ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I CIVIL ENGINEERING - 2017/2018

COMPACTION
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by packing the particles closer together
with a reduction of the air volume but without a significant change in the volume of the pore water.
Generally, it holds that the higher the degree of compaction, the higher the shear strength and the
lower the compressibility and permeability of a soil. In addition, compaction reduces the
liquefaction and increases the erosion resistance of the soil. A good measure of compaction is
needed in the construction of road embankments, improvement of road subgrade, subbase and base
layers. Compaction of materials in dams is needed to ensure stability and water tightness of the
dam walls.
The following are the important distinctions between compaction and consolidation.

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION

Man made Natural

Expulsion of air Expulsion of pore water
Fast process Gradual process
Possible in dry or partially saturated soil Possible in saturated soil
Results in increased density Results in dense packing

The degree of compaction is measured quantitatively by the dry density (γd). The increase in dry
density of soil is a function of the moisture content of the soil and the compaction effort. The
variation of dry density and moisture content (M) is shown in the figure below. Curve is usually
plotted by obtaining the dry density from bulk density and water content measurements as follows;

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Typical compaction curve

The compaction characteristics of a soil can be determined by three standard laboratory tests.
The first is the (Proctor Test) light manual compaction test with 2.5kg hammer. The second is
(Modified AASHTO) heavy compaction test in which much greater compaction is achieved by use
of 4.5kg hammer. The third is use of a vibrating hammer and is intended mainly for granular soils
passing 37.5 mm test sieve with no more than 30% retained on a 20mm test sieve.
The mould for Proctor test method is 1000 cm3 and 100mm diameter. The test covers soil with
particles finer than 20mm sieve size. The compaction is effected by free fall of the 2.5 kg rammer
through 300mm in three layers. Each layer receives 27 blows
In Modified AASHTO method the rammer is 4.5kg. The rammer is made to freely fall through
450mm. In addition, the soil in the same type of mould is compacted through 5 layers. Each layer
receives 62 blows. The test is suitable for soils containing not more than 30% retained on 20mm
sieve size. These particles may include particles retained on 37.5mm sieve size.
In the vibratory rammer method, the mould is 2360cm3 and 152 mm diameter. The compaction is
effected by placing the rammer on the soil surface and vibrating the rammer at 60±2seconds.
During this period a steady downward force on the rammer is applied to enable a force of between
300 and 400 N to be applied on the soil. Like the method using 4.5 kg rammer the test is suitable
for soils containing not more than 30% retained on 20mm sieve size. These particles may include
particles retained on 37.5mm sieve size. The test is however not suitable for cohesive soils.
After the compaction using any of the three methods the mould is trimmed at the top. The soil bulk
density and moisture content are determined. The soil dry density is then computed. The test must
be repeated at least five times at different moisture contents to enable the plotting of the compaction
curve. The results are captured in the table below.

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Trial Number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume of mould
Weight of mould (W1)
Weight of mould + soil (W2)
Weight of wet soil
Bulk density of soil
Weight of cup
Weight of cup + wet soil
Weight of cup + dry soil
Water Content
Dry density of soil
Dry density corresponding to ZAV

The coordinates of the peak dry density define the MDD and OMC. Typical results are shown on
the figures below.

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22 2.5 kg rammer
4 . 5 kg rammer
Vibratory rammer
Power (0% air voids)
20
Power (10% air voids)

18

16

14

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture content (%)

Effect of rammer type on compaction of soil

A dry soil is hard to compact because the solid particles experience a relatively large friction force
to overcome prior to movement. When adding water this will act as a lubricant thus optimizing the
compaction effort. When adding too much water it will take the space, which could have been
occupied by the solids and therefore the dry density will decline again.
As can be seen from the figures above, a higher compactive effort results in a higher value of the
maximum dry density and a lower value of the OMC (= optimum moisture content). Therefore, the
test results should be read in context of the test used.
In theory the maximum dry density is reached when all air is removed from the sample. This is
referred to as the zero-air void or saturated dry density. In practice however, it is not possible to
expel all air and at the OMC the air content is usually in the range of 5%, as visualized in figure
above. For a given combination of ɤd, w and Gs, the corresponding air content A can be determined
and hence curves of equal air contents can be drawn. This has been done for air contents of 0%,
5% and 10%.

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The dry density also depends on the type of soil. In general, coarse-grained soils can be compacted
to higher dry densities than fine-grained soils.
Determination of Zero Air Voids Line

Block diagram for determining zero air voids line

Refer to figure above:

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Example:
A small cylinder having volume of 600 cm3 is pressed into a recently compacted fill of
embankment filling the cylinder. The mass of the soil in the cylinder is 1100 g. The dry mass of
the soil is 910 g. Determine the void ratio and the saturation of the soil. Take the specific gravity
of the soil grains as 2.7.
Solution:
Wet density of soil

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I CIVIL ENGINEERING - 2017/2018
Field Compaction Methods
There are three methods of compaction in field:
1. Rolling - rollers
2. Ramming – Rammers
3. Vibration – Vibrators
Rollers: Types
1. Smooth wheel rollers: Having three wheels with two large smooth faced steel wheels in the
rear and one smaller smooth faced drum in front weighing from 20 to 150 kN. These are most
suited for compacting coarse grained soils,but moderately used for cohesive soils also.
2. Sheep foot rollers: It consists of hollow cylindrical steel drum on which a series of projecting
feet are mounted. The weight of the drum can be varied by filling it partly or fully with water
or sand and they are mounted either singly or in pairs on a steel frame which is towed by
pneumatic tractors. Sheep foot rollers are mostly suitable for compacting cohesive soils. The
kneading action produce better bond between compacted layers. These are net effective on
coarse grained soils.
3. Pneumatic tyred rollers: This roller size ranges from very small to very heavy rollers. The
tyre pressures are of the order 250 kN/m2 and tyre loads are about 7.5 kN per tyre. These are
suitable for both cohesive less and cohesive soils. The action of pneumatic tyred rollers is a
combination of passive and kneading.
4. Vibratory rollers: When the vibrator is mounted on a drum, it is called a vibratory roller.
These rollers are suitable for compacting cohesion less soil.
5. Rammers: These are used for compacting soils in places where use of rollers are not feasible.
Mechanically operated type comprises of pneumatic and internal combustion type. Weight of
rammer is from 300 to 1500 kN. Internal combustion type jumping rammers known as frog
rammers, weigh up to 10 kN.
6. Tampers: These are hand operated rammers consists of block of iron about 3 to 5 kN in mass,
attached to a wooden rod. It is lifted for about 0.3 m and dropped on the soil to be compacted.
Tampers are used to compact soils adjacent to existing structures or confined areas, such as
trenches, behind bridge abutments. It can be used for all types of soils.
Field Control of Compaction: Methods of Control of Density
The compaction of soil in the field must be such as to obtain the desired unit weight at the optimum
moisture content. The field engineer has therefore to make periodic checks to see whether the
compaction is giving desired results. The procedure of checking involves:
1. Measurement of the dry unit weight, and
2. Measurement of the moisture content.
There are many methods for determining the dry unit weight and/or moisture content of the soil in-
situ. The important methods are:
1. Sand cone method,
2. Rubber balloon method,
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3. Nuclear method, and
4. Proctor needle method.
Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)
The sand for the sand cone method consists of a sand pouring jar. The jar contains uniformly graded
clean and dry sand. A hole about 10 cm in diameter is made in the soil to be tested up to the depth
required. The weight of soil removed from the hole is determined and its water content is also
determined. Sand is run into the hole from the jar by opening the valve above the cone until the
hole and the cone below the valve is completely filled. The valve is closed. The jar is calibrated to
give the weight of the sand that just fills the hole, that is, the difference in weight of the jar before
and after filling the hole after allowing for the weight of sand contained in the cone is the weight
of sand poured into the hole.
Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation: D 2167)
The volume of an excavated hole in a given soil is determined using a liquid-filled calibrated
cylinder for filling a thin rubber membrane. This membrane is displaced to fill the hole. The in-
place unit weight is determined by dividing the wet mass of the soil removed by the volume of the
hole. The water (moisture) content and the in-place unit weight are used to calculate the in place
dry unit weight. The volume is read directly on the graduated cylinder.

Nuclear Method
The modern instrument for rapid and precise field measurement of moisture content and unit weight
is the Nuclear density/Moisture meter. The measurements made by the meter are non-destructive
and require no physical or chemical processing of the material being tested. The instrument may
be used either in drilled holes or on the surface of the ground. The main advantage of this equipment
is that a single operator can obtain an immediate and accurate determination of the in-situ dry
density and moisture content.
Proctor Needle Method
The Proctor needle method is one of the methods developed for rapid determination of moisture
contents of soils in-situ. It consists of a needle attached to a spring-loaded plunger, the stem of
which is calibrated to read the penetration resistance of the needle in lbs/in2 or kg/cm2. The needle
is supplied with a series of bearing points so that a wide range of penetration resistances can be
measured. The bearing areas that are normally provided are 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.50 and 1.0 sq. in.
Effects of Compaction on soil properties
The following properties of soil are affected by compaction:
1. Soil structure
2. Permeability
3. Swelling
4. Pore Water Pressure
5. Shrinkage
6. Compressibility
7. Stress-Strain Relationship
8. Shear Strength

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Effect on Soil Structure
The water content at which the soil is compacted plays an important role in soil structure. Soils
compacted at water content less than optimum water content have flocculated structure. Soils
compacted at water content more than optimum water content have dispersed structure.
Effect on Permeability
Permeability of soil depends on void size. As water content increases, there is an improved
orientation of particles resulting in reduction of void size and permeability. Above optimum water
content, the permeability slightly increases. If compactive effort is increased, the permeability
decreases due to increased dry density.
Effect on Swelling
The effect of compaction is to reduce void space. Hence swelling is enormously reduced. Further
soil compacted dry of optimum exhibits greater swell than compacted on wet side because of
random orientation and deficiency of water.
Effect on Pore Water Pressure
It is defined as pressure of ground water held within a rock or soil, in gaps between particles (pores).
The pore water pressure for soil compacted dry of optimum is therefore less than that for the same
soil compacted wet of optimum.
Effect on Shrinkage
Soils compacted dry of optimum shrink less when compared to compacted wet of optimum. The
soils compacted wet of optimum shrink more because the soil particles in dispersed structure can
pack more efficiently.
Effect on Compressibility
The flocculated structure on the dry side of optimum offers greater resistance to compression than
the dispersed structure on wet side. So, the soils compacted dry of optimum are less compressible.
Effect on Strain-Stress Relationship
The soil compacted dry of optimum have steeper stress-strain curve than those on wet side. The
strength and modulus of elasticity of soil on dry side of optimum will be high. Soil compacted dry
of optimum shows brittle failure. And soils compacted on wet side experience increased strain
Effect on Shear Strength
In general, the soils compacted dry of optimum have a higher shear strength than wet of optimum
at lower strains. However at large strains the flocculated structure of soil is broken and ultimate
strength will be equal for both dry and wet sides.
Factors affecting compaction
1) Water Content
2) Amount of Compaction
3) Method of Compaction
4) Type of Soil
5) Addition of Admixtures

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Effect of Water Content
With increase in water content, compacted density increases up to a stage, beyond which compacted
density decreases. The maximum density achieved is called MDD and the corresponding water
content is called OMC. At lower water contents than OMC, soil particles are held by electrical
forces that prevents the development of diffused double layer leading to low inter-particle
repulsion. Increase in water results in expansion of double layer and reduction in net attractive
force between particles. Water replaces air in void space. Particles slide over each other easily
increasing lubrication, helping in dense packing. After OMC is reached, air voids remain constant.
Further increase in water, increases the void space, thereby decreasing dry density.

Effect of Amount of Compaction

The effect of increasing compactive effort is to increase MDD and reduce OMC (Evident from
Standard & Modified Proctor’s Tests). However, there is no linear relationship between compactive
effort and MDD

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Effect of Method of Compaction
The dry density achieved by the soil depends on the following characteristics of compacting
method.
1) Weight of compacting equipment
2) Type of compaction - Impact, Kneading, Rolling, Static Pressure
3) Area of contact of compacting equipment with soil
4) Time of exposure
5) Each of these approaches will yield different compactive effort. Further, suitability
of a particular method depends on type of soil.

Effect of Type of Soil

Coarse grained soil achieves higher density at lower water content and fine-grained soil achieves
lesser density, but at higher water content.

Effect of Addition of Admixtures

Stabilizing agents are the admixtures added to soil. The effect of adding these admixtures is to
stabilize the soil. In many cases they accelerate the process of densification.

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