Chapter 1.

Food Safety and Sanitation almost half the workers’ compensation costs in

What is Safety? the food service industry. An effective, well-

> Safety in food service operation means rounded foot protection program is the answer
to bringing that number down.
freedom from danger, risk , injury, or
Common Work-Related Injuries in the Food
harmful effects to a person’s well being
Service Industry
and health.
1. Burns – An injury acquired from contact
What is Food Safety Hygiene?
with hot surfaces of an equipment (e.g.
> Food Safety is used as a scientific
Ranges, ovens, coffee makers, deep-fat
discipline describing handle
fryers, pots, pans, and steam tables),
, preparation, and storage of food in a
flames, hot food, liquis, and faulty
ways that prevent food-borne disease.
microwave ovens.
Occupational Safety Hazards in the Food
2. Cuts – A skin opening from an
Service Industry
accidental incision of sharp objects (e.g.
> Occupational safety hazards are natural
Knife) can cause exposure to blood-
risks present in certain workplaces.
borne pathogens such as Hepatitis B
Millions of workers are at risk from
and HIV.
exposure to physical, chemical,
3. Slips, trips, and falls – open ranges,
biological, or psychosocial hazards,
stove doors, kitchen doors, trolleys,
sometimes, even a combination of
stairs, defective ladders, foot stools,
them.
and wet, cluttered, or slippery floors are
> Occupational health risks can be
common causes of these injuries.
described as the possibility of suffering
4. Fires – Accidental ignition of hot oils
health impairments from exposure to a
and greases, paper materials coming
hazard that originates in the working
into contact with hot stoves and ovens,
environment. In risk-assessment
faulty electrical equipment (e.g. Cords,
literature, the term hazard typically
switches and power outlets), wet
refers to the source of a risk. The
electrical equipment, and appliances
likelihood of acquiring a health problem
are the usual causes of fires.
due to exposure distinguishes a risk
5. Ergonomic Risks – Injuries from
from a hazard, since the former is
repetitive motions, unchanging and/or
created by the latter.
poor posture when seating, kneeling,
Occupational Safety and Health Act
and standing, incorrect lifting
> The primary federal law establishing safety
techniques; and forceful motions or
standards in the workplace, requires employers
grips on objects cause ergonomic risks.
to provide a safe workplace by informing
6. Cleaning Chemicals – Cleaning
employees about potential hazards, training
products such as bleaches, oven
them to deal with hazards, and recording
cleaners, floor cleaners, stainless steel
workplace injuries. Slips and falls account for
cleaners, and ammonia solutions may
require the use of rubber gloves. If workforce, customers, and the wider

there is a risk of splashing chemicals community.)

near the eyes, a face mask or goggles 3. Legal - OSH requirements may be

may be necessary. Skin irritation, reinforced in civil law and/or criminal

dermatitis, or throat irritation may arise law. It is accepted that without the extra

from the frequent use of soap and encouragement of potential regulatory

detergents. action or litigation, many organizations

7. CO poisoning – Carbon monoxide is would not act upon their implied moral

produced by the incomplete burning of obligations.

solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, such as RISK ASSESSMENT

charcoal, and causes death if there is 1.RISK ASSESSMENT AS A MANAGEMENT TOOL

improper ventilation. RISK ASSESSMENT as it provide fact-

8. Heat Stress - Heat exhaustion and heat based and science based decision-making

stroke can result from prolonged in safety, security and sanitation. The

exposure to hot equipment (e.g. Ovens, trifocal functions of risk assessment as

stoves) overarching process shall be conducted

9. Cold Stress – Hyperthermia and similar through the discipline of RISK

risks can result from working in walk-in IDENTIFICATION, RISK ANALYSIS, and

refrigerator and freezers for prolonged RISK EVALUATION.

periods of time, or handling frozen food RISK ASSESSMENT

without preventive measures. • It follows that risk shall be communicated to

all levels of organization to understand the risk,
Reasons for Occupational Safety and
to promote awareness and to gain support
Health Standards
• It is the aim of risk management to apply a
The reasons for establishing good process in identifying risk, setting the risk to an
acceptable level and keeping the residual risk at
occupational safety and health that level.
standards are as follows: FRAMEWORK OF RISK ASSESSMENT
1. Moral – No employee nor others Risk Identification
associated with the work environment - Find the risk
should have to risk injury at work. - Recognize the risk
- Describe the risk
2. Economic – Many governments
Risk Analysis
realize that poor occupational safety
- Comprehend the nature of risk and its
and health performance results in extra - Characteristics
costs for the state. - Sources
- Consequences
Private companies also sustain costs in - Likelihood
- Scenarios
the event of an incident at work. (e.g.
Risk Evaluation
Legal fees, fines, compensatory
- Support fact-based and science-based
damages, investigation time, lost
decision.
production, and lost goodwill from
Adapated from the Philippine National
Standards 31000:2018
WORDS TO REMEMBER
⬩ RISK – Accdg. to PHS31000:2018: which
is usually expressed in terms of sources,
events, consequences, and likelihood, is
the effect of uncertainty on objectives.
⬩ EFFECT – Accdg. to PHS31000:2018: is a
deviation from the expected which can be
positive, negative, or both and can
address, create, or result in opportunities
and threats.
⬩ OBJECTIVES – Accdg. to PHS31000:2018:
can have different aspects and categories
and can be applied at different levels
⬩ RISK MANAGEMENT – Accdg. to
PHS31000:2018: ARE COORDINATED
ACTIVITIES TO DIRECT AND CONTROL
AN ORGANIZATION WITH REGARD TO
RISK
Risk MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLE
Integrated – Risk
Management is an integral
part of all organization
activities
Structured and
Comprehensive – is an
approach to risk management
that contributes to consistent
and comparable result
Customized – the risk
management framework
and process are
customized and
proportionate to the
organization’s external
and internal context
related to its objectives
Inclusive – appropriate and
timely involvement of
stakeholders enables their
knowledge , views and
perceptions to be
considered resulting in
improved awareness and
informed risk management
Human and Cultural Factors –
human behaviour and culture
significantly influence all aspect of risk
management at each level and stage
Structured and
Continual Improvement – risk
management is continually
improved through learning
and experience.
Best Available Information –
the inputs to risk management are
based on historical and current
information and on future
expectations. Risk management
explicitly takes into account any
limitations and uncertainties
associated with such information and
expectations. Info should be timely,
clear, and available to relevant
stakeholders.
Dynamic – risk can emerge,
change, or disappear as an
organization’s external and
internal context changes.
Risk management IMPACT ON OBJECTIVES

anticipates, detects, ⬩ LIMITATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

acknowledge, and responds AND RELIABILITY OF INFORMATION
to those changes and ⬩ TIME RELATED FACTORS, BIASES
events in a appropriate and ⬩ ASSUMPTIONS AND BELIEF
timely manner TYPE OF RISK
RISK ASSESSMENT COMPLIANCE
is the overall process of risk identification, risk HAZARD
analysis and risk evaluation, should be CONTROL
conducted
OPPORTUNITY
systematically, iteratively, and collaboratively,
COMPLIANCE RISK
drawing on the knowledge and views of
Compliance or Mandatory risk involved
stakeholders. It should use the best available
government-mandated licenses and business
information, supplemented by further inquiry as
permits and requirements. It may constitute
necessary.
business clearance from brgy. Level, municipal
RISK IDENTIFICATION
level, city level, internal revenue offices,
The very purpose of
security exchange, license to cooperate,
risk identification is to
compliance to fire and building code, and
find, recognize, and
insurance among others.
describe the risk that
HAZARD RISK
might help or prevent
Hazard or Pure Risk – are the risk that can be
an organization to
prevent and deter the achievement of
achieve its objectives
company goals, mission, and objective,
(Relevant, Appropriate,
example are insurable risk including fire,
Up to date information)
typhoon, flood and earthquake and injury
Factors to consider Risk Identification
causing normal operation to be affected by
⬩ TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE
loss, breakdown, theft, and other threats.
SOURCES OF RISK
PEOPLE
⬩ CAUSE AND EVENTS
• Lack of people skills and limited resources
⬩ THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES
• Improper behavior by a manager
⬩ VULBERABILITIES AND
• Unexpected absence of key associates
CAPABILITIES
• Sickness, illness, or injury to associates
⬩ CHANGES IN THE EXTERNAL AND
PREMISES
INTERNAL CONTEXT • No enough prohibition
⬩ INDICATORS OR EMERGING RISK • Damage or contamination to premises
⬩ THE NATURE AND VALUE OF • Damage of physical assets
ASSEST AND RESOURCES • Theft of physical assets
⬩ CONSEQUENCES AND THEIR
PROCESSES
-Failure of IT hardware or software
-Interference due to computer virus and hacker
-Mismanagement of information
-Communication or transport failure
PRODUCTS
-Poor product or service quality
-Supplier failure
-Delivery of defective goods or its pasts
-Logistic failure
CONTROL RISK
⬩ Control risk are risk that can cause
uncertainty
or doubt about the ability to achieve company
gal, mission and objectives, example is internal
financial control protocols. If protocols are
removed, there might be uncertainty on what
will happen.
OPPORTUNITY RISK
⬩ Opportunity risk are risk that are usually
deliberately sought or embraced by the
organization specifically for the future long
term success of any organization. It arise as
business/organization seek to enhance the
achievement of goals, mission and objectives.
Example are high risk strategies hoping for
high return of investment.
Risk analysis
WORDS TO REMEMBER
⬩ Risk Analysis – is an analytical process to
provide information regarding undesirable
events in which it estimates probabilities and
expected consequences for identified
risk. (Society for Risk Analysis. 2019)
⬩ Event – is the occurrence or change of a
particular set of circumstances. Event can
have one or more occurrences and can have
several causes and several
consequences.
⬩ Consequences - as an expected situation
which does not happen or an unexpected
situation which does happen.
⬩ Consequences – is an outcome of an event
affecting objectives
⬩ The purpose of Risk Analysis is to
comprehend the nature of risk and its
characteristic, where appropriate, the level of
risk
⬩ It involves a detailed consideration of
uncertainties, risk sources, consequences,
likelihood, events, scenarios, controls, and
their effectiveness.
⬩ Risk analysis provides an input to risk
evaluation, to decisions on whether risk needs
to be treated and how, and on the most
appropriate risk treatment strategy and
methods. The results provide insights for
decisions, where choices are being made, and
the options involve different types and level of
risk.
Factors to be considered for Risk Analysis
⬩ The likelihood of events and consequences
⬩ The nature and magnitude of consequences
⬩ Complexity and connectivity
⬩ Time-related factors and volatility
⬩ The effectiveness of existing controls
⬩ Sensitivity and confidence levels
Threat And Vulnerability Assessments And
Analysis
⬩ Discussed in Risk
Management Process for
federal facilities: An
Interagency Security
Committee Standards 2016
⬩ Threat Assessment as consideration
for the full spectrum of threats for
given facility or location.
⬩ It should be examine supporting
information to evaluate the relative
likelihood of once for each threat.
⬩ AN IMPACT OF LOSS is defined as the
degree to which the facility or event is
compromised by a successful attack from the
given threat.
CATEGORIZATION OF THREATS
DEVASTATING - The facility is
damaged/contaminated beyond
habitable use. Most items/assets are
lost, destroyed, or damaged beyond
repair/restoration. The number of
visitors to other facilities in the
organization. May be reduced by up
to 75% for a limited period of time.
⬩ SEVERE - The facility is partially
damaged/contaminated. e.g include partial
structure breach resulting in weather/water,
smoke, impact, or fire damage to some areas.
Some items/assets are damage beyond repair.
But the facility remains mostly intact. It maybe
closed up to 2 weeks and portion of it may be
closed for an extended period of time more
than a month. Visitor reduced to 50% for
limited time.
⬩ NOTICEABLE - The facility is
TEMPORAIRLY closed or unable to
operate but can continue without
an interruption of more than one
day. Limited number of assets
maybe damage but majority is not
affected, may reduced t 25% for
visitor.
⬩ MINOR - The facility experience no
significant impact on operation
(downtime is less than four hours) and
there is no loss of major assets
VULNERABILITY
defined to be a combination of attractiveness
of a facility or an event as a target and the
level of deterrence and/or defence provided by
the existing countermeasures
Vulnerability Rating
⬩ Very High – high profile facility that provides
a very attractive target for potential
adversaries, and the level of deterrence and/or
Défense provided by the existing
countermeasures is inadequate
⬩ High – high profile regional facility or a
moderate profile national facility that provides
an attractive target and/or the level of
deterrence and/or defense provided by the
existing countermeasures is inadequate
⬩ Moderate – moderate profile facility (Not
well known outside the local area or region)
that provides a potential target and/or the
level of deterrence and/or defense provided by
the existing countermeasures is marginally
adequate
⬩ Low – This is not a high profile facility and
provide target and/or the level of deterrence
and/or defense provided by the existing
countermeasures is adequate
RISK ANALYSIS
a combination of the impact of loss rating and
the vulnerability rating to evaluate the
potential risk to the facility or to an event from
a given threat.
Risk Evaluation
A process that is used to compare risk analysis
result with risk criteria in order to determine
whether or not a specified level of risk is
acceptable or tolerable.
Risk Evaluation Matrix
A management tool which accurately assess
business exposure, based on the frequency
and severity of identified potential risks.
Risk Treatment
Involves identifying the range of options
available to operators and destinations,
marketing plan, and acting upon them.
Risk Retention
⬩ Risk Retention is where both the frequency
and severity of risk is low, risk is often retain.
It’s a form of self-insurance, whereby the
business operator assumes and accepts a
certain level of losses.
⬩ RETENTION is either PASSIVE (risk are
retained by business operator without the
knowledge that they are occurring), Active (risk
is identified and a decision is made to retain
and pay for any losses from the business
operators own resources.
⬩ Risk transfer is where the frequency of risk
potential is low, but the severity of a potential
incident is high, most common and traditional
approach to risk management is transferring
responsibility to other parties.
Risk Reduction is where the severity of a
potential risk remains low, but the overall
frequency of risk is increasing business
operators need to considered ways of reducing
their exposure.
Risk Avoidance is where the frequency and
severity of risk potentials are both high,
business operators should consider cancelling a
program or activity.
CHAPTER 2:
PERSONAL HABITS OF FOOD SERVICE
WORKERS
EMPLOYEE HEALTH AND PERSONAL HYGIENE
Hygiene matters are those that directly affect a
person‘s health, sanitation is related to the
contamination of the environment, which
affect the health‘s of the people generally.
Providing safe food begins during the hiring
process. Studies show that many cases of
foodborne illnesses can be linked directly to
the lack of attention to personal hygiene,
cleanliness, and food handling procedures.
The Center for Communicable Disease issued a
list of infectious and communicable diseases
that are often transmitted through food
prepared by infected food handlers. Examples
of biological agents that cause these diseases
are Hepatitis A virus, Salmonella typhi, and
Norwalk-like viruses.
HEALTHY FOOD HANDLER
A clean, hygienic environment starts with a
healthy food handler. For a food handler to be
considered healthy, he/she must be free from
diseases that may contaminate food, such as
intestinal disorders (typhoid fever and
hepatitis), respiratory tract diseases
(tuberculosis, sore throat, and colds), and skin
diseases or disorders (boils, lesions, and skin
infections).
Ill employees should not come in contact with
food or equipment and utensils used in the
processing, preparation, and serving of food.
Human illnesses that may be transmitted
through food are diseases of the respiratory
tract, such as common cold, sore throat,
pneumonia, scarlet fever, tuberculosis, and
trench mouth; intestinal disorders; dysentery;
typhoid fever; and infectious hepatitis. In many
illnesses, the disease-causing microorganisms
may remain with the person after recovery. A
person with this condition is known as a
carrier.
When employees become ill, their potential as
a source of contamination increases.
Staphylococci are normally found in and
around boils, acne, carbuncles, infected cuts,
and eyes and ears. A sinus infection, sore
throat, nagging cough, and other symptoms of
the common cold are further signs that
microorganisms are increasing in number. The
same principle applies to gastrointestinal
ailments, such as diarrhea or an upset
stomach. Even when evidence of illness passes,
some of the causative microorganisms may
remain as a source of recontamination.
PROPER ATTIRE
1. Hair Restraint
 The presence of hair in food indicates
unhygienic food preparation. Food
handlers must wear a hair restraint at
all times to prevent hair from falling
into the food. Common hair restraints
include nets, bonnets and caps.
Wearing a hair restraint also eliminates
the contact of the hands with the
tread, thereby preventing
contamination.
 A hair restraint must be worn before
hand washing and working.
 A hair restraint must be properly worn
and should not let a single strand of
hair show.
2. WORK CLOTHES
 Work clothes that include a kitchen
uniform and an apron must be worn
inside the kitchen. Street clothes
should never be worn to work as they
may be sources of contamination.
Aprons help reduce the transfer of
microbes to exposed food.
 Work clothes should always be clean.
Clean uniforms are more appealing to
the customers.
 As much as possible aprons should be
of light color to easily reveal dirt.
 Never use the apron as a hand towel.
 Change the apron when soiled.
 A food worker must wash his/her
hands after touching his/tier apron.
 Remove the apron before leaving the
food preparation area.
3. FOOT WEAR
 Because footwear can serve as a
source of contamination, it is necessary
to use footwear exclusively for kitchen
use.
 Footwear worn outside should not be
worn in the food preparation area to
prevent the possibility of
contamination.
 Closed shoes should be worn at all
times to prevent slipping or falling.
4. FACE MASKS
 Facial masks prevent airborne
microorganisms from the nose and
mouth from getting into the food when
talking, coughing, or sneezing.
 These masks will also prevent direct
contact of the hands with me nose and
mouth, both of which are sources of
contamination.
5. GLOVES
 Gloves act as barriers between the
hands and food. However, these must
not be made substitutes for proper
hand washing.
 Proper hand washing-prior to wearing
of gloves should be observed.
 Gloves must be sanitized and changed
every day or whenever necessary.
 Gloves must be devoid of any tear or
holes as these are possible sources of
contamination.
 Never reuse or wash disposable gloves;
always throw them away after use.
PERSONAL HABITS OF FOOD WORKERS
All of us carry disease-causing microorganisms
on or in our can be transferred to food. By
staying healthy and keeping clean, one can
help prevent an outbreak of foodborne
illnesses.
1. Taking Daily Baths
 Taking a bath daily is the most basic
requirement among food handlers as it
ensures their cleanliness.
2. Trimming of Nails
 Trimmed nails are a requisite for food
preparation.
 Untrimmed nails are not only unsightly but
also potential sources of contamination.
3. Shaving and Haircuts for Males
 As facial hair is a source of
contamination, male food handlers are
required to shave as necessary.
 Short, neat haircuts must be
maintained as well.
4. Covering of Wounds
 Wounds or cuts must be properly
covered with a moisture-proof
bandage to which must be frequently
changed to prevent the risk of
contamination.
5. Wearing of Jewelry
 Wearing of jewelry must be prohibited
at all times. Aside from being a
physical hazard, Jewelry may also
become biological hazards as they have
crevices that can harbor microbial
growth.
6. Wearing of Nail Polish or False/Artificial
Fingernails False/Artificial Fingernails
  Because nail can get into food, wearing
of nail polish or false/artificial
fingernails should be probihited.
6. Smoking and Eating
 A high standard or cleanliness must be
practiced by food handlers at all times.
 Any unhygienic practice that could
result in cross-contamination of food,
such as smoking and eating inside the
kitchen should not be allowed.
 Eating and smoking areas must be set
up outside the kitchen premises.
7. Hand Washing
 The single most important practice
in preventing the spread of
foodborne illness is proper hand
washing.
 Food service employees should
wash their hands using the
procedure. (Carino & De Vera,
2009) Since person-to-person
contamination can play a
significant role in the spread of
some enteric pathogens, hand
hygiene is a critical element in any
outbreak prevention control
strategy.
WHAT TYPE OF DISEASE CAN GOOD HAND
WASHING PREVENT?
Diseases can spread through fecal oral
transmission. Infections which may be
transmitted through this route include
salmonellosis, shigellosis, hepatitis A,
giardiasis, enterovirus, amoebiasis, and
campylobacteriosis. Because these diseases
can spread through the ingestion of even the
tiniest particles of fecal material, hand washing
after using the toilet cannot be
overemphasized.
Diseases also spread through indirect contact
with respiratory secretions. Microorganisms
which may be transmitted through this route
include influenza, streptococcus, respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV), and the common cold.
These diseases may be spread indirectly by
hands freshly soiled by respiratory discharges.
These can be avoided by washing the hands
after coughing or sneezing and after shaking
hands with an individual who has been
coughing or sneezing.
Diseases may also be acquired when hands are
contaminated with urine, saliva, or other moist
body fluids. Microorganisms which may be
transmitted by these body substances include
cytomegalovirus, staphylococcal organisms,
and the Epstein-ban virus. These germs may be
transferred from person-to-person or indirectly
by the contamination of food or inanimate
objects such as toys.
STEPS IN PROPER HAND WASHING
1. Wet the hands with warm running
water.
2. With soap, thoroughly wash the hands
and lather up to the elbow.
3. Scrub thoroughly using a brush for the
nails, then rinse
4. Resoap and rub hands for at least 20
seconds Pay special attention to the
back of the hands, wrists, between the
fingers and under the fingernails.
5. Hands should be rinsed well under
running water.
6. Hands should be dried with a single
use towel or hot air dryer.
7. Turn off faucet using a paper towel to
prevent contaminating it again
8. Use a disinfectant if available.
WASH THE HANDS AFTER THE FOLLOWING
ACTIVITIES:
1. Coming on duty or entering the kitchen
2. Touching bare body parts other than
clean hands and the clean, exposed
portions of arms.
3. Using the toilet
4. Coughing sneezing, using handkerchief
or disposable tissue, smoking, eating
or drinking
5. Handling soiled equipment or utensils
6. Handling money
7. Handling cleaning materials
8. Food preparation (This Should be done as
often as necessary to eradicate microorganisms
and to prevent cross- contamination when
changing task)
9. Switching from working with raw food to
working with ready-to-eat food
10. Changing into uniform
11. Having a break
12. Leaving the kitchen
9. TASTING OF FOOD
 A small amount of the food to be
sampled must be transferred into a
separate bowl. The dish must be tasted
with a clean spoon that must be
immediately washed after use.
 Never taste the food with fingers.
10. STORING PERSONAL BELONGINGS
Personal belongings like bags and clothes
should be stored in the lockers or cabinets
away from food preparation areas.
11. OTHER PERSONAL HABITS
 Blowing air into the plastic bags or
using the teeth for opening packages
are prohibited in food production.
 Blowing into food containers like
plastic bags brings airborne
microorganism in contact with the
contents of the container.
 Opening packages using one’s teeth are
potential sources contamination well.
Other personal hygiene habits to be addressed
by policy include:
 Do not lick the fingers, or touch the
nose, mouth, or hair while in
production area.
 Never spit in the food handling area.
 Never apply makeup or spritz perfume
in food preparation areas.
 Do not sit or lean on work tables or
equipment. Do not allow unauthorized
personnel in the production area.
CUTS AND ABRASIONS
All cuts and abrasions, such as burns and boils,
should be covered with waterproof bandages
or dressings. Usually, these bandages are
colored blue so that they can easily spotted.
Cuts on hand should be covered with a
waterproof bandage and watertight disposable
glove.
EMPLOYEE ILLNESSES
Employees with symptoms of vomiting,
diarrhea, fever, respiratory infection, or sore
throat should not report to work.
Any employee suspected of having a
communicable disease as listed by the CDC
should be referred to the employee health
center or the personal physician for clearance
before returning to work.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Appropriate orientation on the hazards of the
food industry, and adequate, periodic training
must be implemented for the food production
personnel to fully understand and their
responsibilities toward food safety. Use of
visual control or reminders in the form of
posters and sign is an effective way of
reinforcing hygienic habits in the kitchen.
TRAITS AND QUALITIES OF FOODSERVICE
PERSONNEL
 Excellent health and physical fitness
including having good muscular
coordination and quick reflexes.
 Interest in people and food
 Alertness, pleasant disposition,
courtesy, neatness, and good grooming
 Ability and willingness to comprehend
and follow directions
 Honesty, loyalty, dependability,
promptness, and being easy to get
along with
Wholesome lifestyle
 In addition, foodservice personnel
should possess human, technical, and
conceptual skills which are required in
the performance of the job.
 Human skill is the ability to work
harmoniously with others in the group
so as to accomplish work efficiently.
 Technical skills refer to the knowledge
of the methods, procedures and
techniques needed in the performance
of a particular activity.
 Conceptual skill means having an
overall understanding of the
foodservice operation. (Perdigon,
2009)
MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISORY
RESPONSIBILITIES OF FOOD MANAGER
 Food managers, especially those
responsible for providing food to the
"atrisk" population, have an important
responsibility in the prevention of
foodborne illness.
 They must educate and instill a sense
of urgency to food service employees
on the realities of foodborne diseases.
 Food service managers themselves
must be well educated on food safety
and related topics such as
microbiology, epidemiology, food
science, and standard operating
procedures. These are just a few of the
requirements to effectively design an
integrated food safety program. To
effect change, food service managers
must take a proactive role in designing
a food safety plan that accomplishes
food safety objectives.
A FOOD MANAGER IS A PERSON WHO:
 Identifies hazards in the day-to-day
operation of a food establishment that
 prepares, serves, vends. or provides
food for human consumption;
 Develops or implements specific
policies, procedures, or standards
aimed at preventing foodborne
illnesses
 Coordinates training, supervises, or
directs food preparation activities, and
takes corrective action as needed to
protect the health of the customers;
and
 Conducts in-house self-inspection of
daily operations on a periodic basis to
see that policies and procedures
concerning food safety are being
followed.
A CERTIFIED FOOD PROTECTION MANAGER
WILL HAVE TO BE ABLE TO DEMONSTRATE
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN FOOD
PROTECTION MANAGEMENT. HE/SHE SHOULD
ALSO BE ABLE TO:
 Identify foodborne illnesses;
 Describe the relationship between
time and temperature and the growth
of microorganisms that cause
foodborne illnesses;
 Describe the relationship between
personal hygiene and food safety;
 Describe methods on how to prevent
food contamination when purchasing
and receiving;
 Recognize problems and potential
solutions associated with the facility,
equipment, and layout of a food
establishment;
 Recognize problems and solutions
associated with temperature control,
crosscontamination, housekeeping,
and maintenance. . (Ang & Balanon,
2010)
CHAPTER 3:
AN OVERVIEW OF POTENTIAL HAZARDS IN
FOOD SERVICE OPERATION THE FOOD
INDUSTRY
 The food system is a complex,
concentrated, and dynamic chain of
activities that begins with the
production of raw agricultural
commodities on farms, orchards, and
ranches and moves to value- added
processed and manufactured products
and then to retail food stores and
foodservice establishments
(restaurants and institutions) where
they are merchandised, prepared, and
sold to consumers. Each sector of the
food system is unique in size, scope,
and diversity and has evolved and
adapted to changes in demographics
and lifestyles, science and technology,
and consumer demands. To more fully
comprehend the role of sanitation and
food safety in the food industry, it is
important to understand the
uniqueness of each sector of the food
system. (Gravani & Marriot,2009)
 Working in the kitchen has a lot of
hazards and risks.
 Keeping your kitchen in an orderly
manner can help minimize risks or
even accidents. The people working in
the kitchen or the dining are must be
well- trained in performing their
duties.
―Clean as you go‖ policy should be strictly
implemented.
―Warning signs like wet floor sign should be
used every time the floor is newly mopped.
 Safety practices in the kitchen area
should be put into practice like; do not
catch a falling knife; do not leave a
knife in the sink are, keep it in a secure
place; and having a safety device like a
fire extinguisher in an easy access spot.
(Punay, 2015)
FOOD SAFETY HAZARD
 A food safety hazard is a biological,
chemical, or physical agent or
condition in food that could potentially
cause. an adverse human health effect.
 Food safety hazards can also be found
in animal feed and feed ingredients.
They can also cause adverse human
health effects since they can be
transferred to humans through the
consumption of animal products.
  Food safety hazards can also be found
in animal feed and feed ingredients.
They can also cause adverse human
health effects since they can be
transferred to humans through the
consumption of animal products.
 Simply said, it is anything in food that
can cause harm to the consumer in the
form of foodborne illnesses.
Foodborne illnesses are defined as
diseases, either infectious or toxic in
nature, caused by agents that enter the
body- through the ingestion of food.
Myriad microbes and toxic substances
can contaminate foods.
 There are more than 250 known
foodborne diseases.
 Majority are infectious and caused by
bacteria, viruses and parasites. Other
foodborne diseases are poisonings
caused by toxins and chemicals
contaminating the food. All foodborne
microbes and toxins enter the body
through the gastrointestinal tract and
often cause nausea and vomiting,
which are early symptoms of a
foodborne illness
 As indicated above, hazards are
classified into three categories;
biological, chemical and physical: Table
below shows examples of these three
types of hazards.
BIOLOGICAL
● Bacteria
● Parasites and helminths
● Virus
● Fungi
● Prion
CHEMICAL
●Agricultural chemicals (pesticides)
●Natural plant toxins
●Animal toxins
●Food additives
●Medications
●Radioactive substances
●Alcohol
PHYSICAL
●Foreign objects in food such as:
-Hair
-Pebbles
-Glass shards
-Toothpick
-Plastic
-Metal fragments
-Fabrics
SOURCES OF FOOD SAFETY HAZARDS
Risks of hazard resulting in foodborne illnesses
can arise from every step in the food process,
from production to consumption. Risk of one
or more hazards are always present in each
step or area.
Hazards can contaminate food through the
following factors:
material, men, method, machine, money, and
environment.
Contamination is the unintended presence of a
harmful substance in food while cross-
contamination is the transfer of such harmful
substances from one food to another through a
non-food surface, such as cooking wares,
equipment, and food workers. (Ang & Balanon,
2010)
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CONTAMINATION
1. Inherent in Raw Material
 Raw food materials may appear
clean, but microorganisms,
chemicals, even foreign objects,
may be found in the raw food as it
is grown, harvested, caught or
slaughtered.
 A study done on several raw foods
indicates that no uncookedfood
should be considered completely
safe from bacterial pathogens
(Snyder, 2004).
2. Contamination through Time Temperature
Abuse
A food is said to have been time temperature
abused if it has been allowed to stay too long
at temperatures favorable to the growth of
microorganisms. This temperature referred to
as the Temperature Danger Zone.
Contamination due to time-temperature abuse
includes:
● failure to hold or store food at the required
cold or hot temperature;
● failure to cook and/or reheat to temperature
that will kill harmful microorganisms; and
● long interval between food preparation and
serving without appropriate temperature.
3. Cross-contamination
Cross—contamination occurs when
microorganisms are transferred from a
contaminated food contact surface or food to a
non-contaminated food contact surface or
food. Common cross—contamination instances
are:
●addition of raw material to a cooked
ingredient without it being heated or cooked;
●contamination from the dirty apparel of food
handlers; and
●contamination of food surfaces.
4. Poor Person at Hygiene
 Individuals with poor personal hygiene
practices can contaminate food and
food contact surfaces. The most
common source of foodborne illness
can be traced to food handlers.
Common personal hygiene violations that can
result in foodborne illness include:
●failure to wash hands properly;
●failure to follow proper hygiene habits;
●working when sick; and
●lack of training in personal hygiene practices.
POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS FOOD (PHF)
Some types of food have the ability to support
the rapid, progressive growth of infections and
toxin producing microorganisms. These foods
are called potentially hazardous and have the
following characteristics.
● A history of being involved in foodborne
illness outbreaks Salmonellosis in peanut
butter from the Peanut Corporation of America
in Blakely, Georgia has become one of the
worst known outbreaks of foodborne diseases
in recent years.
 Nine are believed to have died and an
estimated 22, 500 fell ill from the
disease.
●A natural potential for contamination.
Contamination occurs due to the methods
used to produce and process food. Examples
are manually handled food (fresh lumpia) and
those that does not undergo heating (salads
and sandwiches).
●High moisture that supports bacterial growth.
Food with high moisture are likely to support
microbial growth. Highly perishable (fresh)
food and canned fruits, vegetables, meat, fish,
and milk are examples of PHF with high
moisture content.
●High protein and carbohydrate. These kinds
of food
provide a rich source of bacterial food. These
foods include meat poultry, fish, dairy
products, and eggs.
● Not acidic enough to inhibit the growth of
microorganisms. Fresh fruits, vegetables and
some seafood have low acidity levels that can
sustain microbial growth
THE FDA FOOD CODE CLASSIFIES THE
FOLLOWING AS PHF:
1. Animal products that are raw or heat-
treated.
2. All cooked meat and poultry
3. Cooked meat products with sauces and
stocks, especially those with tomatoes
4. Dairy products like milk, cream,
cheese, ice-cream and yogurt
5. Cooked eggs and products made from
eggs, like mayonnaise
6. Cooked shellfish and other seafood
7. Cooked rice and been: and baked or
broiled potatoes
8. Desserts consisting of eggs and milk
9. Gravies and stuffing for meat and poultry
10. Food products made with high-risk foods
and exposed to more handling, such as
meatloaf, hamburgers, salads (pasta, coleslaw,
and chicken, egg, and tuna salads)
11. Chinese and Mexican dishes, some baked
goods and cream fillings, French toast,
meringue, and eggnog
12. Foods of plant origin that are heat treated
or consist of raw seed sprouts
13. Cut melons, and garlic and oil mixtures that
are not modified in a way to inhibit the growth
of microorganisms.
FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
Food poisoning is considered to be an illness
caused by the consumption of food containing
microbial toxins or chemical poisons.
Food poisoning caused by bacterial toxins is
called food intoxication; whereas, that caused
by chemicals that have gotten into food is
referred to as chemical poisoning. Illnesses
caused by microorganisms exceed those of
chemical origin.
Illnesses that are not caused by bacterial by-
products, such as toxins, but through ingestion
of infectious microorganisms, such as bacteria,
rickettsia, viruses, or parasites, are referred to
as food infections.
Foodborne illnesses caused from a
combination of food intoxication and food
infection are called food toxic infections. In this
foodborne disease, pathogenic bacteria grow
in the food. Large numbers are then ingested
with the food by the host and, when in the gut,
pathogen proliferation continues, with
resultant toxin production, which causes illness
symptoms. Illness caused by the mind, due to
one witnessing another human sick or to the
sight of a foreign object, such as an insect or
rodent, in a food product, is termed
psychosomatic food illness. (Gravani &
Marriot, 2009)
SYMPTOMS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
In most cases of foodborne illnesses,
symptoms resemble intestinal flu and may last
for a few hours or even several days.
Symptoms can range from mild to serious and
include:
● abdominal cramps,
● nausea,
● vomiting,
● diarrhea. which is sometimes bloody,
● fever,
● dehydration, and
● headache.
RISK FACTORS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
Some people are at a greater risk for bacterial
infections because of their age or unhealthy
immune system. Individuals who are
susceptible to the effects of foodborne
illnesses are:
●infants and young children;
●pregnant women;
●elderly persons over 65 years old;
●persons with debilitating illnesses or chronic
diseases like cancer, diabetes, mellitus, and
tuberculosis
● persons whose immune systems are
compromised as inbcases of HIV/AIDS those
who had organ transplants and multiple
surgeries and those undergoing radiation and
chemotherapy,
● malnourished individuals who are anemic,
emaciated, and have depleted body proteins;
● individuals with unhealthy lifestyles, such as
poor eating habits, alcohol and drug abuse,
and smoking; and
 people under certain medications such
as prolonged use of antibiotics and
antacids, thereby reducing the normal
beneficial microflora of the
gastrointestinal tract.
TREATMENT OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
Most cases of foodborne illnesses are mild and
can be treated by increasing fluid intake, either
orally or intravenously, to replace lost fluids
and electrolytes.
People who experience gastrointestinal or
neurologic symptoms should seek medical
attention. In the most severe situations,
hospitalization may be needed to receive
supportive nutritional and medical therapy.
Maintaining adequate fluid and electrolyte
balance and controlling blood pressure are
important. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF FOODBORNE
ILLNESSES
The distress suffered by the patient, his/her
family members and the caregivers cannot be
calculated in monetary cost. The worst
scenario is when the final result of the episode
of illness is death.
The following outline summarizes the various
costly factors related to foodborne illnesses:
Costs that may be incurred by the sick
individual or caregiver/family
● Loss of income
● Loss of opportunities for advancement
● Medical expenses to cover physical
rehabilitation and long—term care
● Cost of child and geriatric care
● Cost of special dietary needs
● Loss of productivity
● Loss leisure and travel opportunities
● Funeral expenses
2. Business and industry Costs
● Legal liability cost
● Insurance cost
● Cost of recall or discarded product
● Poor publicity and decline of stock value
● Loss of reputation
● Cost of investigation, cleaning up, and
education
● Loss of customers and business
3. Costs to the nation and government
● Expenses for plant or on-site inspection
● Legislation
● Medical cost
● Prosecution cost
● Healthcare/Welfare benefits
● Losses from tourism and food export trade
POINTS TO REMEMBER REGARDING
POTENTIAL
HAZARDS IN FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS
● Foodborne illnesses are acquired from eating
food or drinking beverages contaminated with
bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
● People at greater risk for foodborne illnesses
include young children, pregnant women and
their unborn child, elderly, and people with
lowered immunity.
● Symptoms usually resemble intestinal flu. A
doctor should immediately be consulted if
more serious problems occur or there is no
improvement in the condition.
● Treatment may range from the replacement
of lost fluids and electrolytes for mild cases of
foodborne illnesses to hospitalization for
severe conditions such as Hemolytic-uremic
syndrome.
Foodborne hazards can be classified as
biological, chemical, or physical
Biological hazards can be caused by parasites,
viruses, or bacteria.
Chemical contaminants in foods can come from
industrial and agricultural sources, food
processing, or the food itself.
Toxic chemicals also come from biological
sources such as molds and algae.
Foreign objects present in food could
constitute a physical hazard to the consumer.
The socio- economic effects of foodborne
illnesses would include cost to the victim the
food industry and the government. (Ang &
Balanon, 2010
Chapter 4: Biological Hazards
Biological hazards are acquired from disease-
causing microorganisms and the poisonous
toxins they may produce. Biological hazards
are by far the most dangerous foodborne
hazard in the food service and food retail
businesses. These include harmful
microorganisms seen only under the
microscope (bacteria, viruses, parasites, molds,
yeast) and the biological substance prion, a
protein molecule. Other living organisms, such
as insects, rodents, farm animals, domestic
pets, birds, fish and plants, also transmit
diseases to human beings. Even healthy people
are sources of pathogenic microorganisms.
Food handlers who do not wash hands
frequently and properly and do not practice
personal hygiene are the most common
carriers.
Most of the foodborne and waterborne
illnesses in food establishments are due to
disease- producing microorganisms. How to
control them is the primary objective of food
and water safety. Many of these pathogenic
microorganisms seriously affect the health of
an individual and some may even cause death,
which is why safety measures should be taken
to prevent their growth and toxins production.
Effective control of these microbiological
hazards can be better implemented by those
who understand the conditions of microbial
growth and their multiplication. Knowledge
about the signs and symptoms associated with
a foodborne disease, its onset and duration,
and the implicated food will help both the
consumer and food handler report illness cases
and develop preventive measures.
A foodborne illness is generally classified as a
foodborne infection, intoxication, or toxin-
mediated infection.
Awareness of how different microbes cause a
foodborne illness will help in understanding
how microbes contaminate food. (Ang &
Balanon, 2010)
CLASSIFICATION OF FOODBORNE ILLNES
● Infection- ingestion of a harmful
microorganism in food
● Intoxication- ingestion of a harmful toxin
produced in food
● Toxin- Mediated Infection- ingestion of a
harmful microorganism in food that produces a
toxin in the human body.
An infection occurs when a living
microorganism is ingested as a part of food.
After ingestion, the microorganisms attach
themselves to the gastrointestinal tract and
begin to grow. This can lead to common
foodborne illness symptoms like diarrhea.
In some instances, the microorganisms may be
carried by the bloodstream from the
gastrointestinal tract to the other parts of the
body. Foodborne viruses and parasites are
good examples of microorganisms that can
cause infection. An example of a bacterial
infection is Salmonella spp.
An intoxication arises when a living
microorganism that grows in food produces a
toxin. The food is then ingested and the toxin
itself causes the illness. Some examples of
bacteria that cause food intoxication are
Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus
aureus. An intoxication may also occur due to
the consumption of a toxic chemical, such as a
cleaning chemical.
A toxin- mediated infection takes place when a
living microorganism is consumed and the
ingested microorganism produces a toxin in the
body that leads to illness. An example of a
microorganism that produces a toxin in the
body is the Clostridium perfringens.
It is important to understand that, under the
right set of circumstances, anyone can become
ill due to the ingestion of contaminated food. A
healthy adult may or may not manifest any
foodborne illness symptoms, and in most
cases, the host will recover in a few days. The
risks and dangers associated with foodborne
illnesses are much greater for the elderly,
infants, pregnant women, and people who
have a weakened immune system. (Ang &
Balanon, 2010)
TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
Beneficial Microorganisms- Beneficial
microorganisms are found in food production.
Examples of these microbes are those used in
making bread, beer, yoghurt, and cheese.
Harmful Microorganisms- Harmful
microorganisms spoil food and cause diseases.
MICROBIAL FORMS
Bacteria
Of all microorganisms, bacteria provide the
most common threat to food safety. Bacteria
are single- celled organisms and can cause
illnesses in two ways. Pathogenic (infectious;
disease- causing) bacteria multiply rapidly in
favorable conditions provided by PHF, while
toxigenic (poisonous) bacteria produce harmful
toxins.
Most bacteria exist in a vegetative state. In this
state, the cells grow, reproduce, and produce
waste just like any other living organism.
However, some bacteria are able to produce
protective, thick- walled structures called
spores. Spores do not reproduce, but they
enable the bacteria to survive some cooking
and freezing temperatures and the destructive
effects of cleaning and sanitizing solutions.
They even survive when there is not enough
food.
Bacteria are classified as either spoilage or
pathogenic microorganisms.
A. Spoilage bacteria break down foods
making them look, taste, and smell
bad. They reduce the quality of food to
unacceptable levels. When this
happens, the food will have to be
thrown away.
B. Pathogenic bacteria are disease-
causing microorganisms that can make
people ill if they or their toxins are
consumed through food. Both spoilage
and pathogenic bacteria must be
controlled in food establishments. The
steps in keeping food safe from
diseasecausing bacteria will also
improve the culinary quality and shelf
life of the food.
Bacterial Growth
Bacteria reproduce when bacterial cell divides
to form two new cells. This process is called
binary fission. The reproduction of bacteria
and an increase in the number of organisms
are referred (Figure 4.2) to as bacterial growth.
This means that during each growth
generation, each cell gives rise to another cell.
The generation time, or the time for cell
numbers to double is typically 20-30 minutes
but can also be quick as 15 minutes. Under
optimal conditions, this means that a single
cell can generate over 1 million cells in just five
hours (Table 4.2).
Proper storage and food handling help prevent
bacterial growth. Generation times vary with
the organism and environment can range from
20 minutes for a fast growing bacterium under
ideal conditions, to hours and days for less
than ideal conditions or slow growing bacteria.
Phases of Bacterial Growth
 Lag Phase. Growth is slow at first,
while the microorganisms acclimate to
the food and nutrients in their new
habitat.
 Log Phase. Once the metabolic
machinery is running, microbes start
multiplying exponentially, doubling in
number every few minutes.
 Stationary Phase. As more and more
microbes are competing for dwindling
food and nutrients, the booming
growth stops and the number of
bacteria stabilizes.
 Death Phase. Toxic waste products
build up, food is depleted and the
microorganisms begin to die.
Bacterial Growth Requirement
The conditions that favor the growth of
bacteria, yeast, and molds can be easily
remembered by the acronym FATTOM which
stands for Food, Acidity, Time, Temperature,
Oxygen, and Moisture.
Food
Microorganisms like all living things, need food
to grow. The presence of a suitable food supply
is the most important condition that affects
bacterial growth. The food must contain the
appropriate nutrients needed for growth.
Bacteria generally prefer foods that are high in
protein like meat and dairy items.
Acidity
Disease-causing bacteria grow best at acidity
levels equivalent to pH 4.6 to 7.5. The term pH
is used as a symbol to designate the food‘s
degree of acidity. The scale for measuring pH is
from 0 to 14. A pH of 7.0 is neither acidic nor
basic and is considered neutral food. A pH less
than 7.0 indicates that the food is acidic. A pH
ranges greater than 7.0 refers to basic food.
Examples of alkaline foods are olives, egg
whites, or soda crackers.
Temperature
Temperature is probably the most important
factor that affects the growth of bacteria in
food. Most disease- causing bacteria grow
within a temperature range of 5°C to 60°C. This
is the range where microbial growth and
reproduction are at their peak. This is
commonly referred to as the Temperature
Danger Zone.
Classification of Microorganisms according to
Temperature Requirements
Psychrophiles - These coldtemperature loving
microorganisms thrive in a temperature range
of 0°C to 21°C. They are especially troublesome
because they are capable of multiplying at
bothrefrigerated and room temperatures. Most
psychophysics bacteria are spoilage organisms,
but some can also cause diseases.
Mesophiles - Theses middle range bacteria
grow at temperatures between 21°C and 43°C,
with the most rapid growth at human body
temperature.
Thermophiles - Heat- loving microorganisms,
they grow best at temperatures above 43°C. all
thermophilic bacteria are spoilage organisms.
Time
Because bacteria grow rapidly, it does not take
long before many cells are produced. A rule of
thumb in the food industry is that bacteria
need about four hours, inclusive of the time
food is between 5°C to 60°C, to grow to
numbers high enough to cause illness.
Remember, a single bacterial cell can produce
over 1 million cells in just five hours under
ideal conditions. It is very important not to
give bacteria an opportunity to multiply.
Proper storage and handling of foods help
prevent bacteria from multiplying.
● Temperature abuse is the term applied to
food that have not been heated to or kept at
the proper temperature.
● Time and temperature are the most critical
factors affecting the growth of bacteria in
foods. Careful monitoring of time and
temperature is the best way for a food retail
manager to prevent bacteria from growing on
food. The old saying ―keep cold foods cold
and hot foods hot‖ means that all cold foods
should be stored at less than 5°C and all hot
food be held at more than 60°C (after proper
cooking).
Moisture
Just like most forms of life, moisture is an
important factor affecting bacterial growth,
which is why humans have been preserving
food for thousands of years by drying them.
Scientists have determined that bacterial
growth is greatly influenced by the amount of
available water which is designated with the
symbol a.
In the Philippines, because of high relative
humidity, the top layer of some exposed food
can hydrate and make it moist enough for
microorganisms to grow.
Good packaging and the control of
environmental relative humidity which can be
achieved with air- conditioning, dehumidifier,
or even adequate ventilation, can prevent this
from happening,
Oxygen
As discussed earlier, bacteria require different
amounts of oxygen to grow. Some require a lot
of oxygen (aerobic), while others cannot
tolerate oxygen (anaerobic) at all. Those
belonging to genus Clostridia require the
complete absence of free oxygen to grow. Free
oxygen is toxic for this group of
microorganisms. Anaerobic bacteria grow well
in vacuum packaged foods or canned foods
where oxygen is not available.
Anaerobic conditions also exist in the middle
of cooked food masses such as stock pots and
baked potatoes, or in the middle of a roast or
ham. Some bacteria only grow within a narrow
oxygen range (microaerophilic), usually three
to six percent oxygen levels, while others can
grow with or without oxygen (facultative
anaerobes). Most foodborne causing
microorganisms are facultative anaerobes.
Controlling oxygen conditions may be an
effective way to prevent foodborne illnesses.
However, even without any oxygen, some
disease-causing bacteria can still find
conditions suitable for growth.
BACTERIAL, VIRAL, AND PARASITIC
FOODBORNE HAZARDS
Biological hazards, are of the greatest concern
to
food service and food retail operators. They
have been classified as spore-forming bacteria,
nonspore-forming bacteria, viruses, and
parasites. In the following sections, each type
of bacterial hazard will be discussed. The type
of illness, symptoms and onset time, common
foods, the route of transmission and ways to
control the hazards will likewise be identified.
(Ang & Balanon, 2010)
Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Bacteria
Spore-Forming Foodborne Bacteria
The following group of bacteria can produce a
spore structure that allows a cell to withstand
environmental stress, such as cooking,
freezing, salting, drying, and picking. Generally,
bacterial spores are not harmful if ingested.
However, if conditions of the food are changed,
permitting the spore to turn into a vegetative
cell, the vegetative cell can grow in the food
and cause illness if eaten.
Spore-forming bacteria are generally found in
ingredients grown near the soil like vegetables
and spices. They can be particularly
troublesome in food retail-type environments
because they can survive on foods. When
conditions are improved, for instance, adding
dried spices to a beef stew mixture, spores can
become vegetative cells.
Spores are most likely to turn vegetative when:
● heat-shocked (heating causes spores to
change);
● optimum conditions exist for growth (high
protein and high moisture);
● temperatures are in the food temperature
danger zone or between 5°C to 60°C; and
● the amount of time the food is in the danger
zone is four hours or more.
To keep spore-forming bacteria from changing
to the dangerous vegetative state, it is critical
that hot foods be maintained at 60°Cor higher
and cold foods be kept at less than
5°C.Cooking, reheating, and cooling of foods
should also be done as quickly as possible to
limit bacterial growth. Important spore-
forming pathogens in the food retail industry
include Bacillus cereus, Clostridium
perfringens, and Clostridium botulinum
Nonspore forming Foodborne Bacteria
The following groups of bacteria are not
capable
of producing a spore structure; they are always
in
the vegetative state. Compared to spore-
forming
bacteria in the spore state, vegetative cells are
easily destroyed by proper cooking. There are
that
are numerous examples of nonsporeforming
foodborne bacteria that are important in the
food
retail industry.
Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Viruses
Foodborne viruses differ from foodborne
bacteria.
Viruses require a living host (animal, plant, or
human) to grow and reproduce. Unlike
bacteria, they do not reproduce or grow in
foods. However, the consumption of even a
few particles is enough for a person to
experience an infection. Viruses are usually
transferred from one food to another, e g.,
from a food handler to a food, or from a water
supply to a food. A PHF is not needed by a
virus to survive.
There are three viruses common in food retail
preparation: Hepatitis A, Norwalk virus, and
rotavirus.
Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Parasites
Foodborne parasites are among the common
foodborne biological hazards. Parasites are
microscopic creatures that need to live on or
inside a host to survive. Parasites can be found
in irrigation water, animal feces, muscle tissues
of improperly fed cattle and swine, and fish
muscles. Humans can become infected when
undercooked meat and fish are consumed.
There are several examples of parasites that
can come in contact with food and cause
foodborne illnesses. Parasitic infection is far
less common than bacterial or viral foodborne
illnesses.
Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Fungi
A fungus is a eukaryotic organism that is a
member of the kingdom Fungi. Fungi are
heterotrophic organisms that possess a
chitinous cell wall. The majority of its species
grow as multicellular filaments called hyphae
forming a mycelium; some fungal species also
grow as single cells. Sexual and asexual
reproduction occur commonly through spores
which are often produced on specialized
structures or in fruiting bodies. Yeasts, molds,
and mushrooms are all examples of fungi.
Occurring worldwide, most fungi are largely
invisible to the naked eye, living for the most
part in soil, dead matter, and as symbionts of
plants, animals, or other fungi. They perform
an essential role in all ecosystems in
decomposing organic matter and are
indispensable in nutrient cycling and exchange.
Some fungi become noticeable when fruiting,
either as mushrooms or molds.
Many fungal species have long been used as a
direct source of food, such as mushrooms and
truffles, and in the fermentation of various
food products, such as wine, beer, and soy
sauce. More recently, fungi are being used as
sources for antibiotics used in medicine and
various enzymes, including cellulases,
pectinases, and proteases which are important
for industrial use or as active ingredients of
detergents.
However, many fungi produce bioactive
compounds called mycotoxins that are toxic to
animals and humans. Several species of fungi
are significant pathogens of humans and other
animals. They are also the causes of diseases
of crops (e.g., rice blast disease) and food
spoilage, thereby proving that they have a
large impact on human food supply and local
economies. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
Types of Fungi Hazardous for Consumption
Molds are microscopic fungi that live on plant
or animal matter. No one knows how many
species of fungi exist, but estimates range from
tens of thousands to perhaps 300,000 or more.
Most are filamentous (threadlike) organisms
and can reproduce through spores. These
spores can be transported by air, water, or
insects.
Unlike bacteria that are one-celled, molds are
multicellular and can sometimes be seen with
the naked eye. Under a microscope they look
like skinny mushrooms.
Most molds bodies consist of:
● root threads that invade the food it lives on;
● a stalk rising above the food; and
● spores at the ends of the stalks
Spores give mold their color. When airborne,
the spores spread mold from place to place like
dandelion seeds blowing across a meadow.
Molds have branches and roots that are like
very thin threads. The roots which can be very
deep-rooted in food may difficult to see. Moldy
foods may also have invisible bacteria growing
along with the mold. When you see mold of
food, is it safe to cut off the moldy part and use
the rest?
To find the answer to that question, delve
beneath the surface of the food to see where
molds take root.
Aflatoxin is a cancer-causing poison produced
by certain fungi in or on food and feeds,
especially in field corn and peanuts. They are
probably the best known and most intensively
researched mycotoxins in the world.
Aflatoxins have been associated with various
diseases, such as aflatoxicosis in livestock,
domestic animals and humans. Patuin, a mold
toxin associated with moldy fruits, is
considered carcinogenic and in high
concentrations may causehemorrhages and
edema. Several countries are trying to limit
exposure to aflatoxin, which is also suspected
of causing liver cancer, by regulating and
monitoring its presence in commodities
intended for use as food and feed. The
prevention of aflatoxicosis is one of the most
challenging toxicology issues in the present
time.
Some molds cause allergic reactions and
respiratory problems.
When in the right conditions, molds produce
"mycotoxins," poisonous substances make
people sick. These poisonous substances are
produced by certain molds found primarily in
grain and nut crops, as well as on celery, grape
juice, apples, and other produce contaminants
of the food chain. In humans, mycotoxins can
cause vomiting, fever, and headache.
Molds cannot be found only on the surface of
food. Surface with heavy mold growth, such as
gray fur on forgotten bologna, fuzzy green dots
on bread, white dust on Cheddar, con-size
velvety circles on fruits, and furry growth on
jellies, have "root" threads that have already
deeply invaded the food. In dangerous molds,
poisonous substances are often contained in
and around these threads. In some cases,
toxins may have even spread throughout the
food.
Molds are found in virtually every environment
and can be detected indoors and outdoors all
year round. Its growth is encouraged by warm,
humid conditions. Outdoors, they can be found
in shady, damp areas or places where leaves or
other vegetation are decomposing while
indoors, they can be found where humidity
levels are high. Molds form spores which,
when dry, float through the air and find
suitable conditions where they can start the
growth cycle again.
While most molds prefer warmer
temperatures, they can grow at refrigerator
temperatures, too. They can also tolerate salt
and sugar better than most other food
invaders. Therefore, molds can grow in
refrigerated jams and jelly and on cured, salty
meats like ham, bacon, salami, and bologna.
Some molds are beneficial; they are used to
make certain kinds of cheeses. Blue-veined
cheese such as Roquefort, Gorgonzola, and
Stilton were created by the introduction of
Penicillum roqueforti spores. Cheese such as
Brie and Camembert have white surface
molds. Other kinds of cheese have both
internal and surface molds. These molds are
safe to
eat.
Common Foodborne Molds
Molds most often found on meat and poultry
are Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis,
Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Monilia,
Manoscus, Mortierella, Mucor, Neurospora,
Oidium, Oosproa, Penicillium, Rhizopus and
Thamnidium. These molds can also be found
on many other foods.
2. Yeast
Yeast are single-celled fungi, in contrast to
molds which are multicellular. They differ from
bacteria by their larger cell size and shape,
which may be oval, elongated, elliptical, or
spherical. The average cell size of yeast is from
five to eight micrometers in diameter. They
grow in numbers by dividing (budding or
fission).
Most yeast are not pathogenic. In fact, yeast is
used as an ingredient in bread making and is
responsible for alcoholic fermentation needed
in alcoholic beverages. However, the yeast
Candida Albicans causes thrush in infants and
the undesirable growth of yeast in some food
products can cause food spoilage. The quality
of fruit juice concentrates also depends on the
absence of yeast cell.
Yeast can grow over wide ranges of acid pH
solutions and in ethanol solutions as high as
18%. Many can grow in sugar solutions that are
between 50-60%. Some can be recognized by
the color they produce (cream, pink, orange,
red). Their spores are quite heat-resistant and
some can grow at very low temperatures (-20
to -30°C).
There are many genera of yeast and some are
useful for the food industry. The harmful ones
cause food spoilage and undesirable taste.
(Ang&Balanon, 2010)
Most Common Yeast in Foods
● Candida (beef, grain, beer and fruit juices) ●
Rhodotorula (fresh poultry, shrimps, fish, beef,
and
surface of butter)
● Saccharomycetes (baker's and brewer's
yeast, and wine and champagne yeast)
● Zygosaccharomyces (useful in shoyu and miss
fermentation, but spoils mayonnaise and salad
dressings)
● Genus Torula causes black discoloration of
butter.
3. Mushrooms
Mushrooms are actually the fruit fungus. The
fungus itself is simply a net of threadlike fibers
called mycelium. They grow in soil, wood or
decaying matter.
The function of a mushroom is to produce
spores which are the seeds of the fungus.
Some kinds of mushrooms produce their
spores on gills (gilled fungi), in pores (pore
fungi); on teeth (tooth fungi); inside a leathery
pouch (puffballs); on the inside of shallow cups
(cup fungi, morels); on the surface of the
mushroom (coral fungi and the other). Spores
form on these various structures, then fall off
to be blown away by the wind or be carried by
animals, water or insects. If a spores lands on a
suitable spot, it germinates and grows into a
new mycelium.
The mushrooms most people recognize are the
gilled fungi. These typical parasolshaped
mushrooms have caps with bladelike gills on
the underside and stems with or without rings.
The pore fungi are similar in appearance but
have a spongy layer of tube pores on the
underside of the cap instead of gills.
Edible Mushrooms
Edible mushrooms are used extensively in
cooking in many cuisines, notably Chinese,
European and Japanese. Though mushrooms
are commonly thought to have a little
nutritional value, many species are high in
fiber and provide vitamins such as thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, biotin, cobalamins, and
ascorbic acid.
Though not normally a significant source of
vitamin D, some mushrooms can become such
after exposure to ultraviolet light, although this
also darkens their skin. Mushrooms are also
sources of some minerals, including iron,
selenium, potassium and phosphorus
Common Edible Mushrooms
● Puffballs (Lycoperdon spp. and Calvatia spp.)
Description: Depending on their size, puffballs
have been mistaken at a distance for
everything, from golf balls to sheep. These
round or pear-shaped mushrooms are almost
always whitish, tan or gray and may or may not
have a stalk like base. The interior of a
puffballs is solid white at first, gradually
turning yellow, then brown as the mushroom
ages. Finally, the interior changes to a mass
dark, powdery spores.
Size: 1" to 2" in diameter, sometimes larger
● Shaggy Mane (Coprinus Comatus)
Description: The shaggy mane or lawyer's wig
is large and distinctive. The cap of a fresh
specimen is a long, white cylinder with shaggy,
upturned, brownish scales. The gills are
whitish, and the entire mushroom is fragile
and crumbles easily. Most important, as the
shaggy mane matures, the cap and gills
gradually dissolve into a black, inky fluid,
leaving only the standing stalk.
Size: 4" to 6" tall, sometimes larger
● Coral Fungi (Clavariaceae)
Description: These fungi appears as clumps of
branching stems which point upward. They do
look much like coral. Most are tan, whitish or
yellowish; a few are pinkish or purple. They are
also called club fungi, antler mushrooms or dog
hair mushrooms.
Size: Cluster's may be up to 8" high
● Morels
Description: Sponge, pinecone and honeycomb
mushrooms are nicknames of the morels.
Morels are easy to recognize and delicious to
eat, making them the most popular wild
mushroom in Missouri.
The surface of a morel is covered with define
pits and ridges, and the bottom edge of the cap
is attached directly to the stem.
Size: 2" to 12" tall
Three Common Species of Morels
Common Morel (Morchella esculenta): When
young, this species has white ridges and dark
brown pits and is known as the white morel.
As it ages, both the ridges and the pits turn
yellowish brown, and it becomes a yellow
morel. If conditions are right, it can grow into a
giant morel, which may be up to a foot tall.
Black morel or smoky Morel (Morchella elata):
The ridges are gray or tan when young, but
darken with age until they are nearly black.
The pits are brown and elongated. These
morels are best when picked young. They
should be discard if they have already shrunk
or have completely black heads.
Half-free morel (Morchella semilibera): This is
the exception to the rule that morels have the
bottom of the cap attached directly to the
stem. The cap of the half-free morel is attached
on the middle. These morels have small caps
and long bulbous stems.
Bearded Tooth (Hericium erinaceus)
Description: With its clump of hanging white
fur, this tooth fungus looks like a polar bear's
paw. It is pure white when fresh and young,
but yellows with age. The bearded tooth may
grow quite large, as much as a foot on width.
Its size and whiteness make it easy to spot
against dark logs on which it grows. Other
names include bear's head, satyr's beard, and
hedgehog mushroom.
Size: 4" to 12" wide
Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)
Description: This large white, tan or
ivorycolored mushroom is named so for its
oyster shell-like shape. It has white gills
running down a very short, off-center stem.
Spores are white to lilac, and the flesh is very
soft. Oyster mushrooms are usually found in
large clusters of overlapping caps and always
on wood.
Size: 2" to 8" wide
● Chanterelles (Cantharellaceae)
Description: Chanterelles are great favorite of
European mushroom hunters and are also
becoming more popular in the United States.
These mushrooms are funnel- or trumpet-
shaped and have wavy cap edges. Most are
bright orange or yellow, although one, the
black trumpet, is brownish-black. Fresh
chanterelles have a pleasant, fruity fragrance.
Some species of chanterelle are really smooth
underneath their caps, while others have
network of wrinkles or gills-like ridges running
down the stem.
The ridges have many forks and cross veins and
are always blunt-edged.
(Real gills are sharp-edged and knife-like).
Size: ½" to 6" wide 1" to 6" tall
● Boletes (Boletaceae)
Description: Similar to a hamburger bun on
thick stalk, these sturdy, fleshy mushroom can
be mistaken at first glance for gilled ones, but
if the cap is turned over, a spongy layer of
pores instead of blade-like gills. The pore layer
can easily be pulled away from the cap. Bolete
caps are usually brownish or reddish-brown,
while the pores may be whitish, yellow, red,
orange, olive or brownish.
Size: up to 10" tall; caps 1" to 10" wide
Sulfur Shelf (Laetiporus sulphureus)
Description: These mushrooms light up the
forest with their brilliant orange-red caps and
pale sulfur-yellow pore surfaces. Some
specimens fade to a peach or salmon color. The
sulfur shelf always grows on wood, usually in
large masses of overlapping caps. It has no
stem and the cap is attached directly to the
wood. Its pores are tiny as well. Other names
include chicken mushroom and chicken of the
woods.
Size: 2‖ to 12‖ wide
● Hen-of-the-woods (Grifola frondosa)
Description: This mushrooms look something
like a large, ruffled chicken. It grows as a
bouquet of grayish brown, fanshaped, over-
lapping caps, with off-center white stalks
branching from a single, thick base. On the
underside, is a white pore surface. A single
clump of Hen-of-the-woods can grow to an
enormous size and can weigh up to 100
pounds. It often grows in the same spot year
after year. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
Poisonous Mushrooms
Of central interest with respect to the chemical
properties of mushrooms is the fact that many
species produce secondary metabolites that
render them toxic, mind altering, or even
bioluminescent. Though are only small number
of deadly species, several of them have
particularly severe, unpleasant symptoms.
Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the
function of the basidiocarp. The mycelium has
expended considerable energy and
protoplasmic material to develop a structure to
efficiently distributes its spores. One defense
against consumption and premature
destruction is the evolution of chemical that
render the mushroom inedible, either causing
the consumer to vomit the meal or avoid
consumption altogether.
Poisonous mushrooms are hard to distinguish
from edible ones. The toxins involve in
mushroom poisoning are produce naturally by
the toxic species of this fungus. Most of them
cannot be made nontoxic even with cooking,
canning, freezing, or any other means of
processing.
Every mushroom hunter should be familiar
with the three dangerous groups of fungi.
These are the amanitas, the false morels, and a
catch all category known as little brown
mushrooms (LBMS).
Mushrooms in these groups are responsible for
virtually all the fatal mushroom poisonings in
the United States, with the amanitas alone
accounting for 90% of mushroom related-
deaths.
Mushroom poisoning, also known as
mycetism, refers to the deleterious effects
caused by the ingestion of toxic substances
present in a mushroom. These symptoms may
vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to
death. The toxins present are secondary
metabolites produced in specific biochemical
pathways in the fungal cells.
Mushroom poisoning is usually acute and the
severity of symptoms depends on how much
and the kind of species eaten.
There are three categories of mushroom
poisoning:
Three Categories of Mushroom Poisoning
Protoplasmic - This results in the generalized
destruction of cells followed by organ failure.
Neurologic - This causes hallucinations,
depression, coma and convulsion.
Gastrointestinal - This includes spastic colon,
rapid nausea and vomiting, abdominal cramps
and diarrhea.
There is no quick and easy test that will
separate edible mushrooms from poisonous
ones, even with peeling the cap, testing with a
silver spoon, checking for insect damage or any
other folks‘ method.
To avoid mushroom poisoning, follow these
five rules:
● Identify each and every mushroom you
collect, and only eat those whose identification
you are sure of. When in doubt, throw it out.
● Strictly avoid any mushroom that looks like
amanita (parasol-shaped mushrooms with
white gills), little brown mushrooms, and false
morels.
● Some people are allergic to even the safest
mushrooms. The first time you try a wild new
mushroom, eat only small amount and wait for
24 hours before eating more.
● As with other foods, rotting mushrooms can
make you ill. Eat only firm, fresh, undecayed
mushrooms.
● Most wild mushrooms should not be eaten
raw or in large quantities, since they are
difficult to digest.
Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Prions
Prions refer to proteinaceous infectious
particles (PIP). They are small glycosylated
protein molecules found in brain cell
membranes.
Prion disease, also called transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), create
spongy form pathological changes in the brain,
resulting in encephalopathy or brain damage.
Prion disease are fatal neurodegenerative
disorders in humans and other animals.
Mad Cow Disease is the best known bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). An infected
cow is observed to be disoriented, irritable and
unable to stand or walk properly. Most cases in
Great Britain occur in dairy cows between
three to six years of age. Milk production
decreases and the animals show nervousness,
aggression, abnormal posture, poor
coordination, and difficulty in rising.
PREVENTION OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
Most cases of foodborne illnesses can be
prevented through proper cooking or
processing of the food. In addition, because
bacteria multiply rapidly between 40°F and
140°F, food must be kept out of this
temperature range.
Follow these tips to prevent harmfulbacteria
from growing in food:
Food Preparation Stage
● Refrigerate food promptly. If prepared food
stands at room temperature for more than two
hours, it may not be safe anymore.
Set refrigerator at 40°F or lower and your
freezer at 0°F.
● Prevent cross- contamination. Bacteria can
spread from one food product to another
throughout the kitchen and can get onto
cutting boards, knives, sponges, and counter
tops. Keep raw meat, poultry, seafood, and
their juices away from ready- to- eat foods
● Handle food properly. Always wash your
hands properly for at leastn20 seconds with
warm, soapy water before and after handling
raw meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, produce, or
eggs. Wash your hands after using the
bathroom, changing diapers, or touching
animals.
● Wash utensils and surfaces before and after
use with hot, soapy water. Better still, sanitize
them with diluted bleach- one teaspoon of
bleach to one quart of how water.
● Wash sponges and dish towels weekly in hot
water in the washing machine.
B. Food Processing Stage (Cooking)
● Cook food with the appropriate internal
temperature: 145°F for roasts, steaks, and
chops of beef, veal, and lamb; 160°F for pork,
ground veal, and ground beef; 165°F for
ground poultry; and 180°F for whole poultry.
Use a meat thermometer to be sure. Foods are
properly cooked only when they are heated
long enough and at high enough temperature
to kill the harmful bacteria that cause illnesses.
C. Food Storage Stage
● Keep cold food cold and hot food hot.
● Maintain hot, cooked food at 140°F or higher.
● Reheat cooked food to at least 165°F
● Refrigerate or freeze perishables, produce,
prepared food, and leftovers within two hours
● Never defrost food on the kitchen counter.
Use the refrigerator; cold, running water; or
the microwave oven.
● Never let food marinate at room
temperature- refrigerate it.
● Divide large amounts of leftovers into small,
shallow containers for quick cooling in the
refrigerator.
● Remove the stuffing from poultry and other
meat immediately and refrigerate it in a
separate counter.
● Wash all unpackaged, and packaged and not
marked pre-washed,‖ fruits and vegetables,
under running water just before eating,
cutting, or cooking. Scrub firm produce, such as
melons and cucumbers, with a clean produce
brush. Dry all produce with a paper towel to
further reduce any possible bacterial growth.
● Do not overcrowd the refrigerator. Cool air
must circulate to keep food safe. (Ang &
Balanon, 2010)
Chapter 5: CHEMICAL HAZARDS
The contamination food by chemical is a
worldwide public health concern and is leading
cause of trade problems internationally.
Contamination may occur through
environmental pollution of the air, water, and
soil, such as case with toxic metals,
polychlorinated biphenyls (FCBs) and dioxins,
or through the intentional use of various
chemical, such as pesticides, animal drugs, and
other agrochemicals.
Chemical hazards in food include chemical
compounds that, when a sufficient amount is
consumed, can inhibit absorption and/or
destroy nutrients. These hazards are
carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. Their
toxicity can cause severe illnesses and possibly
death because of their toxological effect on the
human body.
All chemicals are poisonous, especially when
ingested at toxic levels, with toxicity defined at
many levels depending on the substances dealt
with. Even nutrients essential to life such as
sodium, iron, copper, and iodine can be
poisonous. Table salt (sodium chloride)
becomes a poison, even lethal in a healthy
person, when 12 ounces are consumed at one
time. Although some chemical preservatives
and other food additives are beneficial, they
can also be toxic in excessive amounts.
Chemical hazards are usually classified as
either naturally occurring chemicals or added
chemicals. Naturally occurring chemicals
include toxin produced by a biological
organism. Added chemicals ―include those
that are intentionally or unintentionally added
to food. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
Naturally Occurring Chemicals
-ciguatoxin
-mycotoxin
-scombrotoxin
- shellfish toxins
Added chemicals
- Cleaning solutions
- Food additives
- Pesticides
- Heavy meals
POISONOUS SUBSTANCES
Toxic plant material includes solanin in
potatoes; hemagglutinins and protease
inhibitors in raw beans and peas; cyanogens in
fruit kernels; and phytoalexins in sweet
potatoes, celery, and parsnips.
Several of these compounds can be eliminated
by preparation methods. For example, solanin
is eliminated when the green surface portion
of potatoes is peeled or trimmed. Fruit seeds
and fruit pits containing cyanogens are usually
discarded. Hemagglutinins and protease
inhibitors in raw plant seeds are eliminated by
cooking with moist heat.
Intentional food additives include GRAS
(generally recognized as safe) compounds that
may have inadvertently been added in
excessive amounts. Examples include excessive
addition of nitrites arid nitrates in processed
meat, excessive use of monosodium glutamate
in prepared foods, and excessive use of sulfites
in dried fruits and wine. Another example is
the intentional addition of an-undisclosed
ingredient. For instance, addition of peanut
butter to a product without disclosure could
result in fatal anaphylactic shock for sensitive
individuals.
Chemicals created by the process include those
created when meat is broiled excessively over
hot charcoal and when fat or oil has been
heated excessively or for a long time. Some
contaminants produced include polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines,
nitropyrenes, nitrosamines, ethyl carbamate
(urethane), and chloropropanols.
Agricultural chemicals include pesticides and
herbicides. With the increased utilization of
chemicals in agriculture and animal husbandry,
the chances of chemical food contamination
are growing throughout the world. Agricultural
chemicals have a great impact on water
systems.
When it rains, these toxic substances are
carried into rivers and lakes, affecting fish and
aquatic plant life as well as water supplies.
Animal antibiotics and other drug residues are
also a problem in terms of foodborne illness
hazards. ln l990, the USDA sampled 35,561
livestock and 9.132 poultry for drug residues
and found residual levels in 132 and 12
samples, respectively. Drug residues in food
can cause violent allergic reactions in sensitive
people who consume these products.
Unintentional additives or accidental addition
of toxic substances during food handling in the
food service and food production operations
can also occur. This type of hazard is often
traced to storage of toxic cleaning and
sanitizing chemicals in food storage containers.
Equipment material, such as copper or lead
from pipes or soldering material, can likewise
leach into food and water causing heavy metal
poisoning.
Package material can leach as well. ln the U.S.,
in the past, there was concern about the
leaching of lead from the solder of can seams
and polychlorinated biphenyls from cardboard
packages. Since then, these compounds have
been almost completely eliminated from
packaging systems. However, these types of
packaging material may still exist in other
regions of the world. There is also concern over
the safety of certain plastics, especially those
that may be used in the heating or reheating of
foods in a microwave oven.
Heavy metals and radioactive isotopes from
industries can also find their way into food,
usually through water sources. An example of
this is the level of mercury in fish taken from
lakes and rivers.
Sometimes, a poisonous substance in food can
be controlled (diminished to a minimal risk) if
the food is washed or heated (cooked)
sufficiently. However, the best strategy is for
the food operator to keep harmful substances
out of the food by purchasing supplies
produced under controlled growing.
harvesting, processing, and storage conditions.
ADVERSE FOOD REACTIONS
About 196 of the population is allergic to
compounds (usually certain proteins) found in
food. Allergic reactions may be caused by
many types of foods, including milk, eggs, fish,
seafood (particularly shrimp), legumes
(peanuts), tree nuts, and wheat. Other foods,
including citrus fruits, melons, bananas,
tomatoes, corn, barley, rice, and celery, can
cause allergic reactions in a few sensitive
individuals. In hospitals especially, medical
personnel develop sensitivities to latex in
gloves if a food worker prepares food using
latex gloves; that can be enough transfer of
latex to cause a reaction in the consumer.
Allergic reactions vary with each individual's
sensitivity. Some allergic reactions are mild
(e.g., watery eyes, nasal discharge, headaches,
etc.). However, some people are very sensitive.
if they consume an offending food, life-
threatening anaphylactic shock can occur
within minutes after the food is ingested. An
emphasis must be put on training the Staff to
understand the serious nature of food
allergies.
Food personnel must know, or be able to find.
an accurate list of all the ingredients in the
food served to customers should they request
for this information. Even cross-contact of one
food by another can pose a problem for highly,
sensitive individuals.
In the United states, prepared foods must have
an ingredient label. Labeling of food and
disclosing recipe ingredients enable
hypersensitive people to avoid foods with
offending components. The use of kitchen
chemicals such as MSG (monosodium
glutamate), food color (yellow dye #5), and
aspartame should be revealed upon
customers‘ request. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
CHEMICAL DETECTION AND MONITORING
Food establishment must know the regulations
and get professional help in
detecting/identifying and monitoring chemical
hazards. For example, in a pesticide poisoning
incident, some of the factors to know are:
• The amount of the contaminated food eaten
• Which pesticide was used?
• How much of the chemical was used?
• When the food item was last sprayed?
• How the produce was washed, peeled,
prepared, or cooked, etc.?
Food handlers and consumers should strive to
obtain as much information these factors as
possible. The more information known about
chemical contamination the better prepared
health officials will be in treating the victims,
minimizing l0ong-time effects to human health
and environment, and preventing future
incidents.
In the Philippines, guidelines for the safe use of
pest control chemicals are with the jurisdiction
of the Fertilizer and Pesticide
Authority. Appropriate permits are need for
such chemicals.
Prompt Documentation and Reporting of
Chemical Contamination and Poisoning
Effective control of chemical hazards depends
on the prompt detection and reporting made
to local health authorities.
Food service personnel will typically be the
first responders in cases of poisoning
emergencies, which is why they should be
aware of chemical contamination to protect
themselves as well as the consumers.
Monitoring Points for Chemical Hazards
• Point source
• Environmental compartments
• Primary production
• Import / export
• Production and processing
• Wholesale outlets and markets
• Biomonitoring
Criteria for Establishing Priorities
• Severity of potential effects on health
• Levels in individual food and the diet
• Size and susceptibility of the exposed
population
• Significance in domestic and international
trade
• Nature and cost of management options
Types of Chemical Hazards
Chemical hazards can be divided into six
general types:
 compressed gases
 flammable and combustible chemicals
 corrosive chemicals o poisons/toxins
 oxidizing chemicals
 dangerously reactive materials
While all chemicals have potential hazards
associated with them, when proper health and
safety procedures are followed, any chemical
can be worked with safely.
Compressed Gases
There are three main groups of compressed
gases stored in cylinders: liquefied,
nonliquefied and dissolved gases.
1. Liquefied gases are gases that can become
liquids when they are inside cylinders under
pressure. They exist inside the cylinder in a
liquid-vapour balance or equilibrium. Initially,
the cylinder is almost full of liquid and gas fills
the space above the liquid. As gas is removed
from the cylinder, enough liquid evaporates to
replace it, keeping the pressure in the cylinder
constant. Anhydrous ammonia, chlorine,
propane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide are
examples of liquefied gases.
2. Non-liquefied gases are also known as
compressed, pressurized or permanent gases.
These gases do not become liquid when they
are compressed at normal temperatures, even
at very high pressures.
Examples of these are oxygen, nitrogen, helium
and argon.
3. Dissolved Gases. Acetylene, used in oxy-
acetylene welding, is the only commonly used
dissolved gas. Acetylene is chemically very
unstable. Even at atmospheric pressure,
acetylene gas can explode. Nevertheless,
acetylene is routinely stored and used safely in
cylinders at high pressures.
This is possible because acetylene cylinders are
packed with an inert, porous filler. The filler is
saturated with acetone or another suitable
solvent. When acetylene gas is added to the
cylinder, the gas dissolves in the acetone.
Acetylene in solution is stable.
Flammable and Combustible Materials
Flammable materials are substances that can
ignite easily and burn rapidly. There are many
commonly used flammable materials at most
work sites. They include gases, liquids and
solids, such as:
• Gases – natural gas, propane, butane,
methane, acetylene, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen sulphide. Flammable gases are
usually gases with a lower explosive limit of
less than 13% in air or have a flammable range
in air of at least 12%. For example, carbon
monoxide has a lower explosive limit of 13%
and upper explosive limit of 74% in air; it is
flammable over a range of 61%.
Liquids – gasoline, many solvents (e.g.,
acetone, alcohols, toluene), oil-based paints,
paint thinners, adhesives, degreasers, certain
cleaners, waxes and polishes. Flammable
liquids have a flashpoint below 37.8°C (100°F).
See page 13 for an explanation of flashpoint.
• Solids – some types of coal, pyrophoric
metals (i.e., metals that burn in contact with
air or water, such as sodium and potassium),
solid wastes that are soaked with flammable
liquids (e.g., rags, paper, spill clean-up
products), gunpowder, matches.
Corrosive Materials
Corrosive materials are present in almost every
workplace. These materials can chemically
destroy exposed tissues. Corrosives can also
damage or even destroy metal. They begin to
cause damage as soon as they touch the
surface.
Most corrosives are either acids or bases.
• Acid – an acid is a chemical that donates
protons or hydrogen ions and/ or accepts
electrons.
Common acids include hydrochloric acid,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, chromic acid, acetic
acid and
hydrofluoric acid.
• Base – a base (or alkaline material) is a
chemical that donates electrons or hydroxide
ions or
that accepts protons. Common bases are
ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
(caustic
potash) and sodium hydroxide (caustic soda).
• pH (potential of hydrogen) – the pH scale is
used to measure how acidic or basic a liquid is.
The pH scale goes from 0 to 14. Distilled water
is neutral and has a pH of 7. Acids have pH is
between 0 and 7, bases are from 7 to 14.
Poisons/Toxins
Toxicity is a measure of the poisoning strength
of a chemical. Chemicals that are only weakly
toxic need large doses to cause poisoning.
Strongly toxic chemicals only need small doses
to cause poisoning.
Oxidizers
Oxidizing materials are liquids, gases or solids
that readily give off oxygen or other oxidizing
substances, such as bromine, chlorine or
fluorine. They also include materials that react
chemically to oxidize combustible materials.
This means that oxygen combines chemically
with the other material in a way that increases
the chance of a fire or explosion.
Oxidizing liquids and solids can be severe fire
and explosion hazards.
Dangerously Reactive Materials
Generally, dangerously reactive liquids and
solids are chemicals that can: undergo vigorous
polymerization, condensation or
decomposition
Polymerization is a chemical reaction where
many small molecules together to form a large
molecule.
Condensation is a chemical reaction where two
or more molecules join together to form a new
substance.
Decomposition is a chemical change where a
molecule breaks down into simpler molecules.
• become self-reactive under conditions of
shock or
increase in pressure or temperature
• react vigorously with water to release a
lethal gas)
CHAPTER 6: PHYSICAL HAZARDS
Physical hazards are either foreign materials
unintentionally introduced to food products
(e.g., metal fragments in minced meat) or
naturally occurring objects (e.g., bones in fish)
that pose threats to the consumer. A physical
hazard can become included in food product at
any stage of production.
In physical hazards, a foreign object that causes
injury or harm is easily identified and is the
most frequent reason of consumer complaints.
Statistically, physical hazards may not be as
important as other food hazards.
However, they can be considered obnoxious,
irritating, unsightly, and inconvenient, and can
cause the commercial food establishment to
lose its customers. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
According to Bajao & Osorno (2019) physical
hazards are common sign of poor food handling
practices making workers not properly well
briefed or trained in food safety. To prevent
physical hazards, thoroughly check food items
for the presence of these hazards, properly
wash these food items.
Another important aspect is that employees
who are in direct contact with food should be
properly trained in their work to prevent foreign
hazards getting mixed up with food items.
Lastly, discourage food service staff from
wearing jewelleries particularly hand jewelleries
while they are working in the kitchen.
MAIN TYPES OF PHYSICAL HAZARDS IN FOOD
Food. Common sources are egg shells, fruit and
vegetable peels, inedible seeds, and fish scales.
Glass. Common sources found in food
processing facilities are light bulbs, glass
containers, and glass food containers.
Metal. Common sources of metal include metal
from equipment, such as splinters, blades,
broken needles, fragments from worm utensils,
staples, etc.
Plastic. Common sources of soft and hard
plastics include material used for packaging,
gloves worn by food handlers, utensils used for
cleaning equipment, and parts of tools used to
remove processed food from equipment.
Stone. Field crops, such as peas and beans, are
most likely to contain small stones that are
picked up during harvesting. Concrete
structures and floors in food processing facilities
can also be a source of small stones.
Wood. Common sources of wood come from
wood structures and wooden pallets used to
store or transport ingredients or food products.
Cloth. Common sources of fragments of rags,
hot pads, and sponges.
Insects and Rodents. Common sources are fur,
hair, fecal pellets, eggs, wings, legs, nesting
materials, and discarded seed shells.
Personal effects. Common sources are the food
handlers themselves. This would include their
hair, nails, jewelry, bandages, and cigarette
butts.
Examples of injuries as a result of physical
hazards are cuts to the mouth or throat,
damage to teeth and gums, cuts in the hand,
infection, burns, damage to the intestines, and
choking. The latter could be life threatening and
is considered the most serious consequences,
even resulting in the filing of legal suits. In
severe situations, physical hazards can even
cause death, in which financial obligations by
the party involved would be tremendous. (Ang
& Balanon, 2010).
CHOKING AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Choking occurs when food or small objects gets
caught in the throat or block the airway,
preventing oxygen from traveling to the lungs
and brain. After more than four minutes
without oxygen, brain damage or death may
occur.
Choking may be caused by the food itself,
depending on the texture, size, of the bolus,
and shape. Examples are sticky and gummy food
(tikoy, bubble gum, and peanut butter), long
cylindrical pieces, big spherical objects (hot
dogs), or big bolus of food. These items could
block the air passage or go to the windpipe,
instead of passing to the esophagus.
Infants, young children, the elderly, or a person
suffering from dysphagia (impaired swallowing
reflex) are vulnerable to choking or
asphyxiation. Old age, poor dentition, alcohol
consumption also contributes to choking on
food. Large pieces of food should not be given
to children, the elderly, or to any individuals
who are incapable of chewing the food before
swallowing it. It also beneficial to be trained to
perform the Heimlich maneuver and cardio
pulmonary resuscitation, or to travel with those
who are trained in these procedures.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission and
the FDA established the following guidelines to
determine whether the foreign material present
in the food consumed is physically hazardous or
not:
● A spherical object under 1.75 inches in
diameter, is dangerous to children below three
years old.
● Bones over two centimeters are likely to cause
injury. Less than one centimeter is not
considered a hazard.
● Any sharp, pointed object equal or greater
than seven millimeters is considered a physical
hazard.
However, irrespective of the size and shape,
safety issues are still considered on a case-to-
case basis because of other factors like age,
ability to swallow, and condition of the oral
cavity. The texture and consistency of the food
is also a determining factor. Thermal hazards
include serving very hot food that, when
consumed or spilled on people, can cause
severe burns or tissue injury. When hot foods
are severed, people must be warned to handle
them properly. It is better for food to be served
at temperatures that will not cause injury or
harm. Examples of food causing injury to
consumers include pizza, cream soups,
chocolate, and coffee served at 170°F (76.7°C)
or above; jelly Bismarck‘s overheated in a
microwave; and baby food or baby formula
overheated in a microwave oven in
temperatures exceeding 120° (48.9°C).
(Ang & Balanon, 2010)
PREVENTION OF COMMON PHYSICAL HAZARDS
● Inspect raw materials and food ingredients for
field contaminants (e.g., stones in cereals) that
were not found during the initial receiving
process.
● Follows good storage practices and evaluate
potential risks in storage areas (e.g., sources of
breakable glass such as lights bulbs, staples
from cartons, etc.) and use protective, acrylic
bulbs or lamp covers.
● Develop specifications and controls for all
ingredients and components, including raw and
packaging materials. Specifications should
contain standards for evaluating the
acceptability of ingredients or packaging
materials. For instance, recycled cardboard used
for packaging sometimes contains traces of
metals that can be detected by metal detectors.
A limit for metal detection should be
established to avoid the false positive detection
of metal in food.
● Set up an effective detection and elimination
system for physical hazards in your facility (e.g.,
metal detectors or magnets to detect metal
fragments in the production line, and filters or
screens to remove foreign objects at the
receiving point).
● Properly and regularly maintain the
equipment in the facility to avoid sources of
physical hazards, such as foreign object that
may have been accidentally added to the food.
Light bulbs should be protected with an
unbreakable shield.
● Periodic employee training on shipping,
receiving, storing, handling, maintaining, and
calibrating of equipment will also help prevent
physical hazards from being introduced to food
products.
DETECTION AND ELIMINATION OF PHYSICAL
HAZARDS
● Metal detectors are used to detect metal in
food products. They should be set up to reject
products from the food production line if metal
were to be detected. Proper maintenance
should be given to this equipment to ensure
they are always accurate and not produce false
positives.
● Magnets can be used with metal detectors on
food production lines to attract and remove
metal from products.
● X-ray machines can be used on food
production lines to identify hazards such as
stones, bones, and hard plastics, as well as
metal.
● Food radar systems transmit lowpower
microwaves through food products to identify
foreign bodies such as metals, plastics, bones,
kernels, and organic materials in food on
production lines. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)