ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integumentary System
• The integumentary system consists of the skin
and accessory structures, such as hair, glands,
and nails.
• Integument means covering.
• The appearance of the integumentary system
can indicate physiological imbalances in the body.
Integumentary System Functions
1.Protection. The skin provides protection
against abrasion and ultraviolet light.
2. Sensation. The integumentary system has
sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold,
touch, pressure, and pain.
3. Vitamin D production. When exposed to
ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule that
can be transformed into vitamin D.
4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood
flow beneath the skin’s surface and the activity of
sweat glands in the skin both help regulate body
temperature.
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products
are lost through the skin and in gland secretions.
Skin
• The skin is made up of two major tissue layers:
the epidermis and the dermis.
• The epidermis is the most superficial layer of
skin. It is a layer of epithelial tissue that rests on
the dermis.
• The dermis is a layer of dense connective
tissue.
• The skin rests on the subcutaneous tissue,
which is a layer of connective tissue.
• The subcutaneous tissue is not part of the skin.
Epidermis
• The epidermis prevents water loss and resists
abrasion.
• The epidermis, known as the cutaneous
membrane, is a keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
• The epidermis is composed of distinct layers
called strata
• The stratum corneum, the most superficial
stratum of the epidermis, consists of dead
squamous cells filled with keratin.
• Keratin gives the stratum corneum its structural
strength.
• Cells of the deepest strata perform mitosis.
• As new cells form, they push older cells to the
surface, where they slough, or flake off.
• Excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells
from the surface of the scalp is called dandruff.
• In skin subjected to friction, the number of layers
in the stratum corneum greatly increases,
producing a thickened area called a callus.
• Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum
can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure
called a corn.
Dermis
• The dermis is composed of dense collagenous
connective tissue containing fibroblasts,
adipocytes, and macrophages.
• Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands,
and lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis.
• Collagen fibers, oriented in many directions, and
elastic fibers are responsible for the structural
strength of the dermis and resistance to stretch.
• Some collagen fibers are oriented in more
directions than others, forming cleavage lines.
• Cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the skin, are
more resistant to stretch.
• An incision made parallel with these lines tends
to gap less and produce less scar tissue.
• If the skin is overstretched for any reason, the
dermis can be damaged, leaving stretch marks.
• Dermal papillae are projections toward the
epidermis found in the upper part of the dermis.
• The dermal papillae contain many blood
vessels.
• The dermal papillae in the palms of the hands,
the soles of the feet, and the tips of the digits are
arranged in parallel, curving ridges that shape the
overlying epidermis into fingerprints and footprints
Skin Color
• Factors that determine skin color include
pigments in the skin, blood circulating through the
skin, and the thickness of the stratum corneum.
• The two primary pigments are melanin and
carotene.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• Melanin is the group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
• Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants
such as squash and carrots.
• Most melanin molecules are brown to black
pigments, but some are yellowish or reddish.
• Melanin provides protection against ultraviolet
light from the sun.
• Melanin is produced by melanocytes and then
packaged into vesicles called melanosomes,
which move into the cell processes of
melanocytes.
• Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the
melanocyte cell processes, thereby acquiring
melanosomes.
Melanin Transfer to Epithelial Cells
Skin
Color
• Large
amounts of melanin form freckles or moles in
some regions of the skin.
• Melanin production is determined by genetic
factors, exposure to light, and hormones.
• Genetic factors are responsible for the amounts
of melanin produced in different races.
• Since all races have about the same number of
melanocytes, racial variations in skin color are
determined by the amount, kind, and distribution
of melanin.
• Exposure to ultraviolet light—for example, in
sunlight— stimulates melanocytes to increase
melanin production. The result is a suntan.
• Although many genes are responsible for skin
color, a single mutation can prevent the
production of melanin and cause albinism.
• Carotene is lipid-soluble; when consumed, it
accumulates in the lipids of the stratum corneum
and in the adipocytes of the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue.
• If large amounts of carotene are consumed, the
skin can become quite yellowish.
• The color of blood in the dermis contributes to
skin color.
• A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock,
can make the skin appear pale.
• A decrease in the blood O2 content produces a
bluish color of the skin, called cyanosis.
Skin Cancer
• Most common cancer
• Mainly caused by UV light exposure
• Fair-skinned people more prone
• Prevented by limiting sun exposure and using
sunscreens
• UVA rays cause tan and is associated with
malignant melanomas
• UVB rays cause sunburns
• Sunscreens should block UVA and UVB rays
Types of Skin Cancer
Basal cell carcinoma:
• cells in stratum basale affected
• cancer removed by surgery Squamous cell
carcinoma:
• cells above stratum basale affected
• can cause death
Malignant melanoma:
• arises from melanocytes in a mole
• rare type
• can cause death
Subcutaneous Tissue
• The skin (cutaneous membrane) rests on the
subcutaneous tissue.
• The subcutaneous tissue, which is not part of
the skin, is sometimes called hypodermis.
• The subcutaneous tissue attaches the skin to
underlying bone and muscle and supplies it with
blood vessels and nerves.
• It is loose connective tissue, including adipose
tissue that contains about half the body’s stored
lipids.
• The amount and location of adipose tissue vary
with age, sex, and diet.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue
functions as padding and insulation.
• The subcutaneous tissue can be used to
estimate total body fat.
• The acceptable percentage of body fat varies
from 21% to 30% for females and from 13% to
25% for males.
Hair
• In humans, hair is found everywhere on the skin,
except on the palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of
the genitalia, and the distal segments of the
fingers and toes.
• Each hair arises from a hair follicle, an
invagination of the epidermis that extends deep
into the dermis.
• A hair shaft protrudes above the surface of the
skin;
the root is below the surface
the hair bulb is the expanded base of the root.
• A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a
softer center,the medulla.
• The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single
layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair in the
hair follicle.
• Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on
the hair papilla.
• The hair papilla is an extension of the dermis
that protrudes into the hair bulb and contains
blood vessels.
• Hair is produced in cycles, with a growth stage
and resting stage.
• During the growth stage, hair is formed by
mitosis of epithelial cells within the hair bulb;
these cells divide and undergo keratinization.
• During the resting stage, growth stops and the
hair is held in the hair follicle.
• When the next growth stage begins, a new hair
is formed and the old hair falls out.
• The duration of each stage depends on the
individual hair.
• Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest for
105 days, whereas scalp hairs grow for 3 years
and rest for 1 to 2 years.
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• The loss of hair normally means that the hair is
being replaced because the old hair falls out of
the hair follicle when the new hair begins to grow.
• Hair color is determined by varying amounts and
types of melanin.
• With age, the amount of melanin in hair can
decrease, causing the hair color to become
faded, or the hair can contain no melanin and be
white.
• Each hair follicle is attached to smooth muscle
cells called the arrector pili muscle, which can
contract and cause the hair to become
perpendicular to the skin’s surface.
Glands
• The major glands of the skin are the sebaceous
glands and the sweat glands.
• Sebaceous glands are simple, branched acinar
glands, with most being connected by a duct to
the superficial part of a hair follicle.
• They produce sebum, an oily, white substance
rich in lipids.
• The sebum is released by holocrine secretion
and lubricates the hair and the surface of the skin,
which prevents drying and protects against some
bacteria.
• There are two kinds of sweat glands: eccrine
and apocrine.
• Eccrine sweat glands are simple, coiled, tubular
glands and release sweat by merocrine secretion.
• Eccrine glands are located in almost every part
of the skin but most numerous in the palms and
soles.
• They produce a secretion that is mostly water
with a few salts.
• Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that open onto
the surface of the skin through sweat pores and
are for thermal regulation.
• Sweat can also be released in the palms, soles,
armpits, and other places because of emotional
stress.
• Apocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled,
tubular glands that produce a thick secretion rich
in organic substances.
• The glands open into hair follicles in the armpits
and genitalia.
• Apocrine sweat glands become active at puberty
because of the influence of sex hormones.
• The secretion generally is odorless, but when
released quickly breaks down by bacterial action
giving body odor.
Nails
• The nail is a thin plate, consisting of layers of
dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very
hard type of keratin.
• The visible part of the nail is the nail body, and
the part of the nail covered by skin is the nail root.
• The cuticle, or eponychium, is stratum corneum
that extends onto the nail body and the nail root
extends distally from the nail matrix.
• The nail also attaches to the underlying nail bed,
which is located distal to the nail matrix.
• The nail matrix and bed are epithelial tissue with
a stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that
form the nail.
• A small part of the nail matrix, the lunula, can be
seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent-
shaped area at the base of the nail.
• Cell production within the nail matrix causes the
nail to grow continuously.
Integumentary System Protection
The integumentary system performs many
protective functions:
1. Reduction in body water loss
2. Acts as a barrier that prevents microorganisms
and other foreign substances from entering the
body
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion
4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and protects
underlying structures from its damaging effects
5. Hair protection: The hair on the head acts as a
heat insulator, eyebrows keep sweat out of the
eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign
objects, and hair in the nose and ears prevents
the entry of dust and other materials.
6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and
toes from damage and can be used in defense.
Sensory Receptor
• Many sensory receptors are associated with the
skin.
• Receptors in the epidermis and dermis can
detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• Although hair does not have a nerve supply,
sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
detect the movement of a hair.
Vitamin D Production
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a precursor
molecule of vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the blood
to the liver where it is enzymatically converted.
3. The enzymatically converted molecule is
carried by the blood to the kidneys where it is
converted again to the active form of vitamin D.
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate for many body
functions.
Temperature Regulation
• Regulation of body temperature is important
because the rate of chemical reactions within the
body can be increased or decreased by changes
in body temperature.
• Even slight changes in temperature can make
enzymes operate less efficiently and disrupt the
normal rates of chemical changes in the body.
• Exercise, fever, and an increase in
environmental temperature tend to raise body
temperature.
• In order to maintain homeostasis, the body must
rid itself of excess heat.
• Blood vessels in the dermis dilate and enable
more blood to flow within the skin, thus causing
heat to dissipate from the body.
• Sweat also assists in loss of heat through
evaporative cooling.
• If body temperature begins to drop below
normal, heat can be conserved by the constriction
of dermal blood vessels, which reduces blood
flow to the skin.
• Less heat is transferred from deeper structures
to the skin, and heat loss is reduced.
• With smaller amounts of warm blood flowing
through the skin, the skin temperature decreases.
Excretion
• The integumentary system plays a minor role in
excretion, the removal of waste products from the
body.
• In addition to water and salts, sweat contains
small amounts of waste products, such as urea,
uric acid, and ammonia.
• Even though the body can lose large amounts of
sweat, the sweat glands do not play a significant
role in the excretion of waste products.
Diagnostic Aid
• The integumentary system is useful in diagnosis
because it is observed easily.
• Cyanosis, a bluish color to the skin caused by
decreased blood O2 content, is an indication of
impaired circulatory or respiratory function.
• A yellowish skin color, called jaundice, can
occur when the liver is damaged by a disease,
such as viral hepatitis.
• Rashes and lesions in the skin can be
symptoms of problems elsewhere in the body.
Burns
• A burn is injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold,
friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
• Burns are classified according to their depth.
• Partial-thickness burns are classified as first-
degree and second-degree.
• A full-thickness burn is a third-degree burn.
First-Degree Burn
• A first-degree (superficial) burn involves only the
epidermis and is red and painful.
• Slight edema, or swelling, may be present.
• They can be caused by sunburn or brief
exposure to very hot or very cold objects, and
they heal without scarring in about a week.
Second-Degree Burn
• Second-degree (partial-thickness) burns
damage both the epidermis and the dermis.
• If dermal damage is minimal, symptoms include
redness, pain, edema, and blisters.
• Healing takes about 2 weeks, and no scarring
results.
• If the burn goes deep into the dermis, the wound
appears red, tan, or white; can take several
months to heal and might scar.
Third-Degree Burn
• Third-degree (full-thickness) burns damage the
complete epidermis and dermis.
• The region of third-degree burn is usually
painless because sensory receptors in the
epidermis and dermis have been destroyed.
• Third-degree burns appear white, tan, brown,
black, or deep cherry red.
Burn Healing
• In all second-degree burns, the epidermis,
including the stratum basale where the stem cells
are found, is damaged.
• The epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue
in hair follicles and sweat glands, as well as from
the edges of the wound.
• Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns
take a long time to heal, and they form scar tissue
with disfiguring and debilitating wound
contractures.
Treatment of Burns
• To prevent complications of deep partial-
thickness and full- thickness burns and to speed
healing, skin grafts are often performed.
• In a procedure called a split skin graft, the
epidermis and part of the dermis are removed
from another part of the body and placed over the
burn
• When it is not possible or practical to move skin
from one part of the body to a burn site,
physicians sometimes use artificial skin or grafts
from human cadavers.
Aging and the Integument
• Blood flow decreases and skin becomes thinner
due to decreased amounts of collagen
• Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat
glands make temperature regulation more difficult
• Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and
wrinkle
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Components of Skeletal System Bone Cells
• Bones • Osteoblasts are responsible for the formation of
bone and the repair and remodeling of bone.
• Cartilages
• Osteoblasts produce collagen and
• Tendons proteoglycans.
• Ligaments • Osteoblasts also secrete high concentrations of
Functions of the Skeletal System Ca2+ and phosphate ions, forming crystals called
hydroxyapatite.
1. Body support
• The formation of new bone by osteoblasts is
2. Organ protect called ossification.
3. Body movement • Osteocytes are cells that maintain bone matrix
and form from osteoblast after bone matrix has
4. Mineral storage
surrounded it.
5. Blood cell production
• Osteocytes account for 90–95% of bone cells
Bone Histology and are very long-lived.

• Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the • Osteocyte cell bodies are housed within the
skeletal system are all connective tissues. bone matrix in spaces called lacunae.

• Their characteristics are largely determined by • Their cell extensions are housed in narrow, long
the composition of their extracellular matrix. spaces called canaliculi.

• The matrix always contains collagen, ground • Osteoclasts are bone-destroying cells.
substance, and other organic molecules, as well
• They contribute to bone repair and remodeling
as water and minerals.
by removing existing bone, called bone
• Collagen is a fibrous protein that provides reabsorption.
flexibility but resists pulling or compression.
• Bone breakdown is important for mobilizing
• Matrix ground substance contains proteoglycans crucial Ca2+.
which are water trapping proteins that help
• As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the
cartilage to be smooth and resilient.
blood.
• The extracellular matrix of tendons and
ligaments contains large amounts of collagen
fibers, making these structures very tough, like Spongy and Compact Bone
ropes or cables.
• Mature bone is called lamellar bone. It is
organized into thin, concentric sheets or layers,
called lamellae.
Bone Matrix
• Bone can be classified according to the amount
• Bone matrix is about 35% organic and 65%
of bone matrix relative to the amount of space
inorganic material by weight.
within the bone.
• The organic material is primarily collagen and
• Spongy bone has less bone matrix and more
proteoglycans.
space than compact bone, which has more bone
• The inorganic material is primarily a calcium matrix and less space.
phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite
• Spongy bone consists of interconnecting rods or
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2.
plates of bone called trabeculae.
• Collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the
• Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life
bone.
are filled with bone marrow and blood vessels.
• The mineral component gives bone compression
(weight-bearing) strength.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM
• The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a
single layer of cells consisting of osteoblasts with
a few osteoclasts.
Compact Bone
• Compact bone, or cortical bone, is the solid,
outer layer surrounding each bone.
• The functional unit of compact bone is an
osteon. It is composed of concentric rings of
matrix surrounding a central canal.
• Central canals are lined with endosteum and
contain blood vessels, nerves, and loose
connective tissue.
• Lamellae are concentric rings of bone matrix
which surround the central canal.
• Osteocytes are located in spaces called lacunae
between the lamellar rings.
• Small tunnels called canaliculi radiate between
lacunae across the lamellae.
• Canaliculi connect osteocytes to one another,
transport nutrients and remove waste.
Structure of a Long Bone
• The diaphysis is the center portion of the bone
which is composed of compact bone surrounding
a hollow center called the medullary cavity.
• Some spongy bone tissue lines the medullary
cavity.
• The ends of a long bone are called epiphyses
They contain mostly spongy bone, with an outer
layer of compact bone.
• Within joints, the end of a long bone is covered
with hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage.
• The epiphyseal plate is located between the
epiphysis and the diaphysis. Growth in bone
length occurs at the epiphyseal plate.
• When bone stops growing in length, the
epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and is called
the epiphyseal line.
Bone Marrow
• Cavities in spongy bone and the medullary
cavity in the diaphysis are filled with soft tissue
called marrow.
• Red marrow is the location of blood forming
cells.
• Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
• In the fetus, the spaces within bones are filled
with red marrow. Just before birth the red bone
marrow starts to get converted to yellow marrow.
• This continues well into adulthood.
• In adults, most red bone marrow is in the flat
bones. The long bones of the femur and humerus
contain yellow marrow.
Periosteum and Endosteum
The outer surface of a bone is covered by a
connective tissue membrane called periosteum.
• The outer layer of periosteum contains blood
vessels and nerves.
• The inner layer is a single layer of bone cells,
including osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
• Where tendons and ligaments attach to bone,
fibers of the tendon or ligament become
continuous with those of the periosteum.
• The endosteum is a single cell layer of
connective tissue that lines the internal surfaces
of all cavities within bones.
• The endosteum includes osteoblasts and
osteoclasts.
Bone Formation
• Bone formation in the fetus follows two
processes:
• Intramembranous ossification starts within
embryonic connective tissue membranes.
• Endochondral ossification starts with a
cartilage model.
• Both types of bone formation can result in
compact or spongy bone.
Intramembranous Ossification
• Intramembranous ossification occurs when
osteoblasts begin to produce bone within
connective tissue.
• This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
• Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective
tissue fibers and begin depositing bone matrix to
form trabeculae.
Intramembranous Ossification
• The process begins in areas called ossification
centers and the trabeculae radiate out from the
centers.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in
each flat skull bone and mature skull bones result
from fusion of these centers as they enlarge.
• The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and
they may enlarge or be replaced by compact
bone.
Steps in Intramembranous Ossification
1. Osteoblasts within the center of ossification
produce bone matrix around collagen fibers of the
connective tissue membrane. Once the
osteoblasts are embedded in bone matrix, the
osteoblasts become osteocytes. Many tiny
trabeculae of woven bone develop.
2. Additional osteoblasts gather on the surfaces of
the trabeculae and produce more bone.
Trabeculae become larger and longer. Spongy
bone forms as the trabeculae join together.
3. Cells within the spaces of the spongy bone
specialize to form red bone marrow, and cells
surrounding the developing bone specialize to
form the periosteum. Osteoblasts from the
periosteum lay down bone matrix to form an outer
surface of compact bone.
Endochondral Ossification
• Endochondral bone formation is bone formation
within a cartilage model.
• The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
• Initially formed is a primary ossification
center, which forms bone in the diaphysis of a
long bone.
• A secondary ossification center forms bone in
the epiphysis.
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
cartilage.
Bone Growth in Width
• Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new
bone lamellae onto existing bone or other
connective tissue.
• As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the
surface of bones between the periosteum and the
existing bone matrix, the bone increases in width,
or diameter.
• This process is called appositional growth.
Bone Growth in Length
• Growth in the length of a bone, which is the
major source of increased height in an individual,
occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
• This type of bone growth occurs through
endochondral ossification.
• Chondrocytes increase in number on the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
• Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.
• The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
• Much of the cartilage that forms around the
enlarged cells is removed by osteoclasts, and the
dying chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts.
• The osteoblasts start forming bone by
depositing bone lamellae on the surface of the
calcified cartilage.
• This process produces bone on the diaphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate.
Bone Remodeling
Bone remodeling involves:
• removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
• deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
• occurs in all bones
• responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and calcium
ion regulation
Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a hematoma
forms.
2. A callus forms which is a bone cartilage
network between and around the bone fragments.
3. Woven, spongy bone replaces the callus.
4. Compact bone replaces the spongy bone.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
Calcium is a critical nutrient involved in many
physiological processes including:
• Stimulation and regulation of skeletal and
cardiac muscle contraction
• Exocytosis of cellular molecules, including those
important for neural signaling
• Bone is a major storage site for calcium.
• Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
determine blood levels of calcium.
• Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build
new bone.
• Calcium moves out of bone as osteoclasts break
down bone.
• Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Secreted by the parathyroid gland
• Increases formation and activation of
osteoclasts, the principal bone-reabsorbing cells
• Stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ from urine in
the kidney, reducing the amount of Ca2+ excreted
in the urine.
• Indirectly increases Ca2+ uptake from the small
intestine through the activation of calcitriol.
Calcitonin
• Secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when
blood Ca2+ levels are too high
• Rapidly lowers blood Ca2+ levels by inhibiting
osteoclast activity
Skeletal Anatomy Overview
• The average adult has 206 bones.
• Bones are segregated into the axial skeleton
and the appendicular skeleton.
• The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the
skull, the auditory ossicles, the hyoid bone, the
vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
• The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones
of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the two
girdles.
• The term girdle, refers to the two zones where
the limbs are attached to the body.
• These two zones are the pectoral girdle and
the pelvic girdle.
Bone Shapes
• There are four bone shape classifications: long,
short, flat, and irregular.
• Long bones are longer than they are wide;
examples are upper and lower limb bones.
• Short bones are approximately as wide as they
are long; examples are the bones of the wrist and
ankle.
• Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened
shape; examples are bones of the skull and
sternum.
• Irregular bones include the vertebrae and facial
bones, which have shapes that do not fit readily
into the other three categories.
Skeletal Terminology
Foramen:
• hole
• Example - foramen magnum
Fossa:
• depression
• Example - glenoid fossa
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LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Process: Cranial Bones
• projection Frontal bone
• Example - mastoid process • Anterior part of cranium, the ‘forehead”
Condyle: Parietal bones
• smooth, rounded end • Sides and roof of cranium
• Example - occipital condyle Occipital bones
Meatus or canal: • Posterior portion and floor of cranium
• canal-like passageway Temporal bones
• Example - external auditory meatus • Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the
cranium
Tubercle or tuberosity:
• Temporomandibular joint
• lump of bone
Sphenoid bone
• Example - greater tubercle
• Forms part of cranium floor, lateral posterior
portions of eye orbits, lateral portions of cranium
Axial Skeleton anterior to temporal bones

• The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the • Sella turcica

vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. Ethmoid bone
• The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the • Anterior portion of cranium, including medial
braincase and those of the face. surface of eye orbit and roof of nasal cavity
• The braincase, which encloses the cranial • Nasal conchae
cavity, consists of 8 cranial bones that
immediately surround and protect the brain. Facial Bones
• The bony structure of the face has 14 facial Maxillae
bones.
• Forms the upper jaw, anterior portion of hard
• Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly palate, part of lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors
connected to form the bulk of the face. of eye orbits
• The mandible, however, forms a freely movable • Maxillary sinus
joint with the rest of the skull.
Palatine bones
• There are also three auditory ossicles in each
middle ear (six total). • Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral wall
of nasal cavity
Cranial Sutures
Zygomatic bones
The cranial bones are connected by immovable
joints called sutures • Cheek bones

There are four principal sutures: • Also form floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit

• coronal Lacrimal bones

• sagittal • Medial surfaces of eye orbits

• lambdoid Nasal bones

• squamous • Form bridge of nose

Vomer
• In midline of nasal cavity
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LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM

• Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone • The sacral and coccygeal regions together
curve posteriorly
Inferior nasal conchae
7 cervical vertebra
• Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity
12 thoracic vertebra
Mandible
5 lumbar vertebra
• Lower jawbone
1 sacrum
• Only movable skull bone
1 coccyx
Paranasal Sinuses
Atlas:
Several of the bones associated with the nasal
cavity have large cavities within them, called the • 1st vertebra
paranasal sinuses which open into the nasal
cavity. • holds head

The paranasal sinuses are: Axis:

• Frontal • 2nd vertebra

• Ethmoid • rotates head

• Sphenoid Functions of Vertebral Column

• Maxillary • Supports body weight

Hyoid Bone • Protects the spinal cord

• The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U-shaped bone • Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
that is not part of the skull and has no direct bony • Provides a site for muscle attachment
attachment to the skull or any other bones.
• Provides movement of the head and trunk
• The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of
being the only bone in the body that does not
articulate with another bone.
Thoracic Cage
• The hyoid bone provides an attachment for
Protects vital organs
some tongue muscles, and it is an attachment
point for important neck muscles that elevate the 12 pair of ribs
larynx.
Sternum:
Vertebral Column
• breastbone
• The vertebral column, or spine, is the central
axis of the skeleton, extending from the base of True ribs:
the skull to slightly • attach directly to sternum by cartilage
past the end of the pelvis. False ribs:
• In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual • attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
bones, grouped into five regions.
Floating ribs:
• The adult vertebral column has four major
curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar and • not attached to sternum
sacrococcygeal.
Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
• The cervical region curves anteriorly.
Scapula: shoulder blade
• The thoracic region curves posteriorly.
Clavicle: collar bone
• The lumbar region curves anteriorly
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LECTURE: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Upper Limb Bones • subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and
gomphoses
Humerus: upper portion of forelimb
Cartilaginous:
Ulna: forearm
• united by means of cartilage
Radius: forearm
• subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis
Carpals: wrist
Synovial:
Metacarpals: Hand
• joined by a fluid cavity
Phalanges: fingers
• Most joints of the appendicular skeleton

Pelvic Girdle
Functional Classification of Joints
Where lower limbs attach to the body
Synarthrosis:
Pelvis: includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
• non-movable joint
Ischium: inferior and posterior region of hip bone
• Example – skull bone articulations
Ilium: most superior region of hip bone
Amphiarthrosis:
Acetabulum: hip socket (joint) of hip bone
• slightly movable joint
• Example - between vertebrae
Lower Limb Bones
Diarthrosis:
Femur: thigh
• freely movable joint
Patella: knee cap
• Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations
Tibia: Larger bone of lower leg
Synovial Joint
Fibula: Smaller bone lower leg
• Synovial joints are surrounded by fluid filled
Tarsals: ankle joint cavity. The cavity is created by the joint
Metatarsals: foot capsule and is full of synovial fluid.

Phalanges: toes and fingers • The joint capsule helps hold the bones together
while still allowing for movement.
• The joint capsule consists of two layers: an outer
Articulations fibrous capsule and an inner synovial
membrane.
• Articulations (joints) are where two bones come
together. • The fibrous capsule is the outer layer of the joint
capsule. It consists of dense irregular connective
• Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous,
tissue and is continuous with the fibrous layer of
cartilaginous, or synovial, according to the major
the periosteum that covers the bones united at
connective tissue type that binds the bones
the joint.
together and whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is
present. • The synovial membrane is the inner layer of the
joint capsule. It lines the joint cavity, produces
• Joints are also be classified in functional
synovial fluid, a viscous lubricating liquid.
categories according to their degree of motion as
synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or diarthroses.
Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous joint:
• united by fibrous connective tissue
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Types of Movement
• Flexion: bending
• Extension: straightening
• Abduction: movement away from midline
• Adduction: movement toward the midline
• Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms
down
• Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
• Rotation: movement of a structure about the
long axis
Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and
Joints
1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes