Indian Grammatical Tradition: Pāinian Linguistics

Morphophonemics – I
Sanskrit Sandhi: Phonetic combination of sounds

1.1 Sanskrit has a very complex system of phonological changes called Sandhi. A Dictionary
of Sanskrit Grammar defines the term Sandhi as “euphonic combination; phonetic
combination of two vowels or two consonants or one vowel and one consonant resulting
from their close utterance”. Traditionally Sandhis are classified into three, namely „a-C‟
sandhi, „haL‟ sandhi and visarga sandhi respectively. Pāini does not use terms „svara‟
and „vyanjana‟. In Pāini‟s system pratyāhāra „a-C‟ denotes all the vowels and pratyāhāra
„haL‟ denotes all the consonants.
There are two basic applications of Sandhi rules, depending upon the conditions
under which the sounds changes take place. The first one is called Internal sandhi and the
second one External. Internal sandhi applies to the junctures of morphemes or meaningful
parts of words. In other words, Internal sandhi occurs when affixes (suffixes) are added to
verbal roots or nominal stems or to other suffixes. For example, rāma + „au‟ (nominative
dual suffix) = „rāmau‟ - two Ramas, „bhū‟ (to be) + a + ti  bho + a + ti → bhav + a+ ti
 „bhavati‟ (exists or „becomes). External sandhi operates at word boundaries and
between members of compounds for examples, asti + atra → „astyatra‟ (here he is). tatra
+ eti → „tatraiti‟ (there he goes). Rāja + i → „rājai‟ (royal sage) etc. To be able to read
and understand a Sanskrit sentence, it is essential to get familiarized with the rule of
sandhis.
2.1 We shall here discuss the main types of „a-C‟ sandhi. These types are
(1) ya sandhi
(2) ayādi sandhi
(3) gua sandhi
(4) vddhi sandhi
(5) pararūpa sandhi
(6) dīrgha sandhi
(7) parvarūpa sandhi
(8) prakritibhāva sandhi
Let us now examine the rules pertaining to these types of „aC‟ sandhi.

2
2.2. ya sandhi
Examples: „dadhi + atra‟ (curds here), „madhu + atra‟ (honey here), „dhāt + ana‟ (a
portion of Viu), „ + ākrti‟ (configuration of the letter „l‟). These are the fit cases for
application of the rule „ikoyaaci 6.1.77‟. This sūtra consists of pratyāhāras 'i-K', „ya‟
and „a-C‟. The pratyāhāra „i-K‟ stands in the genitive case, the pratyāhāra „a-C‟ stands in
the locative case and the pratyāhāra „ya‟ in the nominative case. The stra „ikoyaaci‟
(A-6.1.77) is a vidhi stra (optional rule). With the help of paribh rules (applicational /
metarules) 1.1.49 and 1.1.66, the rule 6.1.77 is interpreted as follows: “ In the place of „i-
k‟ (i, u,,) before „a-C‟ (a,i,u,,,e,o,ai,au) ya (y,v,r, l) is the substitute”. Again with the
help of paribhāā sūtra „sthānentaratama‟ A-1.1.60 in the place of - i, u, , ,
phonetically closest replacement from y,v,r,l is chosen.
So by applying these rules we get the expressions dadhyatra (dadhi + atra), madhvatra
(madhu + atra), dhātranśa (dhātr + anśah) and lākrti (  + ākrtih). This rule can be
„written as follows. „i-K‟ → „ya‟, - a C („i-K‟ is replaced by „ya‟ before „aC‟).
2.3. ayādi sandhi
Examples: „hare + e‟ (to Hari), „vio + e‟ (to Vinu), „nai + aka‟ (a leader), „pau +
aka‟ (a purifier) i.e. fire‟. There is n‟t appropriate condition here for application of rule
6.1.77, as the preceding parts of the above examples do not have „i-K‟, hence rule
ecoyavāyāva 6.1.78 applies. The rule 6.1.78 states: “In the place of „e-C‟ (e,o,ai,au) „ay‟
„av‟, „y‟, and „āv‟ are the substitutes before „a-C‟. Now with help of applicational rule
„yathāsamkhyamanudeśa samānām 1.3.10‟ „e‟ is replaced by „ay‟, „o‟ by „av‟, „ai‟ by
„āy‟ and „au‟ by „āv‟. So we get the expressions: haraye (hare + e), viave (vio + e),
nyaka (nai + aka) and pāvaka (pau+ aka).
Notice that in „ya‟ and „ayādi‟ sandhi phonological changes occur in the
preceding vowel of a word or morpheme.
2.4. Gua sandhi
Gua sandhi falls in the domain of „ekaḥ pūrvaparayoḥ‟. 6.1.84. This sūtra states that a
single substitute replaces both the preceding and succeeding sounds in continuous speech.
This is a governing rule extending its domain or jurisdiction up to sūtra 6.1.112.
Examples: upa + indra „born subsequently to Indra, a name of ka‟, gangā + udakam
„the water of Ganga‟. The sūtra ādgua 6.1.87 is applied here. This sūtra states that

3
 when „a-C‟ comes after „a or ā‟, let gua be single substitute for both. The term gua is
defined by the sūtra adegua 1.1.2. This sūtra states that the term gua denotes the
short vowel „a‟ (aT) and the diphthongs „e and o‟ (e-). So the single substitute for „a‟ of
„upa‟ + „i‟ of „indra‟ is „e‟ and single substitute for „ā‟ of „gangā‟ and „u‟ of „udakam‟ is
„o‟. So we get the expressions upendra (upa + indra) and gangodakam (gangā +
udakam). Gua substitute for a+ is ar and a+ is al. Examples: ka +ddhi= kardhi
„the growth of ka and tava + kārah = tavalkārah (the letter). Gua vowels are „a,e and
o‟.
2.5 Vddhi sandhi :
This sandhi also comes under the domain of 6.1.84. So the replacement for preceding and
succeeding vowels will be single one.
Examples: „kṛṣṇa + ekatvam‟ (oneness of kṛṣṇa), „gangā + oghaḥ‟ (the torrent of the
Ganga) „daiva + aiśvaryam‟ (the divinity of god), „kṛṣṇa + autkaṇṭhyam‟ (a longing for
kṛṣṇa). Rule „vṛddhireci‟ 6.1.88 applies in these examples. This rule also restricts the
application of rule 6.1.87. The rule 6.1.88 is an „apavāda sūtra‟ (exception). The sūtra
6.1.88 states when „a or ā‟ are followed by the pratyāhā „e-C‟ (e, o, ai, and au), vddhi is
the single substitute for the preceding and succeeding vowels. The term vddhi is defined
by the sūtra vddhirādaic 1.1.1. Here ā (T) and „aiC‟(ai, au) are called vddhi, so vddhi
substitutes are „ā, ai, and au‟. So single vddhi substitute for „a‟ of kṛṣṇa and „e‟ of
ekatvam is „ai‟. Similarly, the single vddhi substitute for „ā‟ of gangā and „o‟ of ogha is
„au‟. We get the expression „kṛṣṇaikatvam (kṛṣṇa + ekatvam). Similarly, the single vddhi
substitute for „ā‟ of gangā and „o‟ of oghah is „au‟. We get the expression „gangaugha
(gangā + ogha). Single vddhi substitute for „a‟ of deva and „ai‟ of aiśvaryam.is „ai‟. We
get the expression „devaiśvaryam. Similarly, the single vddhi substitute for „ā‟ of kṛṣṇa
and „au‟ of autkanthyam is „au‟. We get the expression kṛṣṇautkanhyam (kṛṣṇa +
autkanhyam). The single vddhi substitute for a or ā + r is ār.
Example: pra+cchati = prārcchati (6.1.91), (he goes rapidly). Vddhi vowels are „ā, ai
and au‟.
2.6. Pararūpa:
This also falls under the domain of 6.1.84. So the substitute for the preceding and
succeeding vowels will be single one.

4
 Examples: „pra+ ejate‟ (he trembles), „upa + oati‟ (he sprinkles). Here sūtra „ei
pararūpam 6.1.94 applies. This sūtra is an apavāda (exception) to 6.1.88. The rule 6.1.94
states that when an „upasarga‟ (prefix or preverb) ending in „a or ā‟ is followed by a
dhātu „verbal stem‟ beginning with the pratyāhāra „e- (e,o), the single substitute for the
preceding and succeeding vowels is the succeeding one. So we get the expressions prejate
(pra + ejate) and upoati (upa + oati).
2.7. dīrgha sandhi:
This sandhi also comes under the domain of 6.1.84.
Examples: „daitya + ari‟ (a foe of the demons) = viu, „ś + īśaḥ‟ (the lord of ś),
„viū + udaya‟ (the rise of Viu), „hot + kāra‟ (the letter r of the officiating priest).
In all these cases sūtra „aka savare dīrgha 6.1.101 applies. The sūtras states that after
the pratyāhāra „a-K‟ (a, i , u, r, i ) before a homogeneous vowel the single substitute for
both preceding and succeeding vowels is the corresponding long vowel. So we get the
expressions: daityāri (daitya + arih), śśa (ś + iśah), viūdaya (viū + udaya)
hotkāra (hot + kāra).
2.8. Pūrvarūpa:
This sandhi also comes under the domain of 6.1.84. For preceding and succeeding vowels
there will be only single substitute, Examples:
„hare + ava‟ (O Hari protect us)
„vio + ava (O Viu protect us)
Sūtra „ea padāntādati 6.1.109 applies here. The sūtra states that after the word final „e-
‟ (e, o) before the short initial vowel „a‟ of the succeeding word the single substitute for
the both preceding and succeeding vowels is the preceding vowel. So we get the
expressions hare‟va (hare + ava) and vio‟va (Viu + ava).
2.9 Praktibhāva :
Praktibhāva means phonological maintenance of wording without allowing any
euphonic modification. In other words, no sandhi occurs in such cases. Examples:
i. „āgaccha kṛṣṇa3 atra gauścarati‟ (come kṛṣṇa! The cow is feeding here.)
ii. „harī etau‟ (these two Haris), „viū imau‟ (these two Viūs), „gange amū‟ (those
two rivers)
iii. „amī īś‟ (those lords)

5
 iv. rāmakāvamū āsāte‟ (Rama and kṛṣṇa those two are present).
These are the cases of praktibhāva, no sandhi takes place in the above cases by applying
rules „pluta praghyā acinityam‟ (6.1.125), „idūdedvivacanam pragrhyam‟ (1.1.11) and
„adaso māt‟ (1.1.12). The sūtra 6.1.125 states that when a pluta vowel (prolated vowel or
extra long vowel) and those which are called praghya come before „a-C‟ (a, i, u, , , e, o,
ai, au) no sandhi takes place (praktibhāva). The sūtra 1.1.11 and 1.1.12 define the term
praghya. 1.1.11 states that the term pragrhya denotes vowels „ī‟, -„ū‟ and „e‟ of dual
endings. Sūtra 1.1.12 states that „-‟, -„ū‟ coming after the „m‟ of pronoun „adas‟ „-that‟
are also termed praghya so by applying rules 6.1.125, 1.1.11 and 1.1.12 no sandhi takes
place in the above examples – (i) to (iv). Example (i) above is the example of pluta vowel
after the word kṛṣṇa3. (ii), (iii) and (iv) are the examples of praghya.
3.1 Summary :
We have examined here the main types of vowel sandhi. The above sandhis can be
grouped into three types. The type one is where the phonological changes take place in
the preceding vowel. „ya‟ and „ayādi‟ sandhi pertain to this type. The second type is
that where single substitute occurs in place of preceding and succeeding vowels. Gua,
vddhi, pararūpa, dīrgha and pūrvarūpa sandhis come under this category. The third type
is praktibhāva. We have followed the order of listing these sandhis as they have been
given in the Siddhānta-kaumudi and laghu-siddhānta-kaumudi.
3.2. More to know:
The student are advised to go through the small booklet „Sanskrit sandhi and exercises‟
second, revised edition, university of California Press, Berkeley and los Angeles, 1968 by
M.B Emeneau and B.A. Van Nooten, also the lesson 3 (sandhi) of Devavāī praveśikā
by Robert P. Goldman and Sally J. Sutherland, University of California, Berkelay, 1987.
4.1. Glossary :
Sandhi - Euphonic combination. Phonetic combination of two vowels or two consonants
„a-C‟ sandhi - vowel sandhi „a-C‟ includes all the vowels
„ haL‟ sandhi - consonant sandhi „haL‟ includes all the consonants
ya - pratyāhāra „ya‟ includes sounds/ phonemes y, v, r, l
„i-K‟ - pratyāhara „i-k‟ includes sounds / phonemes i, u, , 
„e-C‟ - pratyāhara „e-C‟ includes sounds/ phonemes e, o, ai, au

6
 ayādi sandhi - includes ay, av, āy, āv
Gua - technical term in Pāini‟s grammar denoting vowels a, e, o
Vddhi - Technical term in Pāini‟s grammar denoting vowels ā, ai, au
Pararūpa - The form of the subsequent sound. Technical term used in Pāini‟s grammar
when the resultant of the two coalescing vowels is the succeeding vowel
itself.
Dīrgha – long. Term used in connection with the vowel sandhi when the resultant of the
two homogeneous vowels is the single long one.
Pūrvarūpa - Substitution of the preceding vowel in the place of two, i.e. in place of both
preceding and succeeding vowels.
Praktibhāva - Phonological maintenance of a wording without allowing euphonic
modifications.
Pluta - Protracted, name given to vowels in the protracted grade. The vowels in
this grade which are termed protected vowels are possessed of three
mātrās „mora‟ and in writing they are marked with the figure 3 placed
after them. In pronunciation they take a longer time then the long vowels.
They are also called extralong vowels.
Praghya the term praghya is used to denote vowels:
a) Vowels, „ī‟, „ū‟ and e, when serve as dual endings
b) „-ī, -ū and e‟ occurring after the phoneme/ sound „m‟ which is the part
of the nominal base „adas‟ (that).
c) The vowels of particles and interjunations

5.1. Assignments and self Assessment

1. Write the following sequences by applying the relevant sandhi sūtras (rules).
(i) yadi +api
vāri + asti
vadhū + alakāra
pit + anumati

(ii) śe + anam
ne + anam
gai + ana
po + ana

7
 bhau + anam
lo + ana

(iii) nara + indra

dina + iśa
mahā + indra
sūrya + udaya
drava + ddhi
sapta + saya
mama + ikāra

(iv) jana + ekatā

mahā + ena
mā + evam
darśana + autsukyam
tasya + audāryam
upa + ccati

(v) pra + eayati

upa + ejate
pra + oati
ava + oati

(vi) kamala + ākara

vidyā + ālaya
muni + indra
satī + īśa
taru + ūrdhvam
vadhu + utsava
hot + dhi

(vii) vane + atra

ko + api
sarve + api

(viii) āgaccha rāma3 iha lakamaa

kavī + āgacchata
vaū + ucchalata
netre + āmśati
amī + īhante
amū + aśnīta
amū + ayodhyāyām da

2. Explain the terms gua, vddhi and dīrgha.

8
 3. Cite examples of gua, vddhi and dīrgha sandhis from your mother tongue.

4. Explain the sūtra “jhalām jaś jhaśi 8.4.53”

In this sūtra pratyāhāra „Jhal‟ is used in the genitive case, pratyāhāra „Jhaśi‟ is
used in the locative case and pratyāhāra „jas‟ is used in the nominative case.

6.1. Source Materials and Recommended Readings.

1. Katre. S.M. Aādhyāyī of Pāini. English Translation. 1989. Vol. I-II

2. Vaiyākarana Siddhantakaumudi of Bhaoji Dīksita. „a-C‟ and prakrtibhava sandhis
3. Laghusiddhāntakaumudi of Varadarājā.
4. Emeneou. M.B. and B.A. Van Nooten. Sanskrit sandhi and exercises. Second revised
edition. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1968
5. Goldman. Robert P and Sally J. Sutherland. Devavāīpraveśikā. University of California,
Berkeley, 1987
6. Abhyankar. K.V and Shukla. J.M.A Dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar. Oriental Institute.
Baroda, 1977