PART – III

DISASTER MITIGATION
CAUSE OF NATURAL DISASTERS

PROF. MOHD. MASROOR ALAM

DEPTT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AMU, ALIGARH.
masroor8497@rediffmail.com
 NATURAL DISASTERS
M A J O R DISASTERS M I N O R DISATERS
FLOOD COLD & HEAT WAVE
DROUGHT
THUDERSTORM
CYCLONE
INSECT INFESTATIONS
LANDSLIDE & AVLANCHES

EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI QUICK SAND / CLAY

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
SINKHOLE
CLOUD BURSTS
URBAN FLOODING
EPIDEMICS Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU
BOILDE IMPACT2
 EARTHQUAKE
• WE KNOW THAT EARTHQUAKES-
Nucleate, Propagate, Struck & Terminate

• WE DONOT KNOW THAT-

Why, Where and When these action will take place

• AN EARTHQUAKE EVENT-
May generate new set of stresses, may promote,
trigger, delay or cause deferment of the next
probable earthquake ????

• Other related hazards - Liquefaction, Landslide,

and Tsunami
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 3
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES > 6.0 M IN INDIAN SUB
CONTINENT
1800 - 1850 1901 - 1950
1803- MATHURA, U.P. 1905- KANGRA, H.P
1918- SRIMANGAL, ASM
1809- KUTCH, GUJ. (2) 1930- DHUBRI, ASM
1934- BIHAR-NEPAL
1851 – 1900 1935- QUETTA, PAK
1869- CACHCHAR, ASM 1937- DEHRADUN, UNCHL
1885- SOPORE, J & K 1941- ANDAMAN
1897- SHILLONG 1943- ASSAM
1900- COIMBTOOR, TN
1950- ARUNANCHAL (09)
(4)

Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 4

 1951 - 2000
1956- ANJAR, GUJ.
1960- DELHI
1964- CALCUTTA
1967- KOYNA
1969- BHADRACHALAM, A.P.
1975- KINNAUR H.P.
1988- MANIPUR – BURMA
1988- BIHAR – NEPAL
1991- UTTARKASHI, UTTRAKHAND
1993- LATUR, MAHA.
1997- JABALPUR, M.P.1999- CHAMOLI, UTKND
(12)
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 5
• 26-01-2001 BHUJ, GUJARAT 6.9 M
EARTHQUAKES
• 26-12-2004 ANDAMAN IN 21ST CENTURY
NICOBAR 7.4 M
(INDONASIA 9.0 M)
• 08-10-2005MUZAFRABAD/J&K (PAK / IND) 7.6 M
• 18-09-2011 SIKKIM, INDIA 6.9 M
• 25-04-2012 Andaman Nicobar Island 6.2 M
• 21-03-2014 Andaman Nicobar Island 6.7 M
• 25-04-2015 Nepal/India 7.8 M
• 12-05-2015 Assam 7.3 M
• 01-04-2016 Manipur 6.0 M
• 18-11-2017 Arunanchal Pradesh 6.4 M
• 28-04-2021 Sikkim
• 03-10-2023 Nepal (12)
• 2001 to 2050 in 22 yrs already we had 10
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 6
25-04-2015 Nepal/India 7.8
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 7
 SOME EARTHQUAKES FROM THE WORLD
Sichuan Earthquake, China 12/05/09, 8.5M
Haiti Earthquake, Haiti 12/01/10, 8.3M
Tohutu Earthquake, Japan 11/03/11, 9.0M
Zahedan Earthquake, Iran, 16/04/13, 6.3M
Lazio Earthquake, Italy, 22/08/16, 7.3M
Mexico Earthquake, 19/09/17 ,7.1 M
Iran-Iraq Border Earthquake,10/11/17 7.3M
Taiwan Earthquake, 06/02/18 6.4M
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 8
Normal fault
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 9
Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 10
LIQUEFACTION
LIQUEFACTION

Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 15

Seismic Zoning Map Of India 1970 and modified in 2002

Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 16

 SEISMIC
ZONING
MAP OF
INDIA
2017
BUILDUING
MATERIAL AND
TECHNOLOGY
PROMOTION
COUNCIL

Prof. M. Masroor Alam, CED, AMU 17

 DEFINITIONS
• Epicenter: . It is the point above the earth’s surface
where the earthquake has occurred. In geography, it is
denoted as latitude and longitude.
• Focus: It is also known as hypocenter and usually is the
point of origination of seismic waves inside the ground
at some depth.
• Antecenter: A point
opposite to the epicenter
On the other side of the
Globe.
• Fault: The causative
fracture with displacement.
 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
• Based on the focal depth of Earthquake: Earthquakes can
also be classified on the basis of depth of its origin i.e.
focus:
• Shallow focus: The earthquakes which originate within top
70 km of the lithosphere and constitute almost 80% of
earthquakes. Of all the shallow focus earthquakes 90%
have their origin in top 30 km of the crust.
• Medium focus: The earthquakes have their origin in
between 70 to 300 km and account for 15% of all the
earthquakes.
• Deep focus: The earthquakes originate from 300 to 700 km
accounting for approximately 5% of earthquakes. The
deepest earthquake recorded till date (Japan) had focus at
depth of 720 km. 19
 EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENT
• RICHTER SCALE 1906:
• The Richter scale uses Arabic numerals from
1 M to 9 M and is an open ended scale i.e. if
earthquake more than 9 M takes place the
scale may change.
• The previous highest magnitude was 8.6 for
an earthquake which struck Peru in 1964 and
• Now has been replaced by 9 after Sumatra
(Indonesia) earthquake in 2004.
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Richter scale (ML), quantitative
measure of an earthquake’s
magnitude (size), devised in 1935
by American seismologists Charles
F. Richter and Beno Gutenberg.
The earthquake’s magnitude is
determined using the logarithm of
the amplitude (height) of the
largest seismic wave calibrated to
a scale by a seismograph.
Wood Anderson Torsion Type
Seismograph.
M3 to M7, Distance upto 600 km.
LOCATING EPICENTRE
 Magnitude, Intensity, energy released and
frequency of different classes of earthquakes
Class Magnitude Intensity Energy Released
Frequency
(Richter Scale) (MMI Scale) (Ergs) (No / Yr)
Great Earthquake >8 X - XII > 5.8 x1023 2

Major Earthquake 7 – 7.9 IX - XI 2 – 42 x1022 20

Strong earthquake 6 – 6.9 VIII - X 8 – 150 x1020 100

Moderate earthquake 5 – 5.9 VII -IX 3 – 55 x1019 3000

Light earthquake 4 – 4.9 V - VII 1 – 20 x1018 15,000

Minor earthquake 3 – 3.9 III - V 4 – 72 x116 >100,000

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 Modified Mercalli Scale MMI
• The MMI scale uses Roman Numerals from I to XII, can be
used easily in short time to class an earthquake and to
gauge damage as:
• I – Not Felt.
• II – Felt by people at rest, on upper floors.
• III – Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibrations like
passing of light trucks.
• IV – Vibrations like passing of heavy trucks. Standing
automobiles, windows, dishes, doors start rattling.
Wooden walls or frames may crack.
• V – Felt outdoors. Sleepers wakened. Liquid disturbed,
some may spill over. Small objects are shifted and
toppled. Doors swing, shutters and pictures move.
• VI – Felt by all, many frightened. People walk unsteadily.
Window panes and dishes broken.
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 MMI SCALE
• VII – Difficult to stand. Furniture broken. Damage to weak
material such as adobes; cracking of ordinary masonry.
Fall of plasters and bricks. Waves in ponds and water get
muddy. Small slides along sandy and gravelly beaches.
• VIII – Steering or driving of automobiles affected. Partial
collapse of ordinary masonry. Fall of chimneys, towers.
Framed houses slide on foundation if not properly tied /
bolted. Change in flow of springs and wells.
• IX – General panic. Serious damage to partially reinforced
masonry. Underground pipes broken. Reservoir damage.
Conspicuous grounds are cracked.
• X – Most masonry and framed structures are destroyed.
Serious damage to dams, dikes. Large landslides. Rails
bent slightly.
• XI – Underground pipelines out of service. Rails broken
greatly.
• XII – Damage nearly total. Large rock masses are shifted.
Waves on land. Long, wide and open cracks develop on
the ground. Vision impaired. Objects thrown into air. 28
Magnitude Intensity Damage At Epicentre Influence Area
Social disturbance, No
1 to 3 I to IV Limited
damage
4 V to VI Slight damage Limited to local
Little damage to
5 VI to VII Up to 10 km
reinforcement
Severe damage to adobe
6 VIII to IX 10 to 25 km
houses
Severe damage to many
7 IX to X 25 to 50 km
buildings
Major damage to most
8 X to XI 50 to 250 km
buildings
Total destruction, Cracks on
9 XI to XII 250 to 1000 km
ground
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Medvedev (Russia)–Sponheuer (Germany)–
Karnik (Czechoslovakia),
MSK Scale 1960 - 1990
• This MSK Scale is more detailed one takes
into account buildings of various make as:
• Type “A” buildings which include rural
construction,
• Type “B”, ordinary masonry constructions
• Type “C”, well-built structures.
• It also takes into consideration the nature
of DAMAGE
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 Damage Classes as per MSK
• The nature of damage has been identified as:
“Grade 1 Damage” for slight,
• “Grade 2 Damage” for moderate,
• “Grade 3 Damage” for heavy,
• “Grade 4 Damage” for destruction and
• “Grade 5 Damage” for total damage.
• The percentage of damage in any area is also
classed as “Few”, about 5 percent,
• “Many”, about 50 percent and
• “Most” about 75 percent.
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 INTENSITY DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE
LEVELS
I Not felt by human senses but recorded
Not Perceptible only by seismographs.
II Noticed only by some people at rest
Hardly especially on upper floor of buildings.
Perceptible
III Noticed by some people inside
buildings, Vibrations similar to passing
Weak of light truck, Very observant people
may notice objectives swinging slightly
especially on upper floors of the
buildings.
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 IV Noticed by people inside buildings and by some
outside, Some people wake up, the vibrations
similar to passing of heavily laden truck, Floors
Largely
and walls develop cracks, Furniture may shift,
Perceptibl Liquid in open container may rock.
e
V Noticed by all people inside buildings and many
outside, Many who are asleep may wake up,
Animals become nervous, Buildings shake and
Fairly
hanging objects may swing, Pictures may hit wall,
Strong Light objects may shift, Open doors and windows
may swing violently, Small amount of liquid may
spill from open containers, Buildings of mud and
stones (A type) may damage slightly, Flow of
springs may get altered.

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 Felt by majority of people both inside and outside the
buildings. Many are frightened and go out. Domestic animals
VI flee from their shelters. On some occasions crockery and
glassware break, books fall from shelves, pictures swing and
Strong unstable objects overturn. Heavy furniture may move. There
may be moderate damage to type A buildings and slight
damage to buildings made of brick, masonry, mortar or
timber frame (type B buildings).

Majority of the people are frightened and run out to the

street Many find it difficult to stand up. People driving cars
VII feel the vibrations. Large bells ring. Many type A buildings
suffer serious and type B buildings suffer moderate damage.
Very Buildings with metal or reinforced concrete structures (type C
Strong buildings) suffer slight damage. Landslide may occur on hilly
roads. Waves appear in lakes. Water levels in wells and
springs change.
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 VIII There will be fear and general panic among people, including those
driving cars. Branches of tree may break off. Heavy furniture may move
Dam- and turn over. Many type A buildings are destroyed and some collapse.
Type B buildings suffer serious damage and some are destroyed. Type C
-aging
buildings suffer moderate to serious damage. Stone walls collapse. Small
landslide may occur on slopes and cuttings. Cracks that are several
centimetre wide may appear on the ground. New springs may appear.
Existing wells go dry and dry wells get filled with water.

IX There will be general panic and significant damage to property. Animals

run in confusion and make strange noises. Many type A buildings
Destru- collapse. Many type B buildings are destroyed and some collapse. Many
type C buildings suffer serious damage and some destroyed. Monuments
—ctive
and columns fall and underground pipes are partially cracked. Railway
tracks are bent. Jets of water and muds are observed in saturated sands.
Numerous cracks up to 10 cm in width appear in the ground. Many
landslides and rock fall occurs. Large waves occur in lakes and reservoirs.
Dry wells get filled and existing wells go dry.
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 Majority of type A and many type B buildings collapse.
Many type C buildings are destroyed. Railway tracks are
X altered. Underground pipes are twisted. Steel surfaces
develop undulations. Ground develop cracks which are
Devastative more than 10 cm wide. Land slide occur on slopes and
steep river banks There will be change in water levels in
wells. New lakes are formed.

XI Significant damage to all buildings and bridges, dams, rails

Catastrophic and roads. Underground pipes are destroyed. Land are
pushed out of shape by landslides and rock falls.
XII All structures including underground structures, are
destroyed or severely damaged. The topography changes.
Very There are large cracks on the ground and significant
Catastrophic horizontal and vertical landslips are observed. Rock falls
occur. Waterfalls appear and rivers are diverted.
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Parhate – Parhate
3rd, 4th & 6th
08-09-23 Friday 11 pm
BASIC CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANT DESIGN
• Columns and beams with vertical and horizontal
loads shouldn’t get damage under minor but
frequent earthquakes. Parts not carrying loads
may undergo repairable damage.
• Under moderate, occasional shaking main
structural parts may get repairable damage while
other parts damaged to a degree that post
earthquake replacements become a must.
• Under strong, rare shaking main members may
sustain severe irreparable damage, but building
should not collapse.
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• Life line structures such as hospitals,
administration buildings, communication
facilities, fire stations etc. play a critical role in
post earthquake rescue and rehabilitation work
hence need higher level of earthquake
protection. Similarly dams require higher level
of protection as their failures may cause another
disaster due to flooding.
• Foundation should be made strong after taking
into consideration the bearing capacity of the
soil.
• The foundation should not be on sloping
ground, extra care be taken if water table is
high.
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• Thickness of the soil also plays an important
role and show dual nature. Up to five story
buildings thin soil cover (< 50 m) will have
damaging affect as compared to thick soil
cover( > 100 m) while it is vice versa for tall
buildings ( > 10 story).
• Most non engineered buildings in rural and
urban environment use adobe, burnt clay
bricks; stones etc. with mud, lime and
cement mortar as load bearing elements.
They are able to take compressive loads but
readily fail in tension. It needs
reinforcement using bamboo or wood.
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• Most of the low cost houses are brick
masonry with three main components roof,
wall and foundation. Brick masonry buildings
have large mass hence attract large lateral
forces and multiple cracks so fare badly during
earthquakes. Sustaining these cracks without
major damage and collapse is the aim of
earthquake resistant construction.
• Stone and mud are also used in construction
especially in rocky or hilly regions apart from
the historical buildings. Most of these
buildings have thick outer wall made up of
rounded stones sequestered from the river
beds or dressed rock blocks from quarries.
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USE LOCAL &
TRADITIONAL
TECHNOLOGY

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• The rock boulders / blocks are kept randomly in
mud or lime mortar, not in proper course as
bricks are laid in sand cement mortar. Being thick
(>100 cm) made from two sides and are
effectively have two exteriors called wythes and
the internal gap is filled by assorted loose rubble.
These buildings are highly deficient and incur
heavy damage.
• The main damage types are, bulging and
separation of wall in two wythes, separation of
wall at T junctions and corners, separation of
roof from walls and worst disaggregation and
collapse of wall. There are methods to minimize
the damage.
• Ensure proper construction as unitary wall,
thickness less than 450 mm, with rock pieces
dressed as cuboids with sharp corners and
cement–sand mortar binder, richer than 1:6.
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• Use single through key stone or pair of overlapping
bond stone at every 600 mm in vertical direction and
every 1.20 m along the length.
• Must have foundation, plinth, sill and roof bands of
RCC or wood / bamboo as economy permits. Should
have lesser heights and wall stretch > 5 m should use
buttresses.
• Concrete which is replacing the traditional
construction material also performs well in
compression but fail in tension. Hence they must be
reinforced by steel bars i.e. reinforced cement
concrete (RCC).
• Ductility is a must in earthquake resistant buildings
to allow back and forth sway. They should be
designed in such a way that damages up to a level
are allowed but collapse is prevented.
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• To optimize building ductility, have strong columns -
weak beams, but not the opposite.
• Reinforced cement concrete buildings are becoming
common in urban India and most of them have lower
ground story or basement as parking space. These
buildings are called as buildings on stilts. It has large
flexibility at ground story which reduces at higher
stories. Due to heavy load and inertia forces this story
becomes weak and fails.
• It is the steel which provides ductility to RCC but only
when the location and amount of steel are properly
designed in such a way that by steel reaches its strength
in tension before concrete fails in compression i.e.
ductile failure.
• Columns in ground stories should be tied with each
other by using shear walls.
• Due to large sway even in RCC buildings non structured
elements may fail e.g. Windows and openings for
cupboards may crush. Even the top story of the building
may crash.
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• The walls are most vulnerable and topple down
due to horizontal shaking perpendicular to its
length called as weak direction as compared to
shaking along its length called as strong direction.
Thick and short walls fare well as compared to
thin and tall walls.
• The inertia forces at roof too are transferred to
the walls and add to damage. Tie roof, four walls
and foundation properly so that weak direction of
the two walls can take help of the strong direction
of the other two and whole structure behaves as
an integral unit.
• Number and size of openings such as doors,
windows should be optimum as smaller the
openings greater the resistance offered by walls.
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• For good seismic performance ensure good
interlocking and ‘L’ shaped dowel bars at
wall joints at different levels. Employ roof,
gable, lintel and plinth bands made of RCC.
• Vertical reinforcement bars in the corners
of walls tied to the foundation and sill
bands around openings help a lot in
bending and prevent cross fracturing.
• Quality control is also very important high
grade burnt clay bricks with low porosity
and strength greater than the cement –
sand mortar are advisable.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CENTRE FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AMU, ALIGARH

THANKYOU

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