolize
Salts
➢ Digest food
Waste products
➢ Dispose of wastes
PLASMA MEMBRANE HAS
➢ Reproduce SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
➢ Grow BARRIER
➢ Move – Some materials can pass through,
➢ Respond to a stimulus while others are excluded
➢ Nutrients can enter the cell
➢ Undesirable substances are
substances get through plasma
kept out
membranes, protein synthesis, and
TWO BASIC METHODS OF
cell reproduction/cell division
TRANSPORT
1. SOLUTION
1. PASSIVE PROCESSES
– Is a homogeneous mixture of
– substances are transported
two or more components
across the membrane without
2. SOLVENT
any input from the cell
– Substance present in the
➢ Diffusion and Filtration
largest amount in a solution;
A. DIFFUSION
dissolving medium
– Molecule movement is from
– Water is the body’s chief
high concentration to low
solvent
concentration, down a
3. SOLUTES
concentration gradient
– Components or substances
– Particles tend to distribute
present in smaller amounts
themselves evenly within a
within a solution
solution
INTRACELLULAR FLUID
– Nucleoplasm and cytosol – Kinetic energy (energy of
– Solution containing small amounts motion) causes the molecules
of gases, nutrients, and salts to move about randomly
dissolved in water – Size of the molecule and
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID temperature affect the speed
(INTERSTITIAL FLUID) of diffusion
– Fluid on the exterior of the cell
– Contains thousands of ingredients,
such as:
➢ Nutrients
amino acids
sugars
fatty acids
vitamins
 MOLECULES MOVE BY
DIFFUSION IF THE FF APPLIES:
– The molecules are small enough to
pass through the membrane’s
pores (channels formed by
membrane proteins)
– The molecules are lipid-soluble
– The molecules are assisted by a
membrane carrier
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
– An unassisted process
– Solutes are lipid-soluble or
small enough to pass through
membrane pores
2. OSMOSIS
– simple diffusion of water across
a selectively permeable
membrane
– Highly polar water molecules
easily cross the plasma
membrane through aquaporins
– Water moves down its
concentration gradient
2. OSMOSIS—A CLOSER LOOK
1. ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS
– have the same solute and water
concentrations as cells and
cause no visible changes in the
cell
2. HYPERTONIC SOLUTIONS
– contain more solutes than the
cells do; the cells will begin to
shrink
3. HYPOTONIC SOLUTIONS
– contain fewer solutes (more
water) than the cells do; cells
will plump
3. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
– Transports lipid-insoluble and
large substances
– Glucose is transported via
facilitated diffusion
– Protein membrane channels or
protein molecules that act as
carriers are used
B. FILTRATION A. EXOCYTOSIS DOCKING
– Water and solutes are forced PROCESS
through a membrane by fluid, – Docking proteins on the vesicles
or hydrostatic, pressure recognize plasma membrane
– A pressure gradient must exist proteins and bind with them
that pushes solute-containing – Membranes corkscrew and fuse
fluid (filtrate) from a high- together
pressure area to a lower-
pressure area
– Filtration is critical for the
kidneys to work properly
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
– Some substances cannot get
through the plasma membrane by
active or passive transport.
Vesicular transport, which involves
help from ATP to fuse or separate
membrane vesicles and the cell
membrane, moves substances into
or out of cells “in bulk” without
their actually crossing the plasma
membrane directly.
– There are two types of vesicular
transport:
1. Exocytosis
2. Endocytosis
A. EXOCYTOSIS (out of the cell)
– Mechanism cells use to actively
secrete hormones, mucus,
and other products
– Material is carried in a
membranous sac called a
vesicle that migrates to and
combines with the plasma
membrane
– Contents of vesicle are emptied
to the outside
B. ENDOCYTOSIS (into the cell)
– Extracellular substances are
enclosed (engulfed) in a
membranous vesicle
– Vesicle detaches from the
plasma membrane and moves
into the cell
– Once in the cell, the vesicle
typically fuses with a lysosome
– Contents are digested by
lysosomal enzymes
– In some cases, the vesicle is
released by exocytosis on the
opposite side of the cell
TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
1. PHAGOCYTOSIS
– “Cell eating”
– Cell engulfs large particles such
as bacteria or dead body
cells
– Pseudopods are cytoplasmic
extensions that separate
substances (such as bacteria or
dead body cells) from external
environment
→ Phagocytosis is a protective
mechanism, not a means of
getting nutrients
2. PINOCYTOSIS
– “Cell drinking”
– Cell “gulps” droplets of
extracellular fluid containing
dissolved proteins or fats
– Plasma membrane forms a pit,
and edges fuse around droplet
of fluid
– Routine activity for most cells,
such as those involved in
absorption (small intestine)
3. RECEPTOR
– mediated endocytosis
– Method for taking up specific
target molecules
– Receptor proteins on the
membrane surface bind only
certain substances
– Highly selective process of
taking in substances such as
enzymes, some hormones,
cholesterol, and iron
 – Cell life cycle is a series of changes
the cell experiences from the time
it is formed until it divides
→ The function of cell division is to
produce more cells for growth and
repair processes.
→ All body cells must have the same
2. ACTIVE PROCESSES
genetic material; the DNA molecule
– the cell provides the metabolic
(genetic material) is duplicated
energy (ATP) to drive the
exactly in a process called DNA
transport process
replication.
– ATP is used to move substances
CELL LIFE CYCLE HAS TWO
across a membrane
MAJOR PERIODS
ACTIVE PROCESSES
1. INTERPHASE
ARE USED WHEN:
(METABOLIC PHASE)
– Substances are too large to travel
– Cell grows and carries on
through membrane
metabolic processes
– channels
– Longer phase of the cell cycle
– The membrane may lack special
2. CELL DIVISION
protein carriers for the transport of
– Cell reproduces itself
certain substances 1.1. PREPARATIONS:
– Substances may not be lipid- DNA REPLICATION
soluble – Genetic material is duplicated
– Substances may have to move and readies a cell for division
against a concentration gradient into two cells
ACTIVE TRANSPORT – Occurs toward the end of
– Sometimes called solute pumping interphase
– Is similar to facilitated diffusion in 1.2. PROCESS OF DNA
that both processes require protein REPLICATION
carriers that interact specifically – DNA uncoils into two
and reversibly with the substances nucleotide chains, and each
to be transported across the side serves as a template
membrane. – Nucleotides are
1. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP complementary
(Na-K PUMP) Adenine (A) always bonds
– Alternately carries sodium (Na+) with thymine (T)
ions out of and potassium (K+) ions Guanine (G) always bonds
into the cell. with cytosine (C)
– More sodium ions outside the cells
than inside, and there are more
potassium (K+) ions inside the cells.
 ➢ For example, TACTGC bonds
with new nucleotides in the
order ATGACG
EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION:
1. MITOSIS
– division of the nucleus
→ Results in the formation of two
daughter nuclei with exactly the
same genes as the “mother”
nucleus
→ each daughter nucleus ends up
with exactly the same genetic
information as the original
mother cell
2. CYTOKINESIS
– division of the cytoplasm
– Begins when mitosis is near
completion
→ Results in the formation of two
daughter cells
MITOSIS
1. PROPHASE
1) As cell division begins, the
chromatin threads coil and
shorten so that the barlike
chromosomes become visible
under a microscope.
2) Because DNA has already been
replicated, each chromosome is
actually made up of two
identical strands called sister
chromatids, held together by a
small button-like body called a
centromere.
3) The centrioles separate from
each other and begin to move
toward opposite sides of the
cell, directing the assembly of a
mitotic spindle (composed of
microtubules) between them as
they move.
4) The spindle provides
scaffolding for the attachment
and movement of the
chromosomes during the later
mitotic stages. By the end of
prophase, the nuclear envelope
and the nucleoli have broken
down and temporarily
disappeared, and the
chromosomes have attached
randomly to the spindle fibers
by their centromeres.
– Chromatin coils into chromosomes;
identical strands called
chromatids are held together by a
centromere
– Centrioles direct the assembly of a
mitotic spindle
– Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have
broken down
2. METAPHASE
1) In this short stage, the
chromosomes line up at the
metaphase plate (the center of
the spindle midway between
the centrioles) so that a straight
line of chromosomes is seen.
– Chromosomes are aligned in the
center of the cell on the
metaphase plate (center of the
spindle midway between the
centrioles)
– Straight line of chromosomes is
now seen
3. ANAPHASE
1) During anaphase, the
centromeres that have held the
chromatids together split. The
chromatids (now called
chromosomes again) begin to
move slowly apart, drawn
toward opposite ends of the
cell.
2) The chromosomes seem to be
pulled by their half-
centromeres, with their “arms”
dangling behind them.
3) This careful division of sister
chromatids ensures that each
daughter cell gets one copy of
every chromosome. Anaphase
is over when the chromosomes
stop moving.
– Centromere splits
– Chromatids move slowly apart and
toward the opposite ends of
the cell
– Anaphase is over when the
chromosomes stop moving
PHOTO REFERENCE: PAGE 102
4. TELOPHASE
1) Telophase is essentially
prophase in reverse. The
chromosomes at opposite ends
of the cell uncoil to become
threadlike chromatin again.
2) The spindle breaks down and
disappears, a nuclear envelope
forms around each chromatin
mass, and nucleoli appear in
each of the daughter nuclei.
– Reverse of prophase
– Chromosomes uncoil to become
chromatin
– Spindles break down and disappear
– Nuclear envelope re-forms around
chromatin
– Nucleoli appear in each of the
daughter nuclei
5. CYTOKINESIS
– Division of the cytoplasm
– Begins during late anaphase and
completes during telophase
– A cleavage furrow (contractile ring
of microfilaments) forms to
pinch the cells into two parts
– Two daughter cells exist
❖ In most cases, mitosis and
cytokinesis occur together
❖ In some cases, the cytoplasm is not
divided
❖ Binucleate or multinucleate cells
result
➢ Common in the liver and
skeletal muscle
❖ Mitosis is basically the same in all
animal cells. Depending on the type
of tissue, it takes from 5 minutes to
several hours to complete, but
typically it lasts about 2 hours.
 Centriole replication is deferred ❑ The combination of sex
until late interphase of the next cell chromosomes determines the
cycle, when DNA replication begins individual’s sex, and the autosomes
before the onset of mitosis. determine most other
characteristics
– is the series of changes a cell goes
through from the time it is formed 1. GENE
until it divides – as a DNA segment that carries
– It is the formation of two daughter the information for building
cells from a single parent cell by one protein.
mitosis or meiosis – a DNA segment that carries a
Cell division that occurs by blueprint for building one
MITOSIS produces new cells for protein or polypeptide chain
growth and tissue repair → DNA
Cell division that occurs by – serves as the master
MEIOSIS produces gametes blueprint for protein
(sex cells). synthesis.
➢ Sperm cells – DNA information is coded
➢ Oocytes (egg cells) into a sequence of bases
→ A sequence of three bases
❑ During mitosis and meiosis, the (triplet) codes for an amino
DNA within the parent cell is acid
distributed to the daughter cells ➢ a DNA sequence of
– The DNA is found within AAA specifies the
chromosomes amino acid
The normal number of phenylalanine
chromosomes in a THE ROLE OF DNA
somatic cell is called the – Most ribosomes, the
diploid number manufacturing sites of proteins,
❑ In humans, the diploid number of located in the cytoplasm
chromosomes is 46 and the haploid – DNA never leaves the nucleus in
number is 23. interphase cells
Of the 23 pairs, one pair is the – DNA requires a decoder and a
sex chromosomes, which messenger to carry instructions to
consist of: build proteins to ribosomes
✓ XX chromosomes = female – Both the decoder and messenger
✓ X and Y chromosome = male functions are carried out by
❑ The remaining 22 pairs of RNA (ribonucleic acid)
chromosomes are called
autosomes PHOTO REFERENCE: PAGE 107
 THE ROLE OF RNA
– By itself, DNA is rather like a coded
message; its information is not
useful until it is decoded.
– DN requires not only decoder but
also a trusted messenger to carry
the instructions for building
proteins to the ribosomes.
– These messenger and decoder
functions are carried out by a
second type of nucleic acid, called
ribonucleic acid / RNA
→ RNA
– differs from DNA in being
single-stranded
3 VARIETIES OF RNA PLAY
ROLE IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– helps forms the ribosomes,
where proteins are built.
2. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
– carry the “message” containing
instructions for protein
synthesis from the DNA (gene)
in the nucleus to the ribosomes.
→ Carries the instructions for
building a protein from the
nucleus to the ribosome
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
– are small, cloverleaf-shaped
molecules that escort amino
acids to ribosomes.
→ Transfers appropriate amino
acids to the ribosome for
building the protein
HOW DOES RNA DIFFER FROM
DNA?
✓ RNA is single-stranded
✓ RNA contains ribose sugar
instead of deoxyribose
✓ RNA contains uracil (U) base
instead of thymine (T)
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
INVOLVES 2 MAJOR PHASES:
1. Transcription
2. Translation
1. TRANSCRIPTION
– Transfer of information from
DNA’s base sequence to the
complementary base sequence
of mRNA
DNA is the template for
transcription; mRNA is the
product
Each DNA triplet corresponds
to an mRNA codon
If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-
TCG, then the mRNA
corresponding codons are
UUA-GCA-AGC
2. TRANSLATION
– Base sequence of nucleic acid is
translated to an amino
acid sequence; amino acids are
the building blocks of proteins
– Occurs in the cytoplasm and
involves three major varieties
of RNA
STEPS:
1. Transcription
2. mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to
ribosome, and translation begins
3. incoming tRNA recognizes a
complementary mRNA codon calling
for its amino acid by temporarily
binding its anticodon to the codon
PROTEINS HAVE MANY
FUNCTIONS
A. FIBROUS (STRUCTURAL)
PROTEINS
– are the building materials for cells
B. GLOBULAR (FUNCTIONAL)
PROTEINS
– can act as enzymes (biological
catalysts)