Science and Tech Current Affairs by PMF IAS® – June 2023

Contents

{S&T – AI – 2023/06/08} Dealing with Deepfakes .................................................................................................. 3

Deepfakes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Concerns with Deepfakes ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Regulation for Deepfake Technology in India ................................................................................................................................. 4
Way Forward.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
{S&T – AI – 2023/06/09} AI Helped to Find an Antibiotic Against a Superbug .................................................. 4
Acinetobacter baumannii ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
How can AI Help Against Antibiotic Resistance? ............................................................................................................................ 5
{S&T – Biology – 2023/06/28} Virgin Birth in Female Crocodile........................................................................... 5
Parthenogenesis........................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/13} Treating Formation Water......................................................................... 6
{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/16} Cluster N: Inbuilt GPS in Birds .................................................................. 7
Mechanisms ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/27} Fruit or Vinegar Fly (Drosophila melanogaster) ................................... 10
{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/29} Geraniol for Eggplant Crop Protection .................................................. 10
{S&T – Defence – 2023/06/13} Agni-I and Agni Prime Ballistic Missiles ........................................................... 11
Agni Class of Missiles ...............................................................................................................................................................................11
Ballistic Missiles ..........................................................................................................................................................................................12
Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) ....................................................................................................13
{S&T – Defence – 2023/06/29} Varunastra ............................................................................................................ 13
{S&T – Diseases – 2023/06/14} Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) Disease .................................................... 13
Virus ................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
{S&T – Diseases – 2023/06/23} Increase in Heart Strokes ................................................................................... 15
The Structure of the Human Heart .....................................................................................................................................................16
Arrhythmia (or Dysrhythmia) ................................................................................................................................................................17
Hormonal Imbalance and Arrhythmias .............................................................................................................................................18
{S&T – Indian Tech – 2023/06/22} Balasore Train Accident and Interlocking System ..................................... 19
How did the Balasore Train Accident Happen? .............................................................................................................................20
What is the Electronic Interlocking System in Railways? ...........................................................................................................22
{S&T – Indian Tech – 2023/06/22} KAVACH System in Indian Railways ............................................................ 24
KAVACH System .........................................................................................................................................................................................24
{S&T – New Tech – 2023/06} India in the Field of Graphene .............................................................................. 25
Graphene ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes......................................................................................................................................................28
Carbon Fiber ................................................................................................................................................................................................29
{S&T – Physics – 2023/06/02} Foucault's Pendulum in New Parliament ........................................................... 30
What is Foucault's Pendulum? .............................................................................................................................................................31
{S&T – Physics – 2023/06/27} ‘Catastrophic Implosion’ of the Titan Submersible .......................................... 32
What is ‘Catastrophic Implosion’?.......................................................................................................................................................33
The Case of Titan .......................................................................................................................................................................................33

https://www.pmfias.com/books-upsc-ias-civil-services-exam/
{S&T – AI – 2023/06/08} Dealing with Deepfakes

• Context (TH): Deepfake technology has the potential to rupture the social fabric.

Deepfakes
• Deepfakes are synthetic media in which video, audio, and images are edited and manipulated us-
ing artificial intelligence. It is basically hyper-realistic digital falsification.
• The term deepfake originated in 2017 when an anonymous Reddit user, who manipulated Google’s
open-source, deep-learning technology to create pornographic videos, called himself “Deepfakes”.
• Access to commodity cloud computing, public research AI algorithms, abundant data, and availa-
bility of vast media have made the creation of deepfakes very easy.
• Besides specialised tools and software, generating deepfakes needs training data to be fed to AI mod-
els. This data is often original video, audio, and images of the targeted person.

Benefits of deepfake technology

 Deepfake can help in certain areas, such as accessibility, education, entertainment, criminal foren-
sics, restoring the voices of speech-impaired persons, and artistic expression.

Demerit of deepfake technology

 It can be used to damage reputation, fabricate evidence, defraud the public, manipulate elections,
spread misinformation, steal identities, and create pornography.

Concerns with Deepfakes

 Ethical Concern: Deepfakes are used for identity theft which defames innocent persons, violates of
right to privacy, and damages the personal and social life of victims.
 National Security: It can spread misinformation and propaganda, because of which tensions develop
among the different communities. Non-state actors (such as insurgent groups and terrorist organisa-
tions) and malicious nations can use it as a weapon.
 International Relations: It can be used as a lethal weapon to create further issues between non-
friendly countries. It can also generate confusion between friendly nations.
 Eroding Traditional Media: It can erode the trust in traditional media, which can contribute to a cul-
ture of factual relativism and liar’s dividend.
 Factual relativism: It is a way to reason where facts used to justify any claims are understood to be rela-
tive and subjective to the perspective of those proving or falsifying the proposition.
 Liar’s dividend: An undesirable truth is dismissed as a deepfake or fake news.
 Threat to Democracy: Deepfakes can be used to manipulate election outcomes by influencing public
opinion through misinformation and propaganda.
 Financial Frauds and Scams: Large-scale financial frauds and scams can be carried out using deep-
fakes. Such incidences will not only cause personal financial loss but also destabilise the economy.
 Lack of Proper Regulations: In many countries, there are no proper laws for regulating deepfake tech-
nology and for penalising in case of misuse of deepfakes.

Regulation for Deepfake Technology in India

• In India, there are no legal rules against using deepfake technology.
• However, specific laws can be addressed for misusing the tech, which includes Copyright Violation,
Defamation, and Cyber Crimes.
Specific Laws in India to Address Misuse of Deepfake Technology
Section 500 of the IPC (Indian Penal Code) Punishment for defamation
Sections 67 and 67A of the Information Punishment for sexually explicit material
Technology Act
Representation of the People Act, 1951 Prohibiting the creation and distribution of false or mislead-
ing information about candidates or political parties.

Way Forward
 Media literacy for consumers is the most effective tool to combat disinformation and deepfakes.
 Developing legislative solutions to combat malicious deepfakes after having collaborative discussions
with the technology industry, civil society, and policymakers.
 Accessible technology solutions supported by artificial intelligence to detect deep fakes.
 Tech companies like Google, Meta, and Twitter should take effective measures to counter deepfakes.
 Using watermarks and blockchain technologies to detect deepfake technology.
 For voice deepfakes, callback functions can end suspicious calls and request an outbound call to the
account owner for direct confirmation.
 Multifactor authentication (MFA) and anti-fraud solutions can also reduce deepfake risks.

{S&T – AI – 2023/06/09} AI Helped to Find an Antibiotic Against a Superbug

• Context (IE): In a significant breakthrough in the medical field, AI has found a new antibiotic to kill
Acinetobacter baumannii, a superbug.

Superbugs
• Superbugs are bacteria that are resistant to several types of antibiotics. They can pass along genetic
material that allows other bacteria to become drug-resistant.

Acinetobacter baumannii
• Acinetobacter baumannii was identified by WHO as one of the world’s most dangerous antibiotic-
resistant bacteria.
• It can cause pneumonia, meningitis, and infect wounds, all of which can lead to death.
• It is usually found in hospitals, where it can survive on surfaces for long periods.
How Bacteria Becomes Drug-Resistant?
• Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections.
• Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change their response to antibiotics. This ultimately
threatens the ability of medicines to treat common infectious diseases.
• Where antibiotics can be bought for human or animal use without a prescription, the emergence and
spread of antibiotic resistance is worse.
• Infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and foodborne diseases are becoming harder to treat
with existing medication due to increasing anti-bacterial resistance.

How can AI Help Against Antibiotic Resistance?

• Narrowing down the right antibacterial chemicals against bacteria can be complex. This is where AI al-
gorithms come in since AI is based on machines being given large amounts of data and training
themselves to identify patterns and solutions based on the data.
• In the case of Acinetobacter baumannii, the bacteria grown in a lab dish was exposed to thousands of
chemical compounds to see which could help pause the growth of the bacterium.
• Then, the structure of each molecule was fed into the machine-learning model. This allowed the algo-
rithm to learn chemical features associated with growth inhibition.
• Once the model was trained, it was used to analyse thousands of compounds. The model yielded a few
hundred results. Of these, the researchers focused on compounds with structures different from those
of existing antibiotics.
• The tests yielded 9 antibiotics, including one that was very potent and effective at killing Acinetobacter
baumannii. This has been named abaucin.

{S&T – Biology – 2023/06/28} Virgin Birth in Female Crocodile

• Context (BBC | TG): First known case of a “virgin birth” in a female crocodile that had no contact with
males for about 16 years have been recorded in Costa Rica.
• The fully formed foetus was 99.9% genetically identical to the female crocodile, confirming the offspring
had no father. This was a case of facultative parthenogenesis.

Parthenogenesis
• Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into an embryo with-
out fertilisation by sperm.
• The resulting offspring are genetically identical or nearly identical to the mother, as they inherit all
their genetic material from a single parent.
• It occur when a species faces challenging or unfavourable conditions, such as or lack of mates.
• This extremely rare process has been documented in species of birds, fish, lizards, and snakes.
• This trait is believed to be inherited from an evolutionary ancestor, so dinosaurs might also have been
capable of self-reproduction.

Facultative Parthenogenesis
• Facultative parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction observed in certain species where females have
the ability to reproduce either sexually or asexually through parthenogenesis.

Accidental Parthenogenesis
• Accidental parthenogenesis (also known as spontaneous or unexpected parthenogenesis) refers to in-
stances of parthenogenetic reproduction that occur in species that typically reproduce sexually.

Obligatory Parthenogenesis
• Obligate parthenogenesis (or true parthenogenesis) refers to a mode of reproduction in which fe-
males of certain species exclusively reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis.

{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/13} Treating Formation Water

• Context (PIB): Institute of Advanced Study in S&T (IASST), an autonomous institute of the Department
of Science and Technology (DST) developed a green approach for the treatment of formation water.

Formation Water
• Formation water is a byproduct of crude oil excavation and processing. It consists of oily compo-
nents, brine solutions, and solvents that are used during various phases in the oil industry.
• It is usually drained off into rivers, deteriorating the water quality. Further, the fish and plants collected
from such contaminated sites can transfer and increase the associated risks due to biomagnification.
 Biomagnification is the process by which a compound (such as a pollutant or pesticide) increases
its concentration in the tissues of organisms as it travels up the food chain.
• In this process, a mixture consisting of plant-based biomaterial, biosurfactant (which are secondary
metabolites of microbes), and NPK fertilizer is used efficiently to restore formation water. Around 2.5
gm of the formulation could treat one litre of formation water in 12 hours.
Biosurfactants
• Biosurfactants are a type of surfactant produced by living organisms (such as bacteria, fungi, etc).
• Surfactants, short for surface-active agents, are compounds that lower the surface tension be-
tween two substances, such as a liquid and a solid or a liquid and a gas.
• Biosurfactants have several advantageous properties over synthetic surfactants. They are generally bio-
degradable, environmentally friendly, and can be produced from renewable resources.

Applications of biosurfactants
 Enhanced Oil Recovery: Biosurfactants can be used in the oil industry to increase the recovery of oil
from reservoirs. They help to reduce the interfacial tension between the oil and water, allowing for
better displacement of oil.
 Bioremediation: Biosurfactants can aid in the cleanup of contaminated environments by increasing
the solubility and mobility of hydrophobic contaminants. They help to emulsify and disperse oil, fa-
cilitating its degradation by microorganisms.
 Agriculture: Biosurfactants can be used in agriculture as wetting agents, spreading agents, and
emulsifiers. They improve the spread and effectiveness of pesticides and herbicides on plant surfaces.
 Food and Beverage Industry: Biosurfactants have applications in food processing and production.
They can act as emulsifiers, foaming agents, and stabilisers in various food products.
 Cosmetics: Biosurfactants are used to formulate personal care products, such as shampoos, soaps, and
creams, contributing to foam formation, emulsification, and skin-friendly properties.

{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/16} Cluster N: Inbuilt GPS in Birds

• Context (IT | WION): Migratory birds have GPS inbuilt into their brains, which they can turn on and off.
• There is a region of the migratory bird’s brain known as cluster N that birds use to detect and
process Earth's magnetic field to travel long distances.
 Earth's magnetic field protects the planet and its inhabitants from the dangerous cosmic rays, and
plasma blasted off from the Sun. The magnetic field, generated by the flow of molten iron in the plan-
et’s inner core and extends out into space, is invisible to humans. But it is used innovatively by
some animals for navigation, like a GPS, and they can turn it on and off flexibly.
More Info: PMF IAS Physical Geography First Edition > Chapter 5. Earth’s Magnetic Field
• Migratory birds can ignore or process magnetic information, similar to how humans listen to music
they are interested in and tune out if they do not like it.
• Migratory birds (esp. songbirds like white-throated sparrows) can activate cluster N at night when
motivated to migrate and presumably engage their magnetic compass.

Mechanisms
• Many bird have specialized cells containing magnetite or other magnetic materials that allow
them to sense the Earth's magnetic field.
• For e.g., birds use magnetically sensitive proteins called cryptochromes located in their retinas that
enable sensing and signaling functions, helping them in navigating long distances.
• When cryptochrome proteins absorb photons of light and become ‘photoexcited’, they form magneti-
cally sensitive chemicals that help them orient with respect to Earth’s magnetic field.
 Celestial Navigation: Birds can navigate using celestial cues, such as the position of the sun and stars.
By using the position of the sun, birds can determine their direction. They possess an internal biological
clock that allows them to compensate for the sun’s changing position throughout the day.
{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/27} Fruit or Vinegar Fly (Drosophila melano-
gaster)

• Context (TH | TP): Fruit fly (or Vinegar fly) has revolutionised biological and medical science. It is the
best-understood animal organism on the planet and a powerhouse of modern medical research.
 Flies and mosquitoes both belong to Diptera, the group of insects that have only two wings.

Reasons why fruit fly is extensively used in medical research

 The husbandry of fruit fly is very cheap (pieces of banana kept in milk bottles).
 It has a rapid reproduction process (one generation in about ten days; about 100 eggs per female per
day). This makes the study of evolution possible in the laboratory.
 Humans and fruit flies share many similarities in terms of genes, genomes, processes and mechanisms.

 Biologist Thomas Hunt Morgan by conducting mass-breeding experiments with hundreds of thousands
of fruit flies discovered a single fly with white eyes, instead of the normal red eyes. This white-eyed
progeny revealed two things about human body.
1. Genes can mutate.
2. Genes are arranged into orderly and reproducible maps on chromosomes (a long DNA mole-
cule).

{S&T – Biotechnology – 2023/06/29} Geraniol for Eggplant Crop Protection

• Context (HT): Using metabolomics, it is identified that a natural compound known as ‘geraniol’ in a
Himalayan eggplant (brinjal) variety can reduce the load of synthetic pesticides.
• Most eggplant (brinjal) varieties suffer severe losses due to a multi-insecticide-resistant lepidopteran
pest called the shoot and fruit borer (SFB).
• But in the Himalayan eggplant variety, SFB cannot lay eggs due to geraniol. So, by installing geraniol-
emitting devices in eggplant farms, both pest infestations and the use of pesticides can be reduced.

Metabolomics
• Metabolomics is the large-scale study of small molecules, commonly known as metabolites, within
cells, biofluids, tissues, or organisms.
• It is a branch of omics sciences. Omics focus on the comprehensive study of biological systems at
various molecular levels. They include:
1. Genomics: the study of an organism's complete set of DNA.
2. Transcriptomics: the study of an organism's RNA transcripts.
3. Proteomics: the study of an organism's complete set of proteins.
4. Metabolomics, etc.

{S&T – Defence – 2023/06/13} Agni-I and Agni Prime Ballistic Missiles

• Context (ET | HT | TH | WION): Successful training launch of Agni-I and the first pre-induction night
launch of Agni Prime were carried out from APJ Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.

Agni Class of Missiles

• Agni missiles are medium to intercontinental-range ballistic missiles.
Types of Ballistic Missiles Range
Short-range (Tactical) Ballistic Missile (SRBM) 300 km and 1,000 km
Medium-range (Theatre) Ballistic Missile (MRBM) 1,000 km to 3,500 km
Intermediate-range (Long-Range) Ballistic Missile (IRBM or LRBM) 3,500 km and 5,500 km
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) >5,500 km
• Agni missiles are nuclear weapons capable, surface-to-surface ballistic missiles.
• The first missile of this class, Agni-I, was developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Develop-
ment Program (IGMDP).
• Later, the Agni missile program was separated from the IGMDP due to its strategic importance.
• Agni missiles are indigenously developed by DRDO.
Agni Class of Missiles Type Range
Agni I Medium Range Ballistic Missile 1,000 km to 3,500 km
Agni II Medium Range Ballistic Missile 1,000 km to 3,500 km
Agni III Intermediate-range Ballistic Missile 3,500 km and 5,500 km
Agni IV Intermediate-range Ballistic Missile 3,500 km and 5,500 km
Agni-V Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (India's 1st in- >5,500 km
tercontinental ballistic missile)
Agni- VI Intercontinental Ballistic Missile >5,500 km
Agni-P Medium Range Ballistic Missile 1,000 km to 3,500 km

Ballistic Missiles
• A ballistic missile follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver warheads on a predetermined target.
• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is launched but has no active propulsion during its
actual flight (these weapons are guided only during relatively brief periods of flight).
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by the initial velocity, effects of gravity, air re-
sistance, and earth’s motion (Coriolis Force).
• Short-range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth’s atmosphere while intercontinental ballistic mis-
siles spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere.

Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile

It is propelled (guided) only for a brief duration It is self-propelled (guided) till the end of its
after the launch. flight.
Similar to a rocket engine (carries it’s own oxy- Similar to a jet engine (uses atmospheric oxygen
gen tank). for combustion).
It is long-range missiles; it leaves the earth’s at- It is short-range missiles; its flight path is within
mosphere and then re-enter it. the earth’s atmosphere.
Low precision as it is unguided for most of its path High precision as it is constantly guided.
and its trajectory depends on gravity, air resistance
and Coriolis Force.
It has long range because there is no fuel re- It has small range because it requires fuel till the
quirement after its initial trajectory. end of its flight to guide it constantly.
Heavy payload carrying capacity. Limited payload carrying capacity.
Can carry multiple payloads. Usually carries a single payload.
Developed primarily to carry nuclear warheads. Developed primarily to carry conventional war-
heads.
E.g., Prithvi, Agni, and Dhanush missiles. E.g., BrahMos missiles

Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP)

• IGMDP was a Ministry of Defence programme for the research and development of the comprehen-
sive range of missiles.
• It was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile technology.
• It was started in 1983 and completed in 2012.
• Under IGMDP, the development of five missile systems was taken up.
Missile Systems Developed under IGMDP
Prithvi (Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile)
Agni (Only Agni-I: Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile)
Trishul (Short-range surface-to-air missile)
Akash (Medium-range surface-to-air missile)
Nag (Third generation anti-tank missile)
More information on Indian missile systems: India’s Missile Systems, IGMDP – PMF IAS

{S&T – Defence – 2023/06/29} Varunastra

• Context (TH): Indigenously designed and developed heavy weight torpedo Varunastra (ship-
launched anti-submarine torpedo) is successfully test-fired by the Indian Navy.
 Torpedo: It is a self-propelled underwater missile, launched from a submarine, surface vessel, or
airplane. It is designed for exploding upon contact with the hulls of surface vessels and submarines.

{S&T – Diseases – 2023/06/14} Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) Disease

• Context (ET | IE): The human metapneumovirus (HMPV) cases are presently peaking in the US.
• HMPV disease is a viral infection that affects the respiratory system in humans.
• It was first discovered by Dutch virus hunters in 2001.
• HMPV is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family.
• Paramyxoviridae family also includes other respiratory viruses, such as respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV).
 RNA virus is a virus whose genetic material is RNA. RNA is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that
has structural similarities to DNA.
DNA and RNA: https://www.pmfias.com/dna-rna/
• Transmission: HMPV is most likely spread from an infected person to others through:
 secretions from coughing and sneezing,
 close personal contact, such as touching or shaking hands, and
 touching objects or surfaces with viruses, then touching the mouth, nose, or eyes.
• The virus is more likely to circulate in winter and spring.
• Incubation period: Around 3 to 6 days from the day of getting infected.
• Symptoms: Mild symptoms akin to a cold, cough, fever, nasal congestion, and shortness of breath. Se-
vere cases of HMPV can lead to bronchitis or pneumonia (particularly in children).
• Duration of the illness: It varies depending on the severity and immunity of the infected person. Gen-
erally, it lasts about 2 to 5 days and resolves on its own in healthy individuals.
• Fatality: the risk of fatality is generally low.
• Vulnerable population: It can affect people of all age groups. However, the risk is higher for small
children, older adults, and those with immunocompromised systems.
• Treatment: No specific treatment or vaccine is available for human metapneumovirus (HMPV).
• Prevention: maintaining good hygiene, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, etc.

Virus
• A virus can self-replicate inside a host cell.
• The infected cells may produce thousands of new copies of the original virus at an extraordinary rate.
• The genetic material of a virus can be either DNA or RNA.

DNA Viruses and RNA Viruses

Comparison of DNA virus and RNA virus
DNA virus RNA virus
• Genetic material is DNA • Genetic material is RNA
• Mostly double-stranded • Always single-stranded
• Mutation rate is lower • Mutation rate is higher
• DNA replication takes place in the nucleus (refer • RNA replication takes place in the cytoplasm
image below) (refer image below)
• DNA viruses are stable • RNA viruses are unstable

Source: National Human Genome Research Institute

More info: Virus, Difference Between Virus & Bacteria, DNA & RNA Viruses - PMF IAS

{S&T – Diseases – 2023/06/23} Increase in Heart Strokes

• Context (IE | IE): Heart strokes are claiming the lives of even young people.
• One in five heart strokes is caused due to an arrhythmia (or dysrhythmia) called atrial fibrillation.
The Structure of the Human Heart

• The heart is a muscular organ that plays a crucial role in the circulatory system.

Chambers
• The heart is divided into four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
• The right atrium & right ventricle receive and pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs, respectively.
• The left atrium & left ventricle receive and pump oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, respec-
 tively.

Valves
• Valves keep the blood flowing in one direction.
• The valves between the atria from the ventricles are atrioventricular valves (which include the tricus-
pid valve on the right side and the mitral or bicuspid valve on the left side).
• The semilunar valves (which include the pulmonary valve and aortic valve) are located between the
ventricles and the major blood vessels and prevent the backflow of blood.

Coronary Arteries
• These arteries branch off from the aorta (the largest artery of the body and carries blood from the
heart to the circulatory system) and provide oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself, ensuring
its proper function.

Electrical System
• The heart has a specialised electrical system that coordinates the contractions of its chambers.
• The sinoatrial node in the right atrium initiates electrical impulses that spread through the atria, caus-
ing them to contract.
• The impulses then pass through the atrioventricular node and specialised conducting fibres, resulting in
the synchronised contraction of the ventricles.

Blood Vessels
• The veins bring deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body to the right side of the heart.
• The arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the left side of the heart to supply the body's organs
and tissues.

Others
• Septum: It is a muscular wall that divides the heart into left and right sides. This separation en-
sures that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix.
• Myocardium: It is the thick, muscular layer of the heart responsible for the contractions that pump
blood. It is composed of specialised cardiac muscle cells.
• Pericardium: It is a double-layered protective sac of the heart. The outer layer, called the fibrous peri-
cardium, is tough and helps protect the heart. The inner layer, called the serous pericardium, produces a
fluid that lubricates the heart and reduces friction during contractions.

Arrhythmia (or Dysrhythmia)

• Arrhythmia (or dysrhythmia) refers to an abnormality in the rhythm or pattern of the heartbeat.
• It occurs when the electrical impulses that regulate the heartbeat are disrupted, causing the heart to
beat too fast, too slow, or irregularly. It can affect the atria or the ventricles, or both.
• Sometimes, this fluttering can be harmless. Most of us have a fast or slow rate with different physical
activities. E.g., the heartbeat may increase with intense exercise or slow down during sleep.
• However, sometimes arrhythmias can become severe, and the heartbeats become so chaotic that it
becomes difficult for the body and organs to adjust to this unruly pattern.
 Normal heart rate is 60 to 100 beats per minute.

Types of Arrhythmias
• Broadly, there are two types of arrhythmias: Tachycardia and Bradycardia.
 Tachycardia is a type of arrhythmia characterised by a faster-than-normal heart rate.
 Bradycardia is a type of arrhythmia characterised by a slower-than-normal heart rate.

Types of Tachycardia
• Sinus Tachycardia: the heart's natural pacemaker, the sinus node, generates electrical impulses
faster than normal. It is often a physiological response to exercise, stress, pain, etc.
• Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT): it is tachycardias originating above the ventricles, including:
 Atrial Fibrillation (AF): A rapid and irregular heartbeat originates in the atria. It can lead to blood
clots in the heart. This is common among Indians.
 Atrial Flutter: it is characterised by a rapid and regular atrial rhythm, usually with a higher heart
rate.
• Ventricular fibrillation: occurs when chaotic electrical signals cause the l ventricles to beat abnormally.
• Ventricular tachycardia: this happens when a rapid heart rate doesn’t allow the ventricles to properly
fill with blood. So the heart can’t pump enough blood to the body.

Types of Bradycardia
• Sinus Bradycardia: the sinus node generates electrical impulses slower than normal. E.g. during sleep.
• Athlete's Heart: The athlete’s heart is characterised by an enlarged heart and a slower resting heart
rate. It is a normal adaptation to regular endurance exercise.

Causes of Arrhythmias
• High blood pressure, thyroid disorder, diabetes, Brugada syndrome (a genetic disorder that can
cause dangerously irregular heartbeat, especially during sleep or at rest), etc.

Hormonal Imbalance and Arrhythmias

• A hormonal imbalance happens when you have too much or too little of one or more hormones.
• Hormonal imbalance caused by stress hormones and happy hormones can cause arrhythmias.
 Hormones are the body’s chemical messengers produced by various glands and tissue. They are secret-
ed into the bloodstream, from where they travel to target tissues or organs and elicit specific responses.

Stress Hormones and Arrhythmias

• Hyperactive lifestyle and lack of sleep/rest increase human stress levels. In response to this stress, hor-
mones like cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine), and norepinephrine are released by the body.
• High levels of these hormones in the body from long-term stress can increase blood cholesterol, tri-
glycerides, blood sugar, and blood pressure. These conditions ultimately lead to arrhythmias.
• Toxic level of stress hormones is the main reason healthy and young people are dying during
gyming and sleeping due to heart attack and heart failure.

Happy Hormones and Arrhythmias

• Happy hormones are released when a person feels happy.
• Happy hormones include serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin.
• Low levels of happy hormones can lead an individual to depression.
• Depression increases the risk of atrial fibrillation.
• Sometimes toxic levels of happy hormones (due to overdoses) also cause arrhythmias.

Other Hormones and Arrhythmias

• Abnormal levels of certain other hormones, such as thyroid hormones, estrogen, progesterone, tes-
tosterone, etc., also increase the chances of arrhythmia.

{S&T – Indian Tech – 2023/06/22} Balasore Train Accident and Interlocking

System

• Context (IE | TH | TH | TH): The multi-train accident involving the Shalimar-Chennai Coromandel
Express, the SMVT Bengaluru-Howrah Superfast Express, and a goods train at Bahanaga Bazar
station in Balasore district, Odisha, claimed lives of 275 passengers and left more than 1,000 injured.
How did the Balasore Train Accident Happen?
• The Shalimar-Chennai Coromandel Express was running on the up-line, the SMVT Bengaluru-Howrah
Superfast Express was running on the down-line, and a goods train was parked on the loop line.
 Up Main Line: The railway track on which up train runs. Up train refers to a train travelling to its zon-
al/divisional headquarters.
 Down Main Line: The railway track on which down train runs. Down train refers to a train departing
from zonal/divisional headquarters i.e., the home railway.
 Loop Line: Loop line lies on the side of the main line. The purpose of a loop is to park a train on the
side so that the main line is left clear for a faster or more important train.
• Due to a fault in the electronic interlocking system, the Shalimar-Chennai Coromandel Express
(SCCE) entered the loop line and collided with a stationary goods train in the loop line.
• Some coaches of SCCE fell on the adjacent main line causing the derailment of the SMVT Bengaluru-
Howrah Express, which entered the station at the same time.
• The interlocking system has wrongly switched the point of the Coromandel Express because of which
it has entered the loop line.
• Probably the system had malfunctioned due to tampering by some criminal-minded person or due to
a fault of railway personnel.
What is the Electronic Interlocking System in Railways?
• Interlocking in railway signalling systems is a crucial safety mechanism that ensures train move-
ments continue without any conflicts, thus preventing accidents.
• The signal apparatus in an interlocking system may be interconnected mechanically or electrically
with the tracks or both.
• Electronic interlocking (EI) is an advanced version of signalling that uses computer-based systems
and electronic equipment to control signals, points and level-crossing gates.
• The interlocking system coordinates the functions of point, track occupancy sensing devices and sig-
nals to control train movements.
 Signals: They are installed along the tracks to indicate the status of the track ahead. Light signals
direct a train to stop (red light), proceed (green), or exercise caution (yellow).
 Track circuits (or track-occupancy sensing devices): They are electrical circuits that detect the
presence of trains on a track.
 Points: They allow trains to change tracks.
• The digital interface of this system is a computer screen (or multiple screens) that shows the full view of
the station layout, the real-time movement of trains, the signals, and the position of the points. This
computer interface is called a data logger.

How do the Points Work?

• The points (or switch rails) are movable rails typically placed at the point of divergence of two
tracks going in different directions.
• Once the direction of a train is determined, the point gets locked at a particular position and cannot be
budged until the train has passed. The driver, or loco pilot, has no say in this matter.

How does the System Sense whether a Track is Occupied?

• Generally, sensors are installed on the tracks that detect the passage of wheels on the rails. These are
called axle counters.
• They count how many sets of wheels or axles have passed over them to determine whether the entire
train has passed through.

Who Operates and Monitors the Electronic Interlocking System?

• The interlocking system is usually operated and monitored by trained personnel from the signalling and
telecommunications department in Railways, often known as ‘signallers’ or signal operators.
• They are responsible for setting the signals, monitoring track circuits, and ensuring the safe movement
of trains.

How Safe is Electronic Interlocking System?

• If any of the three components (signals, points, and track occupancy sensors) does not correspond to
the overall ‘safe’ logic fed into the computer, the system will work to stop the oncoming train.
• This means if the point is not locked or not set to the desired direction, or if the sensing device detects
that the track is not clear, the signal will automatically turn red, indicating to the oncoming train that
something is wrong and that it should stop.

How is the Electronic Interlocking System Secured against Interference?

• The relay room (which is the place from where the entire interlocking/signalling apparatus can be con-
trolled or manipulated) is locked with double locks. One key is with the station master; the other is in
the custody of the signalling staff.
• To open the relay room for maintenance, the station master’s approval is required, and every entry and
exit is logged in a register.
• As technology improved, the opening and closing of the relay rooms were connected electronically to
the data loggers. Every such event also triggers an SMS that goes to the officials concerned.

How Long is India’s Rail Track System?

• The Indian Railways is the fourth largest railway network in the world under one management, car-
rying an average of around eight billion passengers annually.
• The network is stretched over 68,000 km and comprises more than 7,000 stations with a running track
of 1,02,831 km.
 Top five countries with largest railway networks: U.S. (2,50,000 km) > China (1,00,000 km) >
Russia (85,000 km) > India (65,000 km) > Canada (48,000 km)

{S&T – Indian Tech – 2023/06/22} KAVACH System in Indian Railways

• Context (LM | TH | WION): After the tragic multi-train accident in Orisha’s Balasore, there has been
increased discussion regarding safety mechanisms in Indian Railways, including the KAVACH system.
• The Shalimar-Chennai Coromandel Express and the SMVT Bengaluru-Howrah Superfast Express in-
volved in the accident were not fitted with the KAVACH system.

KAVACH System
• The KAVACH is an indigenously developed Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system.
• It is developed by the Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) in collaboration with
three Indian vendors.
• KAVACH has been adopted as the National ATP System for Indian Railways.
• It is a state-of-the-art electronic system developed under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
• It is one of the cheapest systems that has Safety Integrity Level-4 (SIL-4) certification.
 Under SIL-4 probability of error is 1 in 10,000 years.
• It assists locomotive pilots in avoiding Signal Passing At Danger (SPAD) and over speeding as well
as enables train operation during challenging weather conditions like dense fog.

Key Features of the KAVACH System

 It activates the train’s braking system automatically
1. If a red signal is jumped and two trains come face to face on the same line.
2. If the driver fails to control the train as per speed restrictions.
 It provides a line-side signal display in the cabin for improved visibility in foggy conditions and at
higher speeds.
 Automatic whistling at level crossings (a big boon during fog conditions).
 Collision avoidance through direct loco-to-loco communication.
 The inclusion of an SOS feature to control trains in emergency situations.

KAVACH is still in the trials phase

• The South Central Railway (SCR) Zone is a pioneer in the implementation of the KAVACH.
• Trials of Kavach were conducted on the Lingampally–Vikarabad–Wadi and Vikarabad–Bidar sections of
the South Central Railway, covering a distance of 250 kilometres.

{S&T – New Tech – 2023/06} India in the Field of Graphene

• Context (TH): Three emerging technologies, Artificial Intelligence (in software), quantum compu-
ting (in computers), and graphene (in materials) will disrupt the existing human-machine interface.
• While India is among the leaders in AI and a potential challenger in quantum computing, it needs to
catch up in the area of graphene.

Graphene
• Graphene is a monolayer of carbon atoms, tightly bound in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice.
• It is an allotrope of carbon and a building-block of Graphite.
 Allotrope: Each of two or more different physical forms in which an element can exist. E.g., graphite,
charcoal, carbon nanotube and diamond are all allotropes of carbon.

Unique Properties of Graphene

• Graphene has become a valuable and useful nanomaterial due to its remarkable properties:
Graphene is the thinnest, strongest, and most conductive material of both electricity and heat.
It conducts electricity better than copper.
It is 200 times stronger than steel but six times lighter.
It is almost perfectly transparent as it absorbs only 2% of light.
It is impermeable to gases, even those as light as hydrogen and helium.
When added to other materials even in small quantities, graphene produces composite materials
with dramatically transformed qualities.

Applications of Graphene
• Graphene composites are used in energy generation, automotive, sports equipment and construc-
tion.
• It is used for high-performance batteries and super-capacitors, semi-conductors, touchscreens,
and conductive inks.
• Graphene-based sensors are used for environmental monitoring, healthcare, and wearable devices.
• Graphene oxide membranes are used for water purification and desalination.
• Graphene-based masks were made during COVID.
• Graphene is important for defence and aerospace. Its exceptional strength makes it a promising mate-
rial for armour and ballistic protection.
• It has the potential to absorb and dissipate electromagnetic waves, making it valuable for developing
stealth coatings and materials that reduce radar signatures and electromagnetic interference.
• It is highly sensitive to environmental changes, which makes it an excellent candidate for sensing
chemical and biological agents, explosives, radiation, and other hazardous substances.
• Graphene-based materials can also protect us against chemical and biological attacks.
• Better energy storage and electronics properties make graphene attractive in defence, aerospace,
and civil and commercial applications.
Materials define an age, like the stone age, iron age, plastic age, and silicon age. Never has one material had
such an impact on so many sectors. So, it is believed that we are entering the graphene age.

History of Graphene
• Although graphene was discovered in 2004, it was difficult to produce high-grade large-scale gra-
phene. However, things are changing fast.
• Among the leading countries in graphene research are China, the U.S., the U.K., Japan, South Korea,
Russia, and Singapore.
• Till 2012, the graphene-related patent filing was dominated by the U.S. From 2013 to 2016, South Korea
and China matched the U.S. After 2017, China surged ahead. India had only eight filings.
• China and Brazil are global leaders in the commercial production of graphene. India produces
about 1/20th compared to China and 1/3rd compared to Brazil.

India’s Progress
• Tata Steel has succeeded in growing graphene using atomic carbon from steel surface. It has also
mixed graphene with used plastic products to recycle them as new.
• India has figured out how graphene oxide-based wrappers loaded with preservatives can increase
the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
• India has also developed graphene-based ultracapacitors and EMI shielding and stealth technology us-
ing graphene-based nanotubes.
• India Innovation Centre for Graphene in Kerala has been established to spur large-scale innovation
activity around graphene.

Indian Government need to Play a Crucial Role

• China declared graphene a priority in its 13th Plan. Europe has also set up the Graphene Flagship. So,
the India should take steps like launching a national graphene mission and entrusting a nodal Ministry.
• Given the high cost-to-volume ratio for high-grade graphene, its production may get concentrated
in a few locations in the world, as in the case of semiconductors.
• India missed the opportunity in the case of semiconductors in the mid-1990s. So, this time, India needs
to step up and capitalise on the graphene situation.

Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes

• Carbon nanofibers (vapor grown carbon fibers or vapor grown carbon nanofibers) are cylindrical
nanostructures with graphene layers arranged as stacked cones, cups or plates.
• Carbon nanofibers with graphene layers wrapped into perfect cylinders are called carbon nano-
tubes.
Carbon Fiber
• Carbon Fiber (graphite fibre) is a polymer about 5 to 10 micrometres in diameter and composed
mostly of carbon atoms.
• It is a very strong material that is also very lightweight.
• Carbon fibres have several extraordinary properties: high stiffness, high tensile strength, high
strength to weight ratio, high chemical resistance, high-temperature tolerance, and low thermal
expansion.
• Though carbon fiber is stronger and stiffer than steel, it is lighter than steel; making it the ideal
manufacturing material in aerospace, civil engineering, military, motorsports, and other competition
sports.
• However, they are relatively expensive compared to similar fibers, such as glass fiber, basalt fibers,
or plastic fibers.
{S&T – Physics – 2023/06/02} Foucault's Pendulum in New Parliament

• Context (HT | IE | IT): ‘Foucault's Pendulum’ has been suspended from the ceiling of the Central Foy-
er of India’s new Parliament building.
• It is created by the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM) in Kolkata.
• It hangs from a skylight at the top of the Constitution Hall, and signifies the “integration of the idea
of India with the idea of the cosmos”.
• It also reflects a Fundamental Duty enshrined in the Article 51A of the Constitution, according to
which every citizen “to develop the scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and re-
form”.
• This pendulum is the largest of its kind in India, with a height of 22 m and a weight of 36 kg.
• It touches the floor of the building as it rotates on its axis, showing the rotation of the Earth. The pen-
dulum takes precisely 49 hrs, 59 mins, and 18 secs to complete a full rotation.
• It was entirely made in India and was crafted from gunmetal and equipped with an electromagnetic
coil to ensure smooth and uninterrupted movement.
• The longest Foucault pendulum in the world is in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris.
It is 67 m long and takes 32 hours to complete one swing.

What is Foucault's Pendulum?

• Foucault's pendulum is an experimental scientific device that demonstrates the rotation of the
Earth.
• It is named after 19th century French scientist Leon Foucault who carried out this experiment for the
public in 1851. It was the first direct visual evidence of the fact that the earth rotates on its axis.
• The experimental set-up involves a heavy object hung from a height with a string, free to swing in any
direction.
• Once set in to-and-fro motion, the pendulum is seen to change its orientation slowly over time.
• For example, if the initial motion imparted to it was in the north-south direction, after a few hours it
could be seen moving in the east-west direction.
• In reality, the pendulum remains in a fixed plane of swing while the Earth rotates beneath it.
• For an observer, it appears that the plane of the pendulum's swing is changing because they too are
rotating with the earth and so they cannot notice the earth’s rotation.

• It works by the conservation of angular momentum.

• The pendulum's axis of rotation is initially aligned with the Earth's axis of rotation. As the Earth
rotates, the pendulum's axis of rotation remains fixed in space, so it appears to rotate around the Earth.
• This phenomenon can be attributed to the pendulum's fundamental principle of swinging with a con-
sistent pattern and operating under the influence of the invisible force of gravity.
 Angular momentum (L): It is stated as the product of the linear momentum of a body and its distance
from its rotation point.
 Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum: It states that “for a spinning system, there is no change in
the angular momentum of the object until and unless an external torque is applied to it.” Therefore, the
velocity of the rotation will remain constant as long as the net torque applied is equal to zero.
• The period of rotation of the pendulum depends on the latitude and length of the pendulum.
 At the poles (N & S), when the pendulum is aligned with the axis of rotation of the earth, the
pendulum’s back-and-forth motion comes back to its original orientation in exactly 24 hours.
 At other latitudes, it takes longer for the pendulum to return to its original orientation of swinging
because the pendulum is not aligned with the axis of rotation of the earth. But it will always re-
turn to the original course after fixed time periods.
 At the equator, the pendulum is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and hence it never
changes its orientation of the swing.

{S&T – Physics – 2023/06/27} ‘Catastrophic Implosion’ of the Titan Submersi-

ble

• Context (FP | IE | IE | IE | TH | TH): Titan, a submersible, was subject to a “catastrophic implosion”

during its voyage towards the Titanic shipwreck, killing all passengers instantly.
• It was operated by the privately owned U.S. company OceanGate which organises underwater expedi-
tions for research and tourism.

Difference between Submarine and Submersible

• A submarine refers to an underwater vehicle that is largely independent. It has power reserves to
 help it depart from a port or return to the port after an expedition.
• A submersible is generally smaller in size and has less power. It needs to work with a ship to be
launched and recovered.
 The submersible Titan was working with a vessel named Polar Prince.

What is ‘Catastrophic Implosion’?

• Catastrophic implosion (also known as hull collapse or pressure hull failure) refers to a catastrophic
event that can occur in submarines or other underwater vessels.
• It happens when the external water pressure exceeds the structural integrity of the vessel, caus-
ing it to collapse inward.

Pressure Hull
• It is the outermost structure of submarines and submersibles designed to withstand the tremen-
dous pressure of water at deep sea.
• The pressure hull is generally made of single metallic material with high yield strength.
• This material is generally steel for shallow depths (less than 300 m) or titanium for deeper depths.
• It plays a crucial role in maintaining the submarine's integrity, buoyancy, and hydrodynamic per-
formance.

The Case of Titan

• The Titan was made of a combination of titanium and composite carbon fibre.
• Titanium is elastic and can adapt to ranges of stresses and pressures without permanent strain on
the material. It shrinks to adjust to pressure forces and re-expands as they are alleviated.
• The carbon-fibre composite is much stiffer and non-elastic, often prone to cracking.
• The loss of integrity due to the differences between these materials is said to have caused “delam-
ination”, triggering an instantaneous implosion.
 Delamination refers to separating or detaining layers within a material or composite structure. It can oc-
cur in various materials, including metals, composites, laminates, and natural materials like wood.
Titanium (Ti)
• Titanium is an element that has a silver-grey appearance.
• It has high strength, is lightweight, corrosion-resistant, heat resistant (due to high melting point)
and biocompatible (compatible with living tissues and has low reactivity with the human body).
• It is often used in various industries due to its unique characteristics.
• It is found in nature only as an oxide (not found in its pure metallic form).
 An oxide is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom bonded to one or more other
elements. Oxides are formed when an element reacts with oxygen.
• It is found in various minerals, rocks, and soils. It is also present in plants, animals, natural waters,
deep-sea dredgings, meteorites, and stars.
• The most abundant titanium ore is ilmenite. Other important titanium ores include rutile and titanite.
 Ilmenite: It is an iron-black, heavy, metallic oxide mineral. It is composed of iron and titanium oxide.
It is commonly found in igneous rocks.
 Rutile: It has a distinctive reddish-brown colour and a higher titanium dioxide content than ilmenite.
It occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks and is often found in association with ilmenite.
 Titanite: It is a calcium titanium silicate mineral. It is green, yellowish-green, brown, or black in colour.
It is commonly found in metamorphic and igneous rocks.

Steel
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It may also contain other elements such as manganese, chromium,
nickel, and vanadium.
 An alloy is made by combining two or more metallic or non-metallic elements to create a new material
with improved properties or specific characteristics.
• Its important properties are strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, ductility (the ability of a mate-
rial to deform under tensile stress without fracturing or breaking), and high recyclability.