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Accepted: March 31, 2020
Revised: August 13, 2020 Accepted: September 1, 2020

DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12640

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Tofu products: An overview of raw materials, processing conditions, and

the packaging

Li Zheng1,2,ÿ Joe M. Regenstein2,ÿ Fei Teng1 Yang Li1,3,4

1
College of Food Science, North East
Abstract
Agricultural University, Harbin, China

2
Department of Food Science, Cornell Tofu is a traditional product made mainly from soybeans, which have
University, Ithaca, New York
has become popular globally due to its inclusion in vegetarian, vegan and hypocaloric
3
Harbin Food Industry Institute,
diets. However, with commercial tofu production and research
Harbin, China

4 scientific knowledge, it remains a challenge to produce tofu of high quality,

Heilongjiang Green Food Academy
Science, Harbin, China high nutrition, and excellent taste. This is because making tofu involves

Yang Correspondence
Li, Faculty of Food Science, Agricultural University
Northeast, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China.
several complicated stages, such as selecting soybeans, using coagulants
proper, and tofu packaging. To make high quality tofu products,
it is important to systematically understand the critical influencing factors

Email: yangli@neau.edu.cn Fei

tofu quality. This article reviews the current status of tofu production research.
Teng, Faculty of Food Science, Agricultural University Diversity of soybean seeds (raw materials), protein composition, structural properties,
Northeast, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China.
and nutritional value reviewed. Then, tofu coagulant selection is reviewed to provide insight

Email:tengfei@neau.edu.cn
into its role in tofu quality, where the focus is on the use of mixed coagulants and
Joe M. Regenstein, Department of recent developments with new coagulants. In addition, a comprehensive summary
Food Science, Stocking Hall, Cornell
University, Ithaca, NY 14853.
is provided on recent developments in the manufacture of high-fiber tofu using Okara
Email: jmr9@cornell.edu (a major by-product during tofu production), which has a number of potential

ÿLi Zheng and Joe M. Regenstein provided

applications in the food industry. To help encourage automated, environmentally
contributed equally to this work. friendly and highly efficient tofu production, new developments and applications in

Funding information
production technology, such as ultrasound and high pressure processes, are
Eastern Agricultural Culture “Young Talents” Project reviewed.
Marine, Grant/Award Number: 17QC18;
Tofu packaging, including packaging materials and techniques, is evaluated because
University Nursing Program for Young People
Scholars with Creative Talents at Hey proven to have a positive impact in extending shelf life and
Longjiang Province, Grant/Award Number: improve the quality of tofu products. Finally, future research directions and potential areas u
UNPYSCT-2017015; 13th Five Year Plan,

Grant/Award Number: 2016YFD0400402, KEYWORDS

2016YFD0400702, 2016YFD0401402;
Glycine max, high pressure processing, tofu, tofu packaging, ultrasound
China Scholarship Council, Grants/Awards

Number: 201906610010; Science Foundation

China National Natural Science,

Grant/Award Number: 31430067,

31571876, 31601475, 31671807;

Hei longjiang Province Applied Technology

Research and Development Technology

Main Project, Grant/Award Number:

GA17B002; General Undergraduate Higher Education

Heilongjiang Province

Youth Innovative Talent Training Program,

Grant/Award Number: NYPYSCT

2018163; Heilongjiang Province Science

Foundation Project, Grant/Award Number:

C2018024

wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 1
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2020;1–32. © 2020 Institute of Food TechnologyR
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2 Tofu products: Review...
1. INTRODUCTION
Tofu, also known as bean curd, has a long history of being produced in
China. The first record of tofu making in China goes back more than 2,000
years (Chinese Han dynasty) (Zhou, Tian,
& Wang, 2017). Although many scholars believe that knows
those made in the Han Dynasty are simple, do not have
firmness, and lacking taste, it can be recognized as tofu.
It became a popular food in China during the Song Dynasty (960 to
1279) (Buell, 2018; Needham, 1976; Wilkin son,
2012). Tofu production was popular among civilians during the Edo
period (1603 to 1868) in Japan and was later introduced throughout
Southeast Asia (Shurtleff & Aoy agi, 2010). Over time, tofu production
technology matured in China and spread throughout the world with the
advancement of science and technological development.
Tofu provides several important nutrients and physiological
benefits due to its relatively large protein, lipid, vitamin, mineral and
isoflavone content (Wang, Li, et al., 2019; Yang, Cho & Lee, 2020).
Therefore, tofu as part of a balanced diet has the potential to reduce
the risk of cardiovascular disease,
hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and others (Takahashi et al., 2017;
Takahashi, Konishi, & Yamaki, 2019; Wang, Yang, & Li
2020; Zhao et al., 2018).
As shown in Table 1, tofu products can be
classified into firm/soft tofu, packaged/pressed tofu, and
know fermentation based on product characteristics and differences
coagulant used during the tofu making process (Dey,
Prasad, Kaur, Singh, & Luwang, 2017; Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 2013; Zhang
et al., 2018). Furthermore, the hardness and water content of tofu products
were varied to accommodate differences
Abbreviations: A, acid ; AA, amino acid; AI, artificial intelligence; B, basic;
BOPP, biaxially oriented polypropylene; CA, calcium acetate; CAPP, cold
atmospheric pressure plasma; CC, calcium chloride; CL, calcium
lactate; CLSM, confocal laser scanning microscope; COS, chito-
oligosaccharide; CS, calcium sulfate; CSA, crab shell ash; CSP, crab shell
powder; DN, dual network; EEF, eluted fraction
ethanol; FBTE, Fu brick tea extract; GDL, glucono-ÿ-lactone;
GIS, gastrointestinal simulation digestion; GRAS, is generally recognized
safe; GYP, gypsum ; HDPE, high density polyethylene; HEWM,
high energy wet media; HFT, high fiber tofu; SHARK, high intensity
ultrasonic; HP, high pressure; HSS, high-speed shaving; ITC,
isothiocyanate; L. casei, LAB, lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus casei; L.
plantarum, Lactobacillus plantarum; LAB acid bacteria; LBL, layer by
layer; LDPE, low density polyethylene; LOX, lipoxygenase; MAP,
modified atmosphere packaging; MC, magnesium chloride; MDF, microscale
dietary fiber; ML, machine learning; MS, magnesium sulfate;
MTGase, microbial transglutaminase; NDF, nanoscale dietary fiber; NGR,
nigari; NS, nisin; OCC, optimal coagulant concentration; PAW, plasma
activated water; SBP/SG, sugar beet pectin/soybean glycinin; SDS-PAGE,
sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; SEM, scanning
electron microscope; SPI, soy protein isolate; SS, covalent
disulfide; TG, Transglutaminase; TMC, trimagnesium citrate; TPA, texture
profile analysis; W/O, water in oil; WHC, water holding capacity; WSF,
whole soybean flour.
customer needs and expectations regarding mouthfeel, texture, and taste
(Wang, Jin, Su, Lu, & Guo, 2019).
Making tofu produces many by-products, some of which are used
traditionally, while others are being studied for their potential uses. Some
traditional by-products are tofu skin (dried soy milk skin) (fupí
in Chinese and yuba in Japanese) (Yan & Kai, 2020; Yue, Ng, Lim, Lam,
ÿ
& Chee, 2019) and soy dregs (Okara in Japanese language
¯
and dòufuzha in Chinese) (Orts et al., 2019; Yoshida &
Prudencio, 2020). Others have developed products using other
starting materials such as chickpea tofu (also called
Burmese tofu) (Joshi & Kumar, 2015); in particular, the use of Okara
to make high fiber tofu (HFT) will be discussed.
Tofu is produced using a multi-step process, including
selection of raw soybean seeds, soaking, grinding,
heating soy milk, filtering, adding coagulants,
pressing, and packaging (Zhang et al., 2018). The flow diagram for making
, tofu and its nutritional benefits is presented in Figure 1. Therefore, the
quality of tofu products is influenced by several factors.
These factors can be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic
factors include the diversity of soybean seeds, depending on their
, genotype and protein composition.
Food processing and packaging conditions are extrinsic factors. Previous
research shows that the diversity of soybean seeds, protein composition, pH,
high pressure, heating, different types of coagulants, and processing
scale can significantly influence the final quality of tofu (Wang, Jin,
et
al. , 2019; Zhang et al., 2018). Although some researchers have
discuss the relationship between the quality of tofu and intrinsic factors/
extrinsic, most of this discussion is limited and not
comprehensive. A more complete understanding of the reasons in
behind the complex interactions between all the factors that
influencing the final product is still to be done. This review
hopes to collect in one place what is currently known about these factors
and their interactions with other factors. Additionally, some of the latest
developments on
New coagulants and high fiber Okara tofu will be introduced.
Finally, a detailed discussion of new production technologies and packaging
materials for tofu products will be included.
2 SOYBEANS
As an important source of protein in Asia, soybeans have been widely selected
specifically as a raw material for making tofu products (Joo &
Cavender, 2020). The quality of tofu products depends on the nature and
the benefits of soybeans.
The characteristics of soybean tofu are related to the seed cultivar and
genotype, composition, cultivation environment, and conditions
storage (Vicente, Pok, Garcia Londono, & Pacin, 2019;
Yang & James, 2016 ; Yasin ,
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Tofu products: Review... 3

TABLE 1 Representative types, processing steps, and general characteristics of tofu

Pressed tofu (soft)

Processing steps: Heat denature soy milk protein; appropriate stirring speed and time after adding coagulant; gelation at high temperatures (75 to

85 ÿC); selection of appropriate pressing pressure Characterization: Processed with

pressing whole chickpeas; ÿ90% moisture Sensory assessment: Soft, cheese-like texture but firm enough to

retains its shape after slicing; light peanut flavor Industrialization: Industrial production References: Shurtleff et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018

Pressed (firm) tofu

Processing steps: Heat denature soy milk protein; appropriate stirring speed and time after adding coagulant; gelation at high temperatures (75 to

85 ÿC); selection of appropriate pressing pressure Characterization: Processed with

pressing whole chickpeas; ÿ80% moisture content Sensory evaluation: Compact internal structure; strong taste and taste

strong nut Industrialization: Industrial production; Workshop style references: Shurtleff et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018

Packaged tofu (soft)

Processing steps: Heat denature soy milk protein; appropriate stirring speed and time after adding coagulant; gelation at low temperature (40 ÿC)

or ambient temperature; selection of appropriate pressing pressure Characterization: Gelation in pouch and printed packaging

without pressing; ÿ90% water content; relatively high yield due to little loss of water-soluble protein Sensory evaluation: Bland taste and smooth texture; texture like soft cheese but

strong enough to

retains its shape after slicing; light peanut flavor Industrialization: Industrial production References: Shurtleff et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018

Fermented tofu (soft)

Processing steps: Heat denature soy milk protein; appropriate stirring speed and time after adding coagulant; gelation at high temperature (70 ÿC);

formation of soy curd (10 minutes); centrifugation (650 × g); soaking tofu (95 ÿC, 6 minutes); drying, inoculation, and aging Characterization: The quality of tofu products depends on

type of strain used for fermentation. Inoculation and aging without compression steps Sensory evaluation: Bland taste and fine texture Industrialization: Industrial production References:

Dey et al., 2017

FIGURE 1 Flow diagram for making tofu

manufactured using a multi-step and multiple process

nutritional and physiological benefits

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Horo, & Gebre, 2019). Six commercial soybean genotypes (Nena and
Lana [age group II], Novosadjanka and Balkan [age group
I], and ZPS015 [age group 0], and Krajina [age group 00])
grown under field conditions are used as material
standard. to make tofu products. The goal is to
provided an assessment of the influence of soybean geno types
on tofu quality (Stanojevic, Barac, Pesic, & Vucelic-Radovic, 2011).
(Age groups were developed to determine to which soybean cultivars are
best adapted. It is determined by photoperiod and temperature, with
age group II developing with the highest temperatures and longest
photoperiods among them [Mourtzinis & Conley, 2017].) The main
conclusion of this study is as follows: the quality of tofu is influenced by
the quality and quantity of protein in the seeds; research on the 11S:7S
protein ratio in seeds shows
that genotype has a significant influence on the ratio
this, which in turn influenced tofu firmness (r = 0.99, p < 0.05) and yield
(r = 0.91, p < 0.05) among varieties
different. Anderson et al. (2019) showed that soybean seed genes
with high protein content, it is faster than tofu products.
However, compared with the effect of genotype, year and effect
location is generally clearer for protein content and seed mass (Poysa,
Woodrow, & Yu, 2006).
Bhardwaj et al. (1999) reported a positive correlation between seed protein
content and tofu protein content. A negative correlation between tofu
yield and seed protein content was also reported. Recently, the location
effect was reported to be more pronounced than the genotype effect
on tofu vigor. The effect of location may be due to variations in seed
composition, which may include the amount and quality of proteins
that influence soy milk tofu properties, firmness, and tofu yield.
(Kurasch, Hahn, Miersch, Bachteler, & Würschum, 2018).
Natarajan et al. (2016) studied nine planted genotypes
with two planting/sowing dates to determine the influence of the
environment, genotype, and their relationship to protein
soybean seeds. Environmental factors are significantly correlated with
storage protein content. In addition, the subunit composition
The protein stored in soybeans varies when soybeans are mixed
experience different growing environments. These variations are possible
affects water holding capacity (WHC) and hardness of tofu (James &
Yang, 2014; Yang & James, 2014). Thus, the environment
seems to have the most important role, while genotype
is a secondary effect followed by an interaction between genotypes
and the environment on protein content.
2.1 Storage conditions
To allow for further maturity and to
characteristics at that time.
transportation, soybean seeds need to be stored for a certain period of time afterwards
harvested or before consumption (Tripathi & Shri vastava, 2017).
Storage conditions can affect seed characteristics.
Storage conditions generally include temperature, initial moisture content, and
aw soybean seeds along with the relative humidity of the storage area.
Hardness and color value “b” (negative values indicate bluish,
while a positive value indicates yellowness) of soybean seeds was
found to increase significantly with storage time (p < 0.05) (Gunathilake,
Bhat, Singh, & Kahan dawala, 2019).
A detailed study was carried out to understand the influence of
storage conditions on soybean seed quality and its impact on
properties of soy milk and tofu production (Kong, Chang, Liu, & Wilson,
2008). Different soybeans are stored at varying temperatures (4 to 50 ÿC),
relative humidity (55 to 80%), initial moisture content (6 to 14%), and
storage time (up to 15 months
based on storage conditions). . The research results show
that for soybeans stored at 4 ÿC this does not happen
changes in surface color of beans, soy milk, and properties of tofu
significant after 1 year of storage.
On the other hand, for soybeans stored at higher temperatures
high (30 to 50 ÿC), there is a decrease in quality and yield
significant when tofu is prepared. In addition, when the relative humidity
is below 55%, it turns out that soybeans become drier and easier
cracked or broken during normal handling. Therefore, the best
storage conditions are found at low temperatures (<22 ÿC) and an initial
moisture content of 8% to 10% in soybeans. These conditions help
maintain high quality soybeans in long-term storage (> 1 year).
In addition, storage time is known to affect concentration
Optimum coagulant (OCC) in the tofu production process. For tofu made
from soybeans stored under aging conditions
different types—natural aging (ambient temperature, relative humidity,
and up to 18 months), accelerated aging (30 ÿC, humidity
84% relative humidity, and up to 9 months), and control conditions (ÿ20
ÿC and 47% relative humidity)—it was found that OCC decreased with
increasing coagulation temperature and aging time of soybeans. Parameter
color (L*: 0 = pure black and 100 = white; hÿ: 0ÿ = pure red,
90ÿ = pure yellow, 180ÿ = pure green, and 270ÿ = pure blue) and
The yield of both tofu products decreases with increasing
soybean seed storage (Kamizake, Silva, & Prudencio, 2016).
If soybean seeds are stored in adverse conditions such as extreme
pH and temperature, the storage protein content in soy milk and tofu yield
is reduced. The results show that tofu yield is significantly influenced by
the composition and characteristics of storage proteins, especially
due to protein aggregation during storage (Kong & Chang, 2012).
In conclusion, soybean seed diversity, genotype, environment, and
storage conditions appear to influence protein composition and
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production, which in turn has a significant impact on the quality of tofu products.
Therefore, protein composition needs to be discussed further.
2.2
Soy protein composition
seeds
Protein consists of various amino acids (AA). The content and type of AA
influence protein nutrition and function. Therefore, it is very important to
understand the AA characteristics of soybean seed protein and analyze its influence
on tofu quality.
2.2.1 AA soybean seed protein
AA seed composition is one of the main determining factors
soybean quality (Assefa et al., 2018). The main structure of proteins is a
linear chain of AA (Rehman & Botelho, 2019). Soybean seed protein consists
of all the essential AAs, including Lys, Val, Leu,
Try, Met, Ile, Phe, His, and Thr, and conditionally essential AAs include Arg,
Cys, Gln, Tyr, Gly, ornithine (Orn, a nonproteinogenic AA), Pro,
and Ser ( Assefa et al., 2018 ) .
Assefa et al. (2018) analyzed a 1-year dataset (n = 35,101) of soybean seed
quality and yield data from various regions.
The main conclusions are as follows: soybean yield and quality parameters have
significant spatial autocorrelation; cross-regional variability in quality traits
related to environmental conditions, management, and genetics; and essential
AA concentrations showed a spatial autocorrelation. Assefa et al. (2018) found a
positive relationship between essential AAs, which can provide a basis for
agronomy and breeding programs, with the aim of improving several AAs
simultaneously. Previous studies (Kwanyuen, Pantalone,
Burton, & Wilson, 1997) shows that there is a correlation
strong positive between 11S:7S ratio and Met or Cys concentration of total
protein. The results showed that more 11S protein was expressed compared with
7S protein, which overall had a positive impact on the nutritional quality of the
protein, especially for Met and Cys. Wang, Luo, et al. (2018) reported that in
the case of microbial transglutaminase (MTGase), a strong correlation was found
between gel hardness and Glu and Lys content (r = 0.810, p < .05; r = 0.886,
p < .01, respectively).
Wang, Meng, et al. (2020) conducted a detailed analysis of the relationship
between AA content and sensory characteristics or
tofu texture based on 48 soybean varieties. In study
them, a strong positive correlation was found between the contents
Glu and hardness and chewi
ness (r = 0.366 and 0.367, respectively; p < 0.05) of tofu. That
5
Leu content was found to be significantly negatively correlated with firmness and
chewiness (r = ÿ.435 and ÿ.451, respectively; p < .01) of tofu. The contents of Gly,
Ala, and Val were significantly positively correlated with tofu elasticity (r =
0.295, 0.304, and 0.306, respectively; p < 0.05). Increasing Tyr content decreased
tofu hardness (r = ÿ.297, p <.05).
Their results showed that soybeans with low Leu and Tyr contents or/and with high
Glu contents produced tofu with high firmness and elasticity. Meanwhile, a
significant positive correlation was found between seven AA (Glu, Gly, Ala,
Thr, Phe, Arg, and Pro) and sense of knowing. On the other hand, the
correlation between Tyr and sense of knowing was significantly negative (r = ÿ.417,
p < .01). Additionally, a significant positive correlation was found between the
overall acceptability of tofu and Ser, Glu, Ala, Arg, and Pro, while a negative
correlation was again found in Tyr (r = ÿ.362 , p < .05). Therefore, soybean seed
protein with high Ser, Glu, Ala, Arg, and Pro content and low Tyr will increase
sensory quality of tofu.
It would seem useful to analyze the relationship between protein AA content
and 11S:7S. The influence of different AA contents on tofu quality needs additional
investigation as well. From this analysis, future research needs to better understand
the relationship between 11S:7S and tofu quality, which can provide further
insight into the influence of raw material characteristics on tofu.
quality.
Presence of peanut odor due to lipoxygenase (LOX) activity
typically limits the overall quality and acceptability of soy products (Mäkinen,
Wanhalinna, Zannini, & Arendt, 2016 ).
Although most Asians accept the taste of peanuts, significant efforts have been
made to tone down the peanut flavor to make soy more acceptable in the West.
The most accepted methods for removing bean flavors are summarized as
follows: culturing soybeans without LOX; removal of volatile compounds such
as short chain fatty acids, sterols, and compounds
sulfur using vacuum at high temperatures (Yoo & Chang, 2016); Cor nell hot
grinding method to deactivate LOX (slurry kept at 80 ÿC for 10 minutes)
(Navicha, Hua, Masamba, Kong, & Zhang, 2018); Illinois preblanching
method to inactivate LOX (soaked soybeans are blanched before grinding);
hydrothermal cooking, namely a steam infusion cooking process based on the
principle of steam flashing onto volatile strips to produce soy milk with less nutty
odor (Stano jevic et al., 2011); use of soy protein isolate (SPI) to reduce or partially
mask the bean odor; and food additives (gums and flavors) used in
many commercial soy products to mask the smell of the beans (Nawaz, Tan,
Øiseth, & Buckow, 2020). Products with a slight nutty taste have been developed
to make plant-based proteins more acceptable in non-Asian countries.
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2.2.2 Storage protein composition
Soybean seed protein can be divided into structural protein, protein
metabolic, and storage proteins according to their function (Luthria,
Maria John, Marupaka, & Natarajan, 2018 ). They can too
divided into 2S, 7S, 11S, and 15S according to the coefficients
sedimentation (Bennetau-Pelissero, 2019; Singh, Meena, Kumar,
Dubey, & Hassan, 2015). As the main genetic coding compound
in seeds, the composition of storage proteins is believed to be related
closely related to soybean varieties and growing environment (Zhang
et al., 2018). 11S and 7S are the two main storage proteins because
they account for more than 70% of the total protein content of soybeans
(Guo & Yang, 2015). Depending on soybean variety, geno type, and
environmental conditions, the 7S:11S ratio was found to range
from 0.5 to 1.3 (Nishinari, Fang, Guo, & Phillips, 2014) . The
denaturation temperatures of 7S and 11S are approximately 65 to 75
and 85 to 95 ÿC, respectively (Niu, Xia, Wang, Kong, & Liu, 2018;
Zhang et al., 2018). The hardness and WHC of tofu gel significantly
depend on the degree of denaturation (heat treatment: 65, 75, 85, or
90 ÿC) of 11S, whereas 7S does not show a significant
temperature influence in the same temperature range (Zhao, Li,
Qin, & Chen, 2016). The elasticity of tofu products is mainly
influenced by the 7S protein content, while the hardness is influenced by
11S protein content (Zhang et al., 2018 ). Next, production
11S gel mainly through disulfide bonds and electrostatic interactions,
produces a stable three-dimensional network structure, whereas
7S gel formation is mainly through hydrogen bonding with
warming (Zhang et al., 2018). .
The effect of 11S:7S ratio on the rheological/textural properties of the gels was studied
by many researchers. Meng, Chang, Gillen, and Zhang (2016)
selected 22 soybean lines from the USDA-Soybean Germplasm
Collection and planted them in Stoneville, MS, USA. Texture
analysis of tofu was carried out using an Instron Universal Testing
Machine (using texture profile analysis [TPA]), setting plunger
penetration to 75% and a speed of 10 cm/minute to determine force
as a function of time. . The research results show that the ratio
11S:7S
positively correlated with tofu hardness. To produce
high quality soy milk and tofu, eight strains of soybeans
selected in their research. The 11S:7S ratio ranges from 1.46
up to 1.92. Partly because of this narrow range, they
did not obtain a good correlation between the 11S:7S ratio and
hardness. Instead of an 11S:7S ratio, they found a good correlation
between A3 subunit content and tofu hardness. Because the main
aim of this research was not to study the effect of the 11S:7S ratio on
gel strength, but to screen and select soybean strains suitable
for making tofu.
ing, they do not use purified 11S and 7S, and
other components (e.g., phenolics) may also have an impact.
Wang, Meng, et al. (2020) shows that there is a significant positive
correlation between tofu hardness and the 11S:7S ratio.
Taira (1990) reviewed the quality status of soybeans consumed
in Japan at that time. The author provides a brief introduction to
the different forms of tofu (Kinugoshi tofu, Moment tofu, packaged
tofu, and soft tofu).
The author concluded that there was no significant relationship
between tofu hardness and the 11S:7S ratio.
Positive and negative correlations between the 11S:7S storage
protein ratio and tofu firmness were reported by different research
groups (Singer, Zhang, Mian, & Huang, 2019).
The apparent differences appear to stem from two factors
affects gel-forming ability. One of them is the substances contained in
soy protein, not only 11S and
7S, but also 2S and 15S globulins, and other components such as
fat, phenolic compounds, and phytic acid influence gel formation.
Apart from that, methods of gel formation and measurement of rheological properties
affects the value of firmness or hardness. It is worth noting that the
order of magnitude may not be the same for modulus
elasticity (Young's modulus or storage shear modulus Gÿ)
and hardness or breaking stress (Nishinari & Fang, 2018).
Therefore, a gel that has a higher hardness value does not necessarily
have a higher Young's modulus. According to Kohyama and
Nishinari (1993) data analysis, storage modulus (Gÿ)
11S as a function of time measured at a constant angular frequency at
60 ÿC was much greater in the early stages of gelation in the presence
of glucono-ÿ lactone (GDL). However, as time increases in later stages
(e.g., 100 min), the Gÿ of 7S appears to be larger than the
saturation value Gÿ of 11S. Prior to this study, it was generally
believed that 11S gel was much harder than 7S gel (Saio & Watanabe,
1978).
Although there are some obvious inconsistencies between
reports mentioned above, the general trend seems to be
is that the hardness or hardness of the gel created
using GDL increases with increasing 11S:7S ratio
(Guo & Ono, 2005; Ji , Cai , & Chang, 1999; Onodera, Ono,
Nakasato, & Toda, 2009). The content of 7S and 11S is closely
related to the quality of tofu (Wang, Meng, et al., 2020). In general,
Gel hardness increases with increasing 11S content. Renkema,
Knabben, and Van Vliet (2001) studied 11S and 7S gelation; The
protein solution was heated in the presence of GDL at a constant rate
from 20 to 95 ÿC, and then cooled at the same rate as used by
Nagano, Mori, and Nishinari (1994). They reported that 11S gel
showed greater moduli than 7S using thermal scanning rheology
measurements. They found that the stress at break and strain at
break were greater for the 11S gel than for the 7S gel. This is
consistent with
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results of Kohyama and Nishinari (1993). Tay and Per Era (2004)
investigated the physicochemical properties of 11S and 7S mixed gels
in the presence of GDL. The results showed that the gel hardness
which was incubated at 60 ÿC for 100 minutes increased with increasing
11S content. Onodera et al. (2009) showed that the breaking stress of
11S, 7S, and their mixed gels decreased with increasing 7S
content for GDL gels. In addition, Guo and Ono (2005) also showed
that the breaking stress of tofu formed from 7S-rich soybeans was lower
than that of 11S-rich soybeans and Tatikogane soybeans (with normal
protein composition).
Therefore, it can be concluded that 11S forms a stronger gel than
7S when the gel strength (hardness) is compared after gel formation is
complete. Further studies are needed to determine whether 11S gels are
stiffer than 7S gels when using purified 7S and 11S.
It may also be beneficial to study further whether this trend still holds true
by using different coagulants (such as calcium sulfate [CS] or
magnesium chloride [MC]) (Kim, & Wicker, 2005; Saio, Kamiya, &
Watanabe or gel temperature for formation or rheological , 1969 )
measurements.
This TPA is often used to measure tofu texture
due to its simple operation to obtain various parameters (e.g., hardness,
elasticity, compactness, elasticity, and elasticity). The original
TPA uses a plunger with a fixed cross-sectional area, a
constant sample height, and a probe diameter smaller than the
sample, so that the contact area on the sample is constant. Originally,
“TPA hardness” was defined as “the force required to achieve a certain
deformation.” It should be in force units not mass units, so some papers
that use units like grams are unfortunately inaccurate. In addition,
the size of the sample under the compression plate and the size of the
probe used by researchers are different. In other cases, the sample is
smaller than the probe.
The force, in this situation, depends on the sample size, which
determines the contact area with the plunger. It would be better if
hardness is defined as peak stress (force
peak divided by the contact area), which minimizes the influence
of sample size. The unit of hardness will be a unit of stress, such as Pa or
KPa or MPa (Nishinari, Fang, & Rosen thal, 2019). Springiness is
expressed as Distance 2/
Distance 1, so this is a ratio or percentage (height distance
detected during the second compression divided by the initial
compression distance) (Zheng et al., 2020).
Other texture parameters involved in this review article are
introduced as follows: alignment is how well
the product withstands the second deformation relative to its
resistance to the first deformation, and should perhaps be referred to
as “structural recoverability” (Nishi nari & Fang, 2018); gumminess applies
only to semisolid products and is calculated as hardness × compactness;
7
elasticity only applies to dense and calculated products
as elasticity × elasticity (Texture Technology. 2020).
2.2.3 Structural studies of 11S and 7S
To better understand the different gel properties of 11S and 7S, structural
studies are summarized in this section.
In general, 7S is a trimeric glycoprotein consisting of three subunits:
ÿ
, And code,
, genome
each with its own , and a total molecular weight of
approximately 180 kDa (Ippoushi, Wakagi, Hashimoto, & Takano-Ishikawa,
2019; Munialo, Euston, & de Jongh , 2018).
On the other hand, 11S is a hexameric glycoprotein consisting of an
acidic polypeptide (A) linked by disulfide bonds to a specific basic
polypeptide (B) ( Wu et al., 2019 ), and its molecular weight is about 360
kDa ; 11S contains five subunits, namely G1 (A1aB2), G2 (A2B1a), G3
(A1aB1b), G4 (A5A4B3), and G5 (A3B4) (Renkema et al., 2001).
The five subunits are further divided
into groups I and II according to their physical properties: group I
includes G1, G2, and G3, while group II includes G4
(or IIb) and G5 (or IIa). Group I contains more
more methionine, an essential AA, than group II (Hsiao, Yu, Li, & Hsieh,
2015; Luthria et al., 2018). Moreover, from the molecular
microstructure point of view, 7S contains two sulfur-sulfur bonds and
no sulfhydryl groups. On the other hand, there are two sulfhydryl groups
and 20 sulfur-sulfur bonds in 11S (Zhang et al., 2018).
2.2.4 Composition of 7S and 11S subunits
To further study the influence of 7S and 11S protein subunit
composition on tofu quality, breeders have
developing genotypes in soybean improvement programs.
These genotypes are genetically similar, but their protein subunit
composition is different. In initial research, the acid subunits Al, A2, A3,
and A4 and the base subunit B were successfully isolated, and
pseudoglycinin is rearranged such that the basic B subunit is combined
with the acidic subunit Al, A2, or A3, respectively . It was found that
A3 increased gel hardness significantly (Nakamura, Utsumi, & Mori,
1985; Nishinari et al., 1991). Poysa et al. (2006) came to the same
conclusion that the A3 subunit of 11S has a major role in increasing
tofu hardness.
Additionally, they discovered that tofu was made from soybeans
from the group I subunit (A1A2) has hardness and firmness
one-third higher than tofu made from soybeans without group I.
(The effect of protein subunits is shown as a percent of the value for the
control cultivar, Harovinton.)
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FIGURE 2 Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of nonreduced (a) and reduced (b) soy protein in different samples. US-
CT, unheated soy milk for control tofu; HS-CT, heated soy milk for control tofu; US-HFT, unheated soy milk
for high fiber tofu; HS-HFT, heated soy milk for high fiber tofu; CT, know control; HFT, high fiber tofu; TG-HFT, transglutaminase
microbes for high fiber tofu. Adapted from Zhang, Wang, et al. (2019)

ÿ
The hardness of tofu that lacks subunits increases in comparison
with intact protein. Nishinari et al. (1991) studied the gelation
process of soy milk using dynamic mechanical analysis.
The hardness of tofu gel made from cultivars with A5 subunits was
lower than gel made from cultivars without A5. Next, the effects of
A4 and protein deficiency
ÿ
Soybeans on tofu quality were investigated by Yang and James
(2014). Their study used four samples: without A4, without A4
ÿ ÿ
, and
and with all globulin subunits present. The without
results showed
that tofu in the three groups that did not have certain subunits
experienced less water loss and had a harder texture compared
to the group that contained all subunits. Group without
The A4 subunit has superior gel-forming properties. They also studied
the effects of the absence of A4 on tofu texture, WHC,
and color (James & Yang, 2014). Lack of A4 subunit results
in lower seed protein content but lower seed size
the seeds are the largest, and produce the firmest tofu. They do too
found that the absence of A4 subunit enhanced the positive
effect of soy protein content on tofu texture.
Moreover, Zhang, Wang, et al. (2019) studied changes
in protein subunits during tofu production using
sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
(SDS PAGE) (Figure 2). In their study, Okara was used to create
HFT. It was found that
11S can form AB subunits using covalent disulfide (SS)
, bridges, whereas 7S is formed in various combinations
through noncovalent interactions. The results showed
that subunits A1,2,4 and AB were easier to aggregate
compared to other subunits with SS bonds. During aggregate
formation, noncovalent forces also increase.
In short, tofu producers must be able to make meaningful
choices of high-quality soybean varieties by analyzing AA
content, protein content, protein storage ratio, and protein
subunit composition to achieve high-quality tofu processing.
After these characteristics
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Soybean seeds are selected and determined to be suitable for production
Know the product required, process conditions and packaging
keep optimizing.
3 PROCESSING CONDITIONS
Making tofu will involve selecting factors such as temperature, pH,
production technology, and type of coagulant. Therefore, the
interaction mechanism of these complex factors with the quality of the
final tofu product needs to be reviewed.
3.1 Temperature
Soaking soybeans is involved in the production process of tofu products.
The soaking process will affect the extraction of active ingredients
on soybeans and tofu quality (Zhang et al., 2018). Immersion
aims to facilitate the extraction of resulting proteins
swelling of soybeans by water absorption (Yang & James,
2016). Thus, the soaking temperature and soaking time
must be controlled. Analysis of the effect of different soaking temperatures
(10, 20, 30, and 40 ÿC) and immersion time (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, and 8 hours) on soybean characteristics has been carried out (Pan &
Tangratanavalee, 2003). The results showed that with increasing
temperature in the range of 30 to 40 ÿC, the solid loss of soybean samples
increased significantly.
Moisture data of soaked soybeans were obtained, which was in good
agreement with predictions from the Peleg equation (a widely used empirical
model to describe the water absorption of various food products during
soaking). In addition, the grinding characteristics (grinding was evaluated by
measuring the size reduction of soaked soybeans) of soaked soybeans
were only related to the final moisture content, while not being influenced
by soaking conditions. However, increased solids loss may
reduces the solids content of soy milk, which causes
changes in the final structural properties of tofu (Zhang et al., 2018). The more
The higher the soaking temperature, the less time it takes
to get the same immersion “effect” as long as
the conditions are the same. The ratio of water to beans is set to
9:1, 10:1, 11:1, 12:1, 13:1, and 14:1 to study the effects
liquid ratio in making tofu (Bed Dows & Wong, 1987). The results
showed that the tofu made
with a ratio of 9:1 uniform but runny and soft.
Tofu made with a ratio of 11:1 and 12:1 is "lumpy" and porous. Tofu
made with a ratio of 13:1 and 14:1 is poor and does not maintain its
shape after cutting. Only tofu made with a 10:1 ratio has good cut shape
retention and a uniform texture. However, it is unclear whether the 10:1
ratio is optimal for the tofu coagulant stage.
9
The soy milk obtained after filtering must be boiled
a moment ago. The goal of this move is to destroy
inhibitors of trypsin, saponins, and other harmful substances (Avilés-Gaxiola,
Chuck-Hernández, & Serna Saldivar, 2018; Khattab & Arntfield,
2009). Soy protein undergoes significant thermal denaturation.
A detailed study of the thermal aggregation state of proteins during heating
was carried out by Guo et al. (2012). The sample was stirred and heated
from 25 to 85 ÿC. To clarify the role of 7S in thermal aggregation (Figure
3), size exclusion chromatography and low-angle light scattering were
used to study 11S and 7S at pH 7.0. The structures of insoluble and soluble
aggregates were also investigated using dynamic light scattering and small
angle X-ray scattering to determine the conformational differences between
them. This study shows that 7S forms soluble aggregates resulting
in limited aggregation of "monomers", whereas 11S forms insoluble
aggregates due to
relationships between aggregates. Termination of assembly between aggregates 11S
occurs by heating with 7S and solubility can
restored. This is in accordance with the conclusions of previous research
(Damodaran & Kinsella, 1982).
They also found that the size of the soluble aggregates
7S is limited and its conformation is not tight; 11S aggregates are not
soluble contains core particles with a higher density and a shell with a
lower density. Based on previous findings (Guo et al., 2012), aggregation
occurred with 11S and 7S in soybean storage proteins when soymilk
was heat treated.
Studies (Shin, Yokoyama, Kim, Wicker, & Kim, 2015; Sun et al.,
2019) have shown that the two-step heating method for traditional soy milk
heat treatment is more suitable for
Efficient soy protein denaturation and promotion. from the process
gelation, due to inconsistent heat denaturation temperatures of 7S and
11S. Two-stage heating step to prepare tofu
optimized, and the effect of two-stage heating on tofu quality
explored (Wang et al., 2007). The research results show
that the fracture strength is known to be produced by heating
two-stage heating was increased by 12.2%, the syneresis rate was
reduced by 21.8%, and the physical properties and yield of tofu were
significantly improved compared with single-stage heating.
Apart from that, the best condition for making tofu using the two-
stage heating method is heating at a temperature of 70 ÿC for 10 minutes
and 100 ÿC for 5 minutes. Protein aggregation behavior can be driven
by low pH and increased concentrations of metal ions (calcium and
magnesium) to form tofu (Bourbon, Pereira, Pastrana, Vicente, & Cerqueira,
2019; Hsiao et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2019 ) . Therefore, it is important to
choose a coagulant
which is suitable for providing salt ions and pH during tofu
processing
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FIGURE 3 Diagrammatic representation of the thermal aggregation behavior of ÿ-conglycinin (7S) and glycinin (11S) at pH 7.0. N, country of origin; U,
unfolded condition; Agg., aggregate. Adapted from Guo et al. (2012)
3.2 Types of coagulants and pH
The most critical step in the tofu production process is the
coagulation process (Rui et al., 2016), which involves
selecting the coagulant. The final quality and yield of tofu products
can be influenced by different types of coagulants. During the
coagulation process, soybean protein aggregation is carried out
through protein-protein and protein-water cross-linking, then a
gel is formed with a random or regular honeycomb structure
(Cao et al., 2017). Various intermolecular forces are generated
to stabilize the gel network (Rui et al., 2016). Generally, tofu
coagulants are divided into three categories, namely,
acids (citric acid, lactic acid, tartaric acid, l-(–)-malic acid,
and gluconic acid), salts (CS, calcium chloride [CC] calcium
acetate, calcium lactate , magnesium sulfate [MS], MC, and
trimagnesium citrate [TMC]), and enzymes (chymosin-
pepsin, papain, and MTGase), based on the coagulation
mechanism. The basic mechanism of action of each type
of coagulant (acid, salt, and enzyme) and its impact on the
texture of tofu products will not be explained in detail in this
review, because it has been discussed extensively in the review
article by Zhang. et al. (2018). If interested, readers can find
more details in the review articles and references therein.
For internal consistency, only a high-level summary is
given below, and the relevant content is summarized in Table 2,
which involves the specific types of coagulants used in the tofu
production process, the concentrations used, and their mechanisms ofgelation
action. of tofu, and the process of tofu formation
can be divided into three stages (I, II, and III, as illustrated in
The use of acid coagulants during tofu processing is
due to the fact that acids provide hydrogen ions to lower the
pH to the nominal isoelectric point of soy protein, thereby
promoting isoelectric precipitation of the protein (Zhang et al.,
2018). Currently, there are four theories about
Tofu products: Review...
Mechanism of salt-induced tofu gel formation. The first is the so-
called cationic salt bridge theory, which is based on thermally
induced cross-links between metal ions and soy proteins.
The protein gelation rate is accelerated, and the stability of
the three-dimensional gel network structure formed is also
increased. The second theory is based on the salting effect of
heat-denatured soy protein due to dehydration after adding salt
(Wang, Shen, et al., 2018). The third theory is that after
adding salt, the pH value is lowered to the nominal
isoelectric point of soy protein (Kanauchi, Sakiko, & Shi
moyamada, 2015). The fourth theory is that the formation of
protein particles differs in the presence of certain metal
ions, which is based on the first theory (Zhang et al.,
2018).
The gelation mechanism of the salt coagulant used in
making tofu requires further research because each theory
does not fully explain all aspects of the formation and yield
of tofu gel. MTGase (EC 2.3.2.13; enzyme coagulant)
can assemble proteins with the help of isopeptide bonds, which
are formed from the amide group in the glutamine residue
and the ÿ-amino group in the lysine residue (Zhang, Wang,
et al. , 2019). In previous research, Tang, Li, Wang, and Yang
(2007) analyzed the gelation process and rheological properties
of tofu formed using MTGase using rheological
measurements. After incubation with MTGase, the
gradual increase of Gÿ of preheated soy milk reflects the
Figure 4.) according to the Change of Gÿ pattern. Gÿ
gradually increases at a lower rate in the first stage, and
increases at a higher rate to about 350 Pa in the second
stage, and in the final stage, Gÿ maintains a constant rate.
Changes in Gÿ patterns also reflect the formation of gel and spring networks
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TABLE 2 Types and characteristics of coagulants used in tofu production

Sour

Name: Glucono-ÿ-lactone (GDL)

Use concentration: 0.6% based on the amount of soy milk Procedure

Usage: Fresh prepared by dissolving in cold water; then added to the soy milk

heated and cooled. Mechanism: Provide hydrated ions to lower the pH value to the isoelectric point of soy protein, thereby encouraging

isoelectric deposition of proteins

Type of tofu: Soft or packaged tofu

Reference: Grygorczyk & Corredig, 2013

Salt

Name: Calcium sulfate (CS)

Usage concentration: 0.4% based on the amount of soy milk

Usage procedure: Added into

heated soy milk Mechanism:

Cation bridge theory Types of tofu: Soft or firm tofu, “Southern tofu”

References: Prabhakaran, Perera, & Valiyaveettil, 2006; Kao, Su, & Lee, 2003 Name: Calcium

chloride (CC)

Use concentration: 0.4% or 0.5% based on the amount of soy milk Procedure

Usage: Fresh prepared by dissolving in cold water; added to soy milk

heated Mechanism: Theory

cation bridge Type of tofu: Soft tofu

or solid Reference: Prabhakaran et al.,

2006 Name: Calcium acetate (CA)

Use concentration: The lowest concentration used is 0.15% and the typical amount used is 0.4% or 0.5% based on the amount

soy milk Procedure

Usage: Fresh prepared by dissolving in cold water; added to soy milk

heated Mechanism: Bridge theory

cation Type of tofu: Soft tofu or

suppressed References: Lu, Carter, & Chung, 1980; Prabhakaran et al., 2006 Name:

Calcium lactate (CL)

Use concentration: The lowest concentration used is 0.2% and the typical amount used is 0.4% or 0.5% based on the amount of soy milk

Procedure

Usage: Freshly prepared by dissolving in cold water; added to soy milk

heated Mechanism: Bridge theory

cation Type of tofu: Soft or firm tofu

References: Lu et al., 1980; Prabhakaran et al., 2006 Name:

Magnesium sulfate (MS)

Use concentration: 0.4% or 0.5% based on the amount of soy milk Procedure

Usage: Fresh prepared by dissolving in cold water; added to soy milk

heated Mechanism: Theory

cation bridge Type of tofu: Solid tofu

or solid Reference: Prabhakaran et al.,

2006 Name: Magnesium chloride (MC)

Use concentration: With a concentration of 2.0 M in a water-in-oil emulsion and the typical amount used is 0.4% or 0.5% based on the amount

soy milk Procedure

Usage: Freshly prepared by dissolving in cold water; added to soy milk

heated Mechanism: Bridge theory

cation Type of tofu: Firm or pressed tofu, “Northern tofu”

References: Prabhakaran et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2016 Name:

Trimagnesium citrate (TMC)

Usage concentration: 0.35% based on dry seed weight

Procedure for use: Fresh prepared by dissolving in cold water; then added to the soy milk

heated and cooled Mechanism: One TMC molecule contains three magnesium ions and two citrate ions, and citrate should contribute to the reduction

The pH required to form a gel network

good at knowing Type

know: Soft Reference: Joo & Cavender, 2020

(Advanced)
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TABLE 2 (Continued)

Enzymatic coagulant

Name: Microbial transglutaminase (MTGase)

Concentration for use: 100 U/100 mL milk
soy Procedure for use: Mix soy milk and enzyme in a closed cylinder (20 × 25 mm) with incubation at 37 ÿC for a period of
different Mechanism: MTGase can assemble proteins with the help of isopeptide bonds
Type of tofu: Soft or packaged tofu

Reference: Tang et al., 2007

Coagulant mixture

Name: CS plus MC; CS plus MS

Use concentrations: CS = 35 mM, CS (30 mM) plus MC (5 mM) = 35 mM, CS (30 mM) plus MS (5 mM) = 35 mM, CS (25 mM) plus MS (10 mM) = 35 mM
Usage procedure:

The freshly prepared SPI emulsion was mixed with CS dispersion stock and MC or MS solution; the mixture was heated to 80 ÿC and coagulated for
30 minutes in a water bath.

Mechanism: The cooperative effect of calcium and magnesium ions and low concentrations of Mg2+ helps to form compact protein aggregates and facilitates
gel homogeneity and resistance to deformation Type of tofu: Soft or packaged tofu
Reference: Wang, Luo, Liu, Adhikari, &
Chen , 2019 Name: MTGase plus brine; MTGase plus GDL

Use concentration: MTGase = 5 U/g protein, water

salt/soy milk = 0.5% (w/v), GDL/soy milk = 0.33% (w/v)

Procedure for use: Cross-linked with MTGase for 3 hours at 50 ÿC, and then coagulated with salt water and GDL for 30
minutes at 85 ÿC and transferred to a plastic mold

and pressed for 3 hours Mechanism: Good hydrophilicity, high catalytic activity and strong thermal stability are based on the properties
MTGase Type of tofu: Soft tofu

suppressed Reference: Zhu, Deng, et al., 2019

FIGURE 4 Typical gelation process of tofu induced using MTGase at 37 ÿC, and tofu samples analyzed using dynamic oscillation measurements.

Raw soy milk was heated at 95 ÿC for 5 minutes, and enzymes were added at 100 units/100 mL of soy milk. Three individual phases (I, II, and III)

introduced to the Gÿ curve, to reflect two transition points, which are the intersection points of the tangent curve at the inflection point. Duration of individual phases

is specified as the time to this transition point. Adapted from Tang et al. (2007)

that MTGase can effectively induce soy milk with the right
amount of solids to produce tofu
containing. It is a new type of tofu with high gel strength that can
be produced using MTGase enzymatic cross-linking and appropriate
heat treatment.
However, any type of coagulant is used in the process
Traditional tofu production has inherent disadvantages, namely
summarized as follows: know is typi
usually made using GDL as the acid coagulant, although it is
easy to control because it acidifies slowly;
The resulting tofu is slightly sour and not suitable for frying because
of its soft texture (Li, Wu, et al., 2018). CS residue
insoluble or rapid release of MC in tofu products
usually produces poor quality (rough texture) (Cao et
al., 2017; Li et al., 2015). In addition, the remaining salt coagulation (after
added to soy milk) usually produces tofu with a p taste
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and produces large quantities of yellow pulp, which can
causing environmental pollution problems during the process
extrusion (Li, Wu, et al., 2018). Tofu is made using enzymes
MTG usually has low gel hardness, and the process
often time consuming (Cao et al., 2017). Therefore,
research in recent years has focused on exploration
methods to optimize the use of traditional coagulants (such as the
addition of new compounds in combination with
such coagulants, or the use of mixed coagulants) or
search/development of new alternative coagulants. Besides that,
Based on studies on the effect of coagulants on tofu texture, the scope of
research has been increased to include research on tofu taste and nutrition.
This
more in line with the needs of modern consumers who are looking for
different flavored tofu products. Current research trends in this area are
reviewed.
3.2.1 Effect of different coagulants
Different types of coagulants, such as acids, salts, and enzymes, or
Different coagulants of the same type are usually combined together
comparison to examine the mechanisms and effects of coagulants on
tofu products. Among acid coagulants, GDL has been shown to work
the best in tofu production. For example, Liu and Kuo (2011) investigated
the differences in characteristics of gels coagulated with GDL
or CS using dynamic rheome assay and scanning microscopy
electron (SEM). The research results show that the gelation mechanism
of SPI suspension is influenced by the heating method and type
coagulant. When microwave heating is used for protein denaturation,
GDL is more suitable for SPI gel formation than CS. One of the
reasons why GDL is used to study soy protein gelation may be because
gelation is slow at 60 ÿC (Nishinari et al., 1991; Yoshida, Kohyama, &
Nishi nari, 1992). In addition, the degree of gelation influences the
mechanical properties of the final gel. In general, gelation is too rapid
causes the formation of an inhomogeneous and more gel
weak.
The rate of gelation depends not only on the type of coagulant and temperature,
but also on pH and ionic strength.
Different acids induce soy protein to form
gels with different pH values. PH gelation with acid bacteria
lactate (BAL) was 6.29 ± 0.05, while the pH gelated with GDL
was 5.9 ± 0.04. The difference in gel may also be caused by
the longer time required for lactic acid to reorganize the solid particles in
soy milk compared to the relatively rapid acidification using GDL
(Grygorczyk & Corredig, 2013).
Structure, rheological properties, and mechanisms of tofu induced by
various types of coagulants (GDL, CS, and MTGase) were studied
and analyzed (Wang, Luo, et al., 2018) . The tofu matrix structure
induced by CS is coarser due to the presence of more pores (sec
black)
13
compared with GDL- and MTGase-induced tofu. However,
most of the oil droplets (green) are completely captured inside
gel network, and tofu oil droplets induced by GDL were more
large and uneven in the gel network, as can be seen
using confocal laser scanning microscope results (Fig
5 ). This may be due to large pH fluctuations during the process
acidification, which reduces the emulsification capacity of soy protein,
causes instability of the SPI emulsion. As a result, oil drips
coagulated and protein molecules adsorbed at the oil-water interface are
reduced. With MTGase, which produces gels with structures
intermediate between CS and GDL, tofu gels have the most uniform
structure. When MTGase was used, it was found that there was a significant
positive correlation between the amount of Lys and Glu (r = 0.905, p < 0.01)
and gel hardness. CS-induced tofu gel was harder and MTGase-induced
gel had elasticity
which is better based on rheological results. Rui et al. (2016) investigated
the effects of different coagulants (GDL, MC, and MTGase) on soy protein
degradation, with a focus on nutrients. The gel was prepared using
in vitro gastrointestinal simulation (GIS) digestive model. The result
showed that the MTGase gel had protein digestibility
lowest compared to gels prepared with MC and
GDL. Furthermore, after in vitro GIS, the MTGase gel released
lower amount of AA and peptides than other gels. This
likely due to the stronger isopeptide bond, which
formed during gelation using MTGase, delaying
release of nutrients. On the other hand, noncovalent bonds (hydrophobic interactions)
can be disturbed during digestion of the stomach and intestines, exposing
nutrition. During in vitro gastric digestion, the digestion rate of GDL gel was
faster than that of MC gel, and GDL gel had better digestibility
higher protein. Therefore, different levels of nutritional value of proteins
with soy protein matrix are obtained due to different gel structures. Ezeama
and Dobson (2019) used three coagulants (Epson salt, lime, and
tamarind) to make tofu. They found that the pH of the Epson salt sample
was 7.20, while the respective pHs of lime and tamarind were
5.00 and 5.50. Fresh tofu coagulated using salt
Epson is highly valued for its Ca, Mg and protein content
the highest and total fungus and lowest viability.
important.
Chemical interactions and physical properties of tofu induced by coagulants
organic acids (citric acid, tartaric acid, and l-(–)-malic acid)
investigated and analyzed (Cao et al., 2017). The quality of tofu
products depends on the type of organic acid and concentration used.
Tofu pickled with 0.14 g/100 mL organic acid showed good
physical properties, such as high shelf life modulus, hardness, WHC, and
non-freezing water content. In addition, when acidified with organic
acids at concentrations of 0.12 and 0.16 g/
100 mL, know to be
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FIGURE 5 Typical confocal laser scanning microscope images of various SPI (Taiwan-292 soybean cultivar) emulsion gels induced using CaSO4, GDL, and
MTGase. Adapted from Wang, Luo, et al. (2018)
with tartaric acid has a relatively weak chemical interaction compared to
tofu made with L-(–)-malic acid and citric acid. Thus, hard or soft tofu with
desired physical and chemical properties can be obtained with the use of
organic acids if acidification is sufficient and well controlled during
gelation.
In conclusion, the structure of the soybean protein network is assembled
using different coagulants affects protein bioaccessibility. Each type of
coagulant has advantages and disadvantages
each, depending on the comparison criteria
used. However, it might be better to optimize the parameters
The process uses a combination of various types of coagulants.
3.2.2 Use of various mixed coagulants
Mixing different types of coagulants can potentially overcome the
disadvantages of single coagulants and effectively improve the quality of
tofu. Analysis of the addition of CS, MS, and MC salts with tofu
production was carried out to explore the cooperative effects of
calcium and magnesium on the rheology, microstructure, and WHC of
tofu gel (Wang, Luo, Liu, Adhikari, & Chen, 2019) .
The coagulation ability of the three coagulants follows the order MC >
MS > CS from small deformation rheology experiments. The WHC
of the gel increased (p < 0.05) due to the addition of MS (5 mM).
The results show that using Ca and Mg salts as
coagulants may have a strong influence on the state of aggregation
and protein gelation, due to differences in the aggregation forces of Ca and
Mg. Low
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concentration (5 mM) of Mg2+ helps to form dense protein aggregates,
improves gel uniformity, and increases resistance to deformation compared
with CS alone.
These results also indicate the cooperative effect of Ca and Mg.
Thus, to improve the gelation properties of proteins, using coagulants
to control protein aggregation may be an effective method.
Zhu, Wu, Saito, Tatsumi, and Yin (2016) conducted research
in-depth about the poor quality of the tofu product
caused by the rapid release of Mg2+, using
water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions encapsulating MC at different concentrations
(0.4, 1.2, 2.0, and 2.6 mol/L). Results
Research shows that the water content and yield of tofu decrease,
while protein, hardness and crude fat increase with increasing MC in the
W/emulsion.
O. The optimal microstructure and WHC of tofu are obtained when
the MC concentration in the W/O emulsion was 2.0 M.
Other studies (Zhu et al., 2015; Zhu, Pan, et al., 2019) also reported that W/
O emulsions showed well-controlled Mg2+ release, which slowed
down the aggregation speed of soy protein molecules. Compared with
traditional MC, the use of W/O emulsion can significantly slow down the
gelation rate of tofu products, thereby increasing the yield and
improving the texture. In addition, the release rate of Mg2+ ions from W/
O emulsions can be adjusted by adjusting the emulsifier concentration
and emulsifier type.
Therefore, tofu with different qualities can be
obtained by changing the effective concentration of MC in the W/
O emulsifier.
Li et al. (2015) investigated the effects of MC combined with
polysaccharides (guar gum, carrageenan, and gum
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Tofu products: Review...
Arabic) as a new type of organic coagulant that is compatible with the texture,
yield and sensory acceptance of tofu products.
For tofu coagulated using MC, carrageenan increased the hardness
significantly, while guar gum reduced the hardness. Guar gum and gypsum
(GYP) was found to significantly increase tofu yield. Among these organic
coagulants, tofu made with a mixture of guar gum (0.6 g) and MC (2.93 g) was
most similar to that coagulated using conventional GYP. This is due to the high
viscosity of guar gum even at low concentrations. After adding guar gum to
heated soy milk, the soy milk becomes very thick. Therefore, the coagulation rate
of MC is reduced. In addition, the interaction causes separation between
guar gum and protein molecules, which may also lead to a decrease in the
coagulation rate.
Therefore, MC plus guar gum (so a compatible coagulant) is promising
in making high-quality tofu, especially for products targeting organic sales.
Zhao et al. (2020) examined the effect of adding coagulants
salt type (KCl, CC, and CS) on the mechanical properties and gelation
behavior of tofu made using citric acid. The results showed that the addition of
KCl, CC, and CS produced more elastic tofu with a high WHC. The WHC of
tofu coagulated with a mixture of salt and citric acid is similar to GYP tofu, while
tofu is less elastic and harder than GYP tofu. There is an increase in ionic bonds
due to the formation of salt
bridge on the addition of Ca2+, which explains the increase in gel
firmness. Therefore, the addition of 0.10 g/100 mL KCl, 0.05 g/100 mL CC, and
0.15 g/100 mL CS maximally improved the mechanical properties of tofu made
using citric acid simultaneously. This may be because tofu aggregation
is mainly associated with noncovalent protein–protein or protein–solvent
bonds, such as hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and ionic bonds.
Salt can modify the structure of water and polar groups, and impart charge,
thereby influencing electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions.
Nishinari, Fang, Nagano, Guo, and Wang (2018) mentioned
that furu is an important variation of tofu. Furu (also called sufu) is a fermented
soybean product originating from China (Han, Rombouts, & Nout, 2001). It is
made by fermenting tofu using various strains of Actinomucor spp.,
Rhizopus spp., or Mucor spp.
Furu is salty and consumed mainly with steamed buns or breakfast rice as a
popular side dish (Han et al., 2001).
However, furu was modified into a less salty product in Okinawa (Japan)
(Nishinari et al., 2018). Furu has the potential to be enjoyed by the wider
community and other countries like cheese from cow's, goat's and other
animal milk. The superiority of furu products is believed to stem from the health
benefits of soy protein which may be enhanced through fermentation. Quality
end of
15
furu products depend on the type of strain used for fermentation. Wei,
Regenstein, Liu, and Zhou (2020) studied and analyzed the effects of different
strains (Actinomu cor, Mucor wutungkiao, and Mucor racemosus) on taste and
aroma profiles based on their lipolysis, proteolysis, and catabolism in furu oil.
The results showed that volatile
Compounds from fatty acid and protein metabolism contribute to the aroma of furu
oil with different contributions
tion of the three strains during fermentation, which is because their
enzymes are different. The free AA and electronic tongue profiles also
showed strain differences for taste: Mucor racemosus had higher umami, richness,
saltiness, and bitter aftertaste than the other two furu samples, whereas Mucor
wutungklao and Actinomucor had higher values of bitterness, sweetness,
and higher taste. astringent aftertaste attributes. Thus, it is possible to
improve the flavor of furu by optimizing the amount of each different strain
during co-fermentation. Wang, Yang, et al. (2020) reported fermented tofu
made by combining salt coagulants (MC, MS, CC, and CS) with Lactobacillus
casei. No significant differences were found in the WHC of tofu
products, while tofu yields increased significantly.
They found that fermentation by L. casei
increases tofu hardness and produces a dense structure. In tofu made using a
mixed coagulant of L. casei and MS, the relative content of the four main flavor
compounds was the highest among the 10 flavor compounds detected.
Lactobacillus casei + MS-mixed coagulants tofu had the highest sensory
value. Fermentation of L. casei causes the proteins to undergo acid-induced
gelation, and then heating completes the gelling action. The tofu gel
formation is completed using salt. In this process, the slow release of L. casei
neutralizes the negative surface charge of soy protein particles and allows
the formation of protein network structures through non-covalent bonds,
thereby increasing tofu yield. Apart from that, the research results also
show that the taste and quality of soy milk can be improved through
ferment with Lacto bacillus to get the best quality tofu. Li et al. (2017) also
showed that organic acids are produced by Lac tobacillus plantarum
slowly releases hydrogen ions, resulting in tofu with excellent taste
and texture.
Thus, fermentation of L. casei combined with coagulant effects of MTGase alone or in combination
with coagulants
conventional (saline and GDL) physical and chemical properties of tofu and
immunoreactivity were analyzed using SDS-PAGE, circular dichroism
spectrum, ultraviolet absorption spectrum, fluorescence spectrum, and
other techniques (Zhu, Deng, et al., 2019) . The results showed that the
structure of high-grade soy milk proteins was significantly changed by
adding MTGase. Use of mixed coagulants (brine = 0.5% [w/v] for
30 minutes plus 5 U/g MTGase protein for 3 hours; or GDL = 0.33% [w/v] for
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16
30 minutes plus 5 U/g MTGase protein for 3 hours)
increased WHC and increased tofu yield with MTGase compared to
without. An increase in WHC may be caused by
MTGase which increases gel network cross-linking caused by
intramolecular and intermolecular cross-linking
formed by ÿ-glutamyl-ÿ-lysine chain bridges. Improvements in protein
structure encourage increases in WHC and water content. Water
content increases; thus, yield increases. Product
GDL plus MTGase-induced digestion of tofu induced
KU812 cells (human basophil leukemia cells) to release fewer
bioactive compounds compared with digestion products released
with MTGase-free tofu.
Therefore, MTGase reduces the allergenicity of tofu while improving
the quality of conventional coagulated tofu. Tofu products with
different characteristics can be obtained through different
mixtures
coagulant. The two-step enzyme-induced cross-linking method
could potentially be applied to synthesize tofu products.
Several studies (Hou et al., 2015; Hou, Yang, Fu, Wang, &
Xiao, 2016) has reported that using strategies
two-step enzyme-induced sequential cross-linking
successfully synthesized sugar beet pectin/soybean glycinin (SBP/SG) gel
dual network (DN). To induce the formation of covalent cross-
links between SG and SBP, laccase and MTGase molecules
used with SBP/SG dispersion, which solves the problem
soft, smooth, and crumbly tofu made using traditional enzymes.
The mechanism is that ferulic acid in the neutral arabinan side
chain of SBP can be oxidized to ferulic acid.
dehydrodimers by the action of laccase, and these different
bridges lead to covalent cross-linking between SBP molecules.
The laccase-induced cross-linking reaction with the SBP thermal
irreversible network was used as
tissue template in DN gel. SG was mixed with this network, and a
second network was produced in the gel with the help of MTGase.
Therefore, the DN principle provides a new strategy that may
be applied in the tofu industry. The introduction of a new tofu texture
will likely please some
consumer.
Another study developed a soy milk-mixed protein gel
cow's milk called "bio-tofu," which is coagulated using
MTGase combined with LAB (Xing et al., 2016).
An evaluation of the reactivity of soy protein antibodies in such “bio-
tofu” was carried out (Xing, Giosafatto, Rui, Dong, & Mariniello,
2019). Bio-tofu made using MTGase coagulated together with
LAB (MTGase + LAB) has a higher protein cross-linking ability,
compared to tofu products made only with LAB or MTGase.
In addition, the reactivity of soy protein antibodies in bio-tofu
prepared using MTGase + LAB was reduced more effectively
than bio-tofu treated only with MTGase or LAB.
LAB culture gradually produces protons during the incubation
period, resulting in a decrease in pH. Although MTGase still
Tofu products: Review...
active during the fermentation process, pH depends on LAB fermentation
decreased, which may lead to exposure to hydrophobic AA residues
from soy protein.
Therefore, the allergenic epitope of soy protein can be masked/
rearranged and further catalyzed by MTGase, resulting in decreased
affinity for the antibody. The results show
that hypoallergenic tofu gel from soy protein can be made using
MTGase + LAB-mediated polymerization from a mixture of cow's
milk and soy milk. Furthermore, the same research group (Xing
et al., 2020) also investigated the gelling behavior of proteins in
bio-tofu coagulated using MTGase + LAB. They showed
that gelation could not occur at 43 ÿC even after 4 h of
incubation, if MTGase was used as the sole coagulant.
The combination of MTGase and LAB induces the formation of a
denser and finer gel network, which has a higher storage/
elasticity modulus (Gÿ) and smaller pores.
smaller compared to tofu induced by LAB
just. This may be due to an increase in the number of connections
protein particles along with MTGase-mediated cross-linking.
Therefore, new opportunities can be created in the p field
used two biocoagulants to produce a mixed protein gel.
In conclusion, the texture, aroma and yield of the tofu made
with various coagulant mixtures can be modified by adjusting the
coagulant concentration. W/O emulsion encapsulation MC can
be used to develop tofu products. LAB fermentation combined with
salt coagulant can be used as a new means to improve the
taste and quality of tofu. However, research data on tofu
products made by LAB fermentation is still limited. Currently, we are
still unclear about its metabolites, and further research is
urgently needed. The acid-induced gelation behavior of soy milk will
be different due to different types of salt, which can improve the
automatic production of tofu products, and also provide
many possibilities for improving the quality of the tofu made
using various acids.
3.2.3 New coagulants
In connection with exploring the influence of mixed coagulants
on tofu products, research efforts have explored new coagulants to
replace traditional coagulants. Jun et al. (2019) developed a new
type of coagulant using crab shell powder (CSP). This is
based on increasing consumer demand for natural products, and
the development of alternative uses for crab shell waste. In their
study, the effects of crab shell extract on the properties (sensory
and textural) of tofu products were analyzed. Crab shell ash
(CSA) and CSP are applied to make extracts with acetic acid (1% to
5%), which causes the extract to be rich in
calcium. The results of tofu with extracts are all comparable to
processed tofu
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Tofu products: Review... 17

traditional MC and GDL coagulants. They also found that tofu treated with 6 g papain was 65%. They show

extracts from CSA made with acetic acid (1 or 3%) and that tofu coagulated using papain produces

an extract from CSP made with acetic acid (3%) can be used higher protein content (9.3%) compared to tofu

as a coagulant, based on the texture and acceptability properties of tofu which were coagulated using CS (6.5%). Independently, Li, Wu,

sensory. This research develops the economical use of crab shell waste. et al. (2018) studied the effects of soy milk treated with papain

in tofu products that are cross-linked with Transglu taminase (TG).

The development of new coagulants requires no considerations The quality of tofu products (in terms of strength, WHC, and water content is not

only its impact on the quality of tofu products is compared with frozen) is better than untreated tofu products

traditional coagulants, but also feasibility based on local production enzyme. Additional insights were gained from SEM analysis; network structure
and economic conditions. dense gels were found, probably due to limited hydrolysis of papain stimulating TG-

Based on family background, Fasoyiro (2014) in Nigeria researched catalyzed soy milk cross-link formation.

The effect of roselle water extract as a coagulant on the physical, chemical and In addition, extended enzymatic hydrolysis of soy milk does not

sensory properties of tofu. Roselle water extract is available in Nigeria for processing promote cross-linking using TG. Stanoje vic, Baraÿ,

know because the price is cheaper compared to coagulants Pešiÿ, and Vucelic-Radovic (2020) used commercial rennet and

traditional ones that have to be imported. Rosella extract has a pH range of 2.01 inulin to produce firm tofu. Know is characterized by

up to 3.74, and its coagulation properties are based on its acidic nature. Results high total and soluble protein content, high protein extractability

Research shows that the yield of roselle coagulated tofu increases well, and recovery of total protein and soluble protein. It was found that

with increasing concentration of roselle extract. When the amount increasing inulin concentration proportionally increases

the use of roselle extract is 2.5%, appearance, taste and power tofu product hardness.

thank you know overall acceptable, and comparable to

tofu which is formed through coagulation with corn soaking water

fermentation. Summarizing current results: due to limitations/lack of coagulants

traditional coagulants, while optimizing the efficiency of traditional coagulants, as well

it is equally important to discover new coagulants. Effective method

Recently, Joo et al. (2020) used a new alternative coagulant can be developed by selecting the right enzyme for

namely trimagnesium citrate. This compound is a recognized food additive treated soy milk to expose its internal functional groups

generally as safe (GRAS) and can be added without restriction in North America and and then added TG enzyme to drive the bonding reaction

cross.

Europe. TMC is often used in dietary supplements, anti-caking agents,

and stabilizers. They study the characteristics of tofu products

involving physical properties and consumer preferences, and nigari coagulant (NGR)

and GYP were compared. Among them, nigari, also known as 3.3 Production technology
bittern, is the oldest tofu coagulant, which is produced from sea water through

evaporation and removal of sodium chlo ride; GYP is just CS, Soybeans are chosen as raw materials for processing in countries

common salt coagulant. The research results show that you know industry according to the diverse demands of different populations

made with GYP has slightly higher compactness (Bennetau-Pelissero, 2019). Therefore, the new process has been

compared with tofu made with TMC and NGR. developed to satisfy the tastes of different populations. Process

modern including high pressure (HP) cooking, cooking

The tofu made by TMC has a structure similar to tofu with ultrasonics, and cooking with microwaves (Bennetau-Pelissero,

NGR-induced. In sensory comparison, panelists preferred TMC-induced tofu over 2019). New products are produced based on the use of new technologies
GYP in soybean processing and is summarized in Figure 6.

induced tofu or NGR induced tofu. Therefore,

Traditional coagulants can be replaced or supplemented by using In the traditional tofu production process, different coagulants

TMC (0.35%) as a new coagulant to produce tofu products. added appropriately or the operation of some process is changed

There are several other studies that focus on the exploration of coagulants or some technical method is introduced to optimize

new enzyme. Rizkaprilisa and Setiadi (2018) used papain know product quality.

obtained from papaya fruit as a new coagulant to improve Because the functional properties of tofu are interconnected

productivity you know. Soy protein is extracted by comparison for the degree of denaturation and aggregation of soy protein, question
soy:water = 1:2. on the use of SPI directly has been a more recent focus (Nishinari et al., 2014), SPI

Soybean extract (200 g) is heated and when the temperature reaches 70 to denaturation can be induced using

80 ÿC, papain (3 and 6 g) and CS (1 and 2 g) were added. Highest yield ultrasound and HP techniques (Estegh lal et al., 2019; Zhao, Liu, Ding, Dong,

know using 2 g CS found 66%. Highest yield & Wang, 2019), and may be worthwhile to explore

this implementation
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FIGURE 6 Various soybean-based products and their production lines using modern processing. Adapted from Bennetau-Pelissero (2019)
technology to further clarify its impact on tofu quality.
3.3.1 Application of technology
ultrasound
Ultrasound technology uses mechanical waves with
frequency >16 kHz, which is higher than human hearing
(Hu, Cheung, Pan, & Li-Chan, 2015). These are divided into intensities
low, high frequency (power < 1 W/cm2, 100 kHz to 1 MHz,) and high
intensity, low frequency (power = 10 to 1,000 W/
cm2, 16 to 100 kHz) (Ashokkumar, 2015) .
The first is always used for non-destructive analysis, while the second is
used in food modification and yield
widely used in the food industry (Zhang et al., 2016; Zheng & Sun,
2006). The cavitation effect of ultrasonic waves causes liquids to
quickly form bubbles and burst, which can produce strong shear
forces and mixing effects, which can modify different protein solutions
(Wang, Wang, Handa, & Xu, 2017; Zhang, Regenstein, Zhou , &
Yang, 2017). The traditional production process of making tofu includes
two heating steps: heating raw soy milk and heating cooked soy milk
acidification with GDL. This heating operation involves
heating, holding, and cooling. These steps are time consuming and
increase energy consumption (Lin, Lu, Hsieh, & Kuo, 2016).
Tofu products: Review...
High-intensity ultrasonic (HIU) technology is a technology
which is efficient, environmentally friendly and reliable (Wen et al., 2019).
Many studies show that the application of technology
HIU as a pretreatment improves the functional properties of soy
protein. Hu et al. (2015) show that shark treatment can
improve solubility, emulsification stability, emulsification activity,
and surface hydrophobicity of ÿ-conglycinin. O'Sullivan, Park, and
Beevers (2016) shows that soy protein emulsions are
obtained using sonication has a particle size
which is smaller compared to nonsonicated emulsions. Several studies
investigated the effects of changing the functional properties of molecules
soy protein on product quality after HIU treatment. Hu et al. (2013)
found that HIU could reduce the particle size of SPI solutions and
increase the gel strength, gel hardness, and WHC of SPI gels
induced by gluconolactone. Zhang et al. (2016) found that HIU can
increase the intermolecular lysine isopep pairs of ÿ-(ÿ-glutamyl),
hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bonds, thereby making the
microstructure of the soy protein glutamine trans ferase cold gel
more uniform and denser. HIU can increase gel yield, hardness, and
WHC. Lin et al. (2016) used ultrasonic processing of soy milk as a
substitute for heating and cooling soy milk in the traditional process,
and the results showed
that applying SHARK treatment to soy milk (15 min
at a temperature of 25 ÿC) produces tofu with the highest Gÿ and G.
ÿ value, which indicates favorable reinforcement
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texture. Ultrasound increases efficiency (less energy consumption
and less time consuming) for tofu products. With
Thus, the application of HIU technology to the tofu making process
can save time, reduce energy consumption, and improve product
quality.
3.3.2 Tofu processing HP
HP technology is an effective and safe physical way to modify
the structure and self-assembly properties of proteins (Tattiyakul
& Rao, 2016). Pressure treatment can cause denaturation
proteins and different degrees of aggregation or gelation, which
leads to modification of textural characteristics, and shelf life can be
extended (Li, He, Mao, Gao, & Yuan, 2020) . Technology
HP can be used as a substitute for long-term heat treatment in food
processing (Tattiyakul & Rao, 2016).
Zhang, Li, Tatsumi, and Isobe (2005) investigated the effect of
HP treatment on soy protein modification in soy milk, and further
explored its effect on tofu quality. The fluorescence spectrum showed
that more hydrophobic regions of soy protein were observed after
HP treatment. HP 7S denaturation in soy milk occurs at 300 MPa,
while HP 11S denaturation occurs at 400 MPa.
HP can induce the formation of tofu gel with reasonable gel strength
and interlocking network microstructure.
In addition, a new method for preparing tofu uses HP (500 MPa for 20
minutes) combined with coagulants
soy milk at room temperature was studied. Tofu gelation mechanism
HP-induced disease is discussed (Zhang, Li, & Mittal, 2009). Results
research shows that HP treatment can completely
converting soy milk protein, produces tofu with
Reasonable strength, smooth appearance, good texture
uniform, lacking taste, and light yellow color. Tofu produced using HP
has its hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions damaged, and
heating mainly affects the hydrogen bond network (Zhang
et al., 2009).
In addition, HP can deactivate microorganisms and reduce
the number of microorganisms in tofu (Zhang et al., 2009), thereby
extending shelf life.
The microstructure and rheological properties of tofu were also
compared and analyzed using heating (soy milk was heated at ÿ97
ÿC and held at 70 ÿC for 60 minutes) and
HP (400 MPa at 20 ÿC for 10 minutes) (Saowapark, Apichart
srangkoon, & Bell, 2008). The results show that the tofu product
obtained using HP has
higher overall “consistency” (increased value
liquid/viscous modulus) than that obtained by treatment
hot. A more "open" structure is produced using
HP contains “empty” regions, which are not observed in the gel structure
produced using heating as viewed using a confocal scanning laser
microscope. Production of tofu produces no residue and wastewater, which may have a significant impact on product development. Especially soy
sauce powder
19
pensions of different concentrations (15 and 20%) were used
to prepare GDL-induced tofu using ultra-HP homogenization
(100 and 150 MPa) for two or three cycles to study the microstructure
of tofu. Heated soybean powder suspension (95 ÿC, 10 minutes)
was used as a control group (Liu, Chien, & Kuo, 2013). The results
showed that the denser ultra-HP homogenized tofu tissue
increased with increasing homogenization cycles and pressure. The
firmness, firmness, and elasticity of ultra-HP tofu were similar to
control tofu under appropriate pressure and cycle conditions. Tofu
made from 20% soybean powder suspension with three cycles at 150
MPa showed denser tissue compared to other treatment groups. It
has a regular honeycomb structure, and large particles are not found.
However, some particles are embedded in the structure
tissue in the control group (Figure 7).
Furthermore, HP has a role in preserving tofu products.
Locally purchased tofu in plastic bags is worn
vacuum and storage (5 ÿC), while the tofu product
remaining was subjected to HP (400 MPa) at 5 ÿC for 5, 30, and 45
minute. Microbial analysis, sensory evaluation, and structure
determination of tofu products were used. The research results
showed that after HP treatment, tofu products were safer in terms of contamination
microbes, and sensory test results show that processed tofu is
acceptable to consumers (Préstamo, Lesmes, Otero, & Arroyo,
2000).
In short, HP processing can be done at temperature
space and energy saving. It also has minimal environmental
mental pollution (Yang, Wang, & Chen, 2017). In addition, the original
color, taste, freshness, and stability of the protein gel can be
maintained after processing (Li, Mao, et al., 2018).
4 TOFU OKARA HIGH FIBER
In traditional tofu production, soy milk needs to go through stages
filtration before heating to obtain the desired tofu product with a smooth
mouthfeel. After filtration, the remaining soybean residue is
called Okara (Pérez-López, Mateos-Aparicio, & Rupérez, 2017;
Vong & Liu, 2016).
Okara has high dietary fiber content and high nutritional value, along
with hypoglycemic and hypolipic effects (Kim, Yu, Byun, & Cha, 2016;
Pérez -López, Mateos-Aparicio, & Rupérez, 2016; Zhang, Wang, et al .,
2019), which has attracted the attention of researchers. Use of Okara
to generate HFT
focused on two aspects: to process whole soybeans by keeping the
Okara (without filtering) in the tofu, and the other is to grind the
Okara separately and then add it back to the soy milk.
then rich in dietary fiber, use
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FIGURE 7 Scanning electron micrographs and appearance of tofu made from soybean flour suspensions with different concentrations
(15% and 20%) by heat treatment and ultrahigh pressure homogenization (UHPH) at 300x magnification. (a) 15%, thermal treatment; (b)
20%, thermal treatment; (c) 15%, UHPH 150 MPa for three cycles; (d) 20%, UHPH 150 MPa for three cycles. The length of the scale
bar represents 100 µm. Adapted from Liu et al. (2013)
whole soybean powder has attracted attention (Nishinari et al., 2014).
Yoshimura et al. (2007) studied whole soybean curd without
removing the Okara component (fiber).
In their study, sensory evaluation was acceptable for
whole soybean tofu except for the yellowish color. Negative effects of
grittiness on smooth textures was not serious based on their
sensory evaluation. Some consumers don't mind
decrease in smoothness and enjoy a full spectrum of firmness
range from very soft to hard.
Thus, the incorporation of nanoparticles made from the filtrate to
produce fiber-rich tofu is a viable direction
makes sense given the need for energy and cost checks
processing. That will depend on progress in design
and equipment engineering.
Zhang, Wang, et al. (2019) introduced Okara for
produces HFT which increases the nutritional value of tofu as well
increase the effective utilization of soybean residues. However,
they found the gel formation and palatability of HFT to be
difficult and poor, due to the large particle size of Okara fiber. Soy
fiber reduces the degree of cross-linking among heat-denatured
proteins and weakens the proper textural bonds of soy curd. As a
result, low gel strength was found
with HFT when traditional processing methods are used (Zhang
et al., 2018). Thus, the methods used to make traditional tofu are
not suitable for preparation
using HFT. Developing HFT with accept
Tofu products: Review...
capable gel strength and regular tissue will be beneficial.
To overcome this problem, mechanical technologies including
ultrasonic and high energy wet media (HEWM) show potential.
Zhang, Zhou, et al. (2019) prepared HFT using ultrasonic disruption,
ultrafine grinding, and cellulase enzymes to improve unfiltered
soy milk.
They found that all three techniques reduced
negative influence of water-insoluble constituents on the
formation of protein networks, and therefore allows tofu
has acceptable eating quality. Specifically, know
those made using ultrafine grinding show significantly improved
textural properties (cf
with traditional tofu), in terms of gel strength, compactness,
and elasticity. Thus, HFT can be produced using superfine
grinding technology to develop soybean products that are more
nutritious and less wasteful.
Recent studies (Wei et al., 2018; Yan, Kun, Yang, Li, & Xianfeng,
2015) showed that the particle size of Okara fibers used in
HFT is usually on the micrometer scale. Ullah et al. (2019)
studied the influence of microscale (MDF; 110 µm) and
nanoscale (NDF; 370 nm) Okara dietary fiber using HEWM on
the water state, gelling properties, and microstructure of tofu. It
was found that the NDF tofu gel matrix was porous and in a
discontinuous state. On the other hand, the MDF fragments randomly
embedded in a continuous gel matrix of tofu. On volumetric ratio
higher, the level of syneresis and yields know with MDF
is
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significantly lower than tofu NDF. However, ability
gelling of soy milk decreased more strongly with NDF
compared to MDF, which is likely due to the interaction
stronger with water and soy protein than NDF. White color
(color enhancement) can be achieved through the use of NDF in
soft tofu. NDF also produces more total fiber content
high while maintaining a smooth mouthfeel.
As for recent developments in the use of Okara, methods
Better production was reported using water jet systems (11 times at 200
MPa), and beneficial health effects of atomized Okara were also reported
(Nagano, Hirano, Kurihara, & Nishinari, 2020). This system has the following
advantages: short processing time, high production volume, and easy to
operate. Okara treated with water jet was homogeneously dispersed
in water, and the median size was measured
the particle size distribution is 6.6 µm. Water jet maintenance
significantly change the high dispersion and high viscosity performance of Okara.
In addition, inhibition of ÿ-amylase activity is enhanced and
butyrate production by R. intestinalis increased with Okara
water jet processed. These results indicate that the water jet system
may be useful for developing food uses
Okara to prevent metabolic diseases.
To improve the hydrophilicity of Okara dietary fiber and its
compatibility with soy protein matrix, Wei et al. (2018) applied a method
called layer-by-layer (LBL) coating of insoluble Okara fiber using chitosan/
pectin.
They found that tofu with LBL-coated Okara fiber had better textural and
sensory qualities than tofu with intact Okara dietary fiber, although it was
still inferior to traditional tofu. Therefore, in an attempt to improve the
gel strength and palatability of high-fiber Okara tofu, LBL coating showed
limited effects. Wang, Li, et al. (2020) utilized high-speed shearing (HSS)
technology for
grinding Okara fiber in a suspension of whole soybean flour (WSF).
The research results show that HSS effectively performs
micronization of insoluble parts of the suspension, such as cell layers
constituent of the seed coat, but the natural protein structure is destroyed. To know
made using WSF suspension treated with HSS,
surface hydrophobicity increases, while the relative content of ÿ-
sheet, ÿ helix, and ÿ-turn are all decreasing. HSS generates
know with lower power, and network structure
formed loosely and poorly connected. So, it might be better to micronize
the Okara and then add it
back to soy milk to make HFT.
In short, research on Okara tofu is especially high in fiber
focuses on increasing the cross-linking degree of soy protein and reducing
the solid particle size through the application of advanced technology
(especially for micronization of Okara fiber). For all types of tofu, when tofu
production is finished, packaging of the tofu is also crucial
The quality of the product is known when it reaches the consumer's hands.
21
5 PACKAGES OF KNOWN AND
SUSTAINABILITY
The final process of making tofu is product packaging.
Selection of packaging materials and storage technology will
affects the final taste, quality and shelf life of tofu products.
Tofu products are sold in stores in bulk, in tubs filled with water, in plastic
bags, or in vacuum packaging (Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 2000). The high
water and protein content (in tofu products) provides a good ambient
medium for the growth of microorganisms, and thus, even under
refrigerated conditions, the shelf life is only a few days (Rossi, Felis,
Martinelli, Calcavecchia, & Torriani, 2016) .
On the other hand, in Japan, the shelf life of tofu varies greatly: for
fresh tofu, 1 to 5 days, for packaged tofu, about 1
weeks, for pasteurized tofu, 3 weeks to 1 month,
and for tofu that is processed aseptically. , 6 months to 2 years (Snyder
& Wilson, 2003). However, how to prolong life
store tofu products is always an important topic. In general, research
to extend shelf life can be divided into
two parts. One of them is the selection of packaging materials, and
the other is the application of preservation technology during or
after packaging. Preservation methods involve physical, chemical, and a
combination of physical and chemical methods. Storage method
physical freshness is mainly about changing the temperature of the external environment,
and chemical fresh storage methods are mainly about inhibiting
growth of microorganisms and protein denaturation.
5.1 Additives for packaging materials
One of the priorities when choosing food packaging materials is to avoid
unwanted interactions between the food and its contents
packaging materials. However, various packaging methods nowadays
used that makes the packaging material interact with
food to provide the desired effect. Merger
physical chemicals or other suitable agents into the packaging material
may be useful (Cha & Chin nan, 2004). Induced gelation
GDL, for example, after being put into plastic packaging becomes
solution to extend the shelf life of tofu (Guo & Ono, 2005).
Furylfuramide (called AF-2) as an antimicrobial food additive has been
used in tofu products for food preservation, but was banned in Japan
in 1974 due to its carcinogenic properties (Nomura, 1975). In addition, the
negative environmental impacts of traditional food packaging can potentially
be reduced by the development of eco-friendly or eco-friendly packaging,
in which edible or biodegradable materials and plant extracts
used (Han, Ruiz-Garcia, Qian, & Yang, 2018) .
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22 Tofu products: Review...

5.1.1 Nisin of 28 kDa has good coagulability compared to other types of chitosan solutions.
Kim, Son, and Han (2004) evaluated the effects of chitosan with different
viscosities
Nisin (NS), an antimicrobial peptide from the lantibiotic family,
made by strains of the subspecies Lactococcus lactis. NS inhibits on physicochemical properties, sensory qualities, and microbiological effects

formation of pores in the membrane, both of which are detrimental product know during storage. The results showed that the colony forming units of

proton motive force and pH equilibrium (Mok, Pyatkovskyy, psychrotrophic and mesophilic microorganisms in tofu containing high viscosity

Yousef, & Sastry, 2020). NS is GRAS and has been used chitosan were significantly lower compared to tofu containing low viscosity

in several ways to control pathogens in food (Calderón-Oliver et al., 2016). chitosan and controls during storage. The overall preference score for tofu

Cha, Chen, Park, and Chin nan (2003) used multi-layered polyethylene (PE), containing high viscosity chitosan was higher than for other tofu samples.

which included NS methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, to

package tofu. The film was in direct contact with the suspension to explore the
inhibitory effect of Listeria on tofu. The results showed that the application of NS
film to packaged tofu could effectively inhibit the growth and survival of L. Purba, Suseno, Izaki, and Muttaqin (2014) made tofu

monocytogenes Brie-1. In addition, Schillinger, Becker, Vignolo, and Holzapfel by soaking it in liquid smoke and chitosan. Tofu samples were analyzed using the

(2001) showed that NS, in combination with protective culture, could completely total plate number test and organoleptic tests. The research results

inhibit the growth of Listeria monocyte togens in home-made tofu products showed that the addition of 1.5% liquid smoke and 2.5% chitosan was able to
extend the shelf life.
stored at 10 ÿC for 1 week. In conclusion, NS has a good ability to inhibit the
growth of microorganisms, while the sensory quality of the preserved food know for 3 days.

remains the same. Harti, Haryati, Setyaningsih, and Yatmihatun (2015)

uses chito-oligosaccharides (COS) (COS is a glycoprotein
with 1,4 glucosamine bonds formed by deacetylation of chitin obtained from
shrimp and crab shell waste) as a prebiotic and natural preservative in
synbiotic tofu in
Indonesia to provide economic and added value benefits

social. Their results showed the potential of integrating 2% (w/w) COS in the

5.1.2 Chitosan production of synbiotic tofu, which is expected to be a multifunctional ingredient that
functions as a prebiotic and natural preservative of this functional food. In such

Chitosan is a natural, non-toxic, biodegradable biopolymer derived from the types of tofu, the addition of COS significantly increased the growth of the

deacetylation of chitin; it is common in many lower animals (shrimp, crabs, and probiotic strain Lac tobacillus. This increases the shelf life of tofu by

crayfish)
(Antoniadou, Govaris, Ambrosiadis, & Sergelidis, 2019).
Chitosan as well as its oligomers have received much attention due to their organoleptic changes or organism indicators of fecal contamination.

beneficial functional properties including antimicrobial activity and cholesterol-

lowering activity (Antoniadou et al., 2019; Chen, Chen, Xu, & Yam, 2019). In summary, chitosan and its oligomers have good antibacterial
activity. It can be applied to any surface
food to inhibit bacteria and other microorganisms.

Chun, Kim, Son, and Hahm (1997) used 0.5% chitosan There are no known side effects on the product characteristics

degraded soluble in water as a tofu soaking solution, and concluded that the know and therefore it is very suitable for prolonging life

shelf life of tofu products at a temperature of 4 ÿC was extended for >7 days. save tofu products. However, more work is needed with realistic commercial
scale conditions.
However, for
To effectively investigate the impact of chitosan on tofu products, more information
is needed about the various processing conditions that may affect tofu quality. No
and Meyers (2004) 5.1.3 Plant extracts
conducted extensive analysis using chitosan as
coagulant to make tofu with a longer shelf life In addition to NS and chitosan, there are also potential plant extracts that may have

long. In their experiment, chi tosan with six weights additional health and safety benefits.

Different molecules are used with varying processing conditions Microorganisms found in tofu products include coliform bacteria,

to investigate the potential of chitosan as a coagulant in making tofu. The Pseudomonasspp., Bacillusspp., Klebsiella spp., and Leuconostoc spp. among
research results showed that chitosan others (Frías et al., 2020). Thus, the application of plant extracts to tofu food

purposes: to inhibit the increase in hardness) and whey (volume and turbidity) of does not have much effect on the characteristics (yield and is developed for two
tofu products, harmful agents (viruses, bacteria, parasites, and

but it affects the sensory quality and shelf life of tofu. Chitosan with molecular weight
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Tofu products: Review...
toxins) and to increase the number of beneficial bacteria (L.
plantarum).
Shin et al. (2010) applied isothiocyanate (ITC) from horseradish
to tofu products and explore their influence on quality
and shelf life of tofu on days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 at a temperature of 10
ÿC. The research results show that ITC is effective in inhibiting
growth of bacterial flora in tofu products for 10 days.
Further research showed that the sensory attributes of samples treated
with ITC (color, firmness, taste, smell, and overall acceptability) after
10 days of storage were still good. Therefore, ITC can be used as an
alternative to extend the shelf life and increase the safety of tofu. Cui,
Zhao, and Lin (2015) investigated the effect of clove oil and liposome-
encapsulated clove oil on tofu preservation. In their study, the antibacterial
activity of clove oil showed that
The essential oil has antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and
Staphylococcus aureus. However, the chemical stability of the oil
The low quality of cloves is the main disadvantage of its use as a disinfectant.
To overcome this problem, clove oil
incorporated into liposome formulations to enhance
its stability. The detailed procedures are as follows: cholesterol
and soy lecithin (5:1) dissolved in trichloromethane and
then mixed with clove oil (5.0 mg/mL). For
to form a thin layer on the walls, the mixture is necessary
evaporated in a rotary evaporator and then dried in
vacuum oven (30 ÿC, 24 hours). It then needs to be suspended,
homogenized, centrifuged and filtered. It was found that it changes the composition of gases that come into contact with food and prevents physical
significant antibacterial activity against S. aureus in tofu.
Wang, Li, et al. (2019) isolated and purified Citrus medica L.
sarcodactylis (citron) extract. They studied its effects on the antimicrobial
and antibiofilm activity of tofu. The results showed that chromatographic
separation significantly improved, both in vitro and tofu, the antibacterial
activity and antibiotic/fraction efficiency.
They elute a 30% ethanol fraction (ethanol elution fraction [EEF]) and
EEF 60%. Both significantly inhibit formation
biofilms. In this study, EEF showed antibacterial activity
which is higher compared to crude extract. Activity
fractions were increased using resin chromatography
polyamide after the second separation procedure. At a concentration of 2.0
mg/mL, complete inhibition (100%) of S. aureus biofilm formation was
achieved.
Other researchers have conducted detailed studies on
increase in the number of beneficial bacteria in tofu products.
Fu brick tea extract (FBTE) is added to soy milk and
L. plantarum B1-6 probiotic is used to thicken tofu (Wang et al., 2016).
The results showed that the growth of L. plantarum increased
significantly due to the addition of FBTE; Meanwhile, the pH during
bio-tofu production is lowered. FBTE supplementation improved cold
storage resistance of L. plantarum and simulated gastrointestinal
conditions. During the entire gastrointestinal digestion process,
phenolic compounds and antioxidants
23
idant bio-know activity was found to be relatively stable and at a level
tall. These results indicate that the total content of phenolic aglycones
and isoflavones and the antioxidant activity of tofu can be increased
using L. plantarum as a biocoagulant. With
Thus, the combination of probiotics and FBTE as a coagulant for
producing bio-tofu can open up new areas of functional food development.
In short, synthetic antimicrobials are being replaced by natural antimicrobials
from natural plant extracts.
However, research into natural antimicrobials is just beginning and will
continue to increase.
5.2 Packaging technology
The application of technology during and after packaging is also key to the
final quality of the tofu product.
5.2.1 Atmospheric packaging
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is defined as
packaging food in an atmosphere of constant composition
at first but continued to change thereafter (Berk, 2018). This matter
is based on replacing air in food packaging
sealed with a controlled gas mixture containing
carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and/or other gases for
damage. This method has , chemical and biological aspects of
food quality (Tiefenbacher, 2018; Ward, 2016).
MAP is becoming more common in actual production for var.
maintain freshness and extend fresh shelf life
fruits and vegetables (Ward, 2016). MAP has been studied by
knowing. Stoops, Maes, Claes, and Van Campenhout (2012) examined
the growth of Pseudomonas on tofu products in MAP.
They found it difficult to remove the rot
Pseudomonas by controlling the amount of carbon dioxide and
oxygen with the cooled product.
Other research was carried out using a mixture of CO2 and
N2 (CO2:N2 = 3:7) using flushing or vacuum compensation,
and refrigerated packaged tofu. Air-packed tofu was used as a control.
The research results show that micro
The count for air-packed tofu bial is one to four
log cycles were higher than MAP after 10 days of storage.
MAP inhibits microbial growth for up to 14 days (Van Camp enhout,
Maes, & Claes, 2013).
In summary, MAP has been successfully used for extension
shelf life and preserving the freshness of tofu products.
However, based on recent reviews of MAP research (Stoops et al., 2012;
Van Campenhout et al., 2013), research on MAP of tofu products is
still limited, which may imply that it faces challenges that need to be
overcome. The differences between different types of tofu products are
due to the variety of soy beans, processing conditions, and
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24
production technology. Conditions for optimal implementation
of MAP appear to be a valuable focus of future research.
5.2.2
irradiation technology
Food irradiation uses ionizing radiation to kill fungal bacteria
(Zanardi, Caligiani, & Novelli, 2018).
Radiation-based food sterilization utilizes
the strong ability of radiation to penetrate substances and the
susceptible ability of most contaminating food microorganisms to
radiation. Food sturdiness
irradiation, in terms of safety and nutrient retention, has
confirmed by the European Food Safety Agency, the International
Atomic Energy Agency and research organizations in many
countries, and the World Health Organization (Kobayashi, 2018;
Mangiacotti, Marchesani, Floridi, Siragusa, & Chiaravalle,
2013) . Shurong, Meixu, and Chuanyao (2006) investigated the
effect of applying irradiation technology on the microbiological
safety and acceptability of the sensory and nutritional quality of tofu
products. The results showed that irradiation doses below 2 kGy
did not significantly affect the crude fat, crude protein, and AA
contents of packaged tofu, and that the sensory quality of
packaged tofu did not change significantly during the long storage
period.
The effect of radiation technology on the shelf life of tofu
products has also been studied. Maurya, Shukla, and Gour
(2018) investigated the effects of gamma irradiation on tofu using
three different packaging materials: biaxially oriented
polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, and low-density
polyethylene. Samples are stored for up to 20 days. The
results showed that the color of tofu ranged from light cream to
light yellow. This may be because radiation removes moisture, which
affects the color of the sample. In addition, biomolecules can
undergo conformational changes due to radiation. Combining
low-density polyethylene with 1.25 kGy gamma radiation
succeeded in extending the shelf life to 15 days without
changing the quality of the tofu.
Gamma radiation treatments have been successfully applied to
some extent on a commercial scale. Therefore, irradiation of tofu
products can be considered as a technology that can extend
shelf life by inactivating spoilage bacteria. Irradiation is a cold treatment, The application of irradiation technology in the food industry is
which has many inherent advantages.
For example, packaged foods are easier to process, there are no
chemical residues, and the process is highly reproducible and
well controlled. However, the application of ionizing radiation in the
food sector is currently very limited, and commercial
use of food irradiation is still limited (Zanardi et al., 2018), mainly
due to consumer resistance because they do not understand the
process .
Tofu products: Review...
5.2.3 Cold atmospheric pressure plasma and plasma
activated water
Cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) is an antibacterial
technology that exposes food to ionized gases, thereby
effectively killing bacteria, yeast, fungi, and spores by destroying
nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins (Fernández & Thompson, 2012).
CAPP has the advantages of short processing time, high efficiency
at room temperature, and environmental friendliness. Therefore
it is used in the food industry (Frías et al., 2020; Sunil, Singh,
Chan dra, Chaudhary, & Kumar, 2018). In addition, CAPP can
sterilize various heat-sensitive foods, which greatly improves
the microbiology of these foods and has been proven to maintain
their fresh taste and aroma, texture, nutritional value and safety
(Frías et al., 2020; Mošovská et al. , 2018 ) . In addition, water
treated with CAPP can effectively kill various microorganisms
such as S. aureus and E. coli (Zhang et al., 2013). At room
temperature, the antibacterial properties of plasma-activated water
(PAW) are usually maintained for up to 1 month (Frías et al., 2020;
Zhang et al., 2013).
Recently, the implementation of CAPP and PAW has been implemented
on tofu to replace traditional heat treatment.
The antibacterial effect, color, texture, biological activity, and
WHC of tofu samples were analyzed to evaluate the potential of
CAPP and PAW as nonthermal decontamination technologies
(Frías et al., 2020). The research results show that the use of PAW
as a soaking solution during tofu storage can extend the shelf life
of tofu products by controlling or delaying the growth of
microorganisms.
The application of CAPP and PAW technology can effectively
produce tofu products with better surface texture compared to
traditional heat treatment methods. However, prevention of
adverse ecological effects of toxins should be considered when
the technology exerts its maximum bactericidal effect before these
plasma-based technologies (CAPP and PAW) are implemented
at the industrial level for tofu products.
In summary, MAP research with tofu products is limited, and
conditions for optimal MAP application need to be further studied.
currently still limited, because some consumers do not
understand/appreciate this process. Prevention of adverse
toxicological effects should be considered when CAPP and
PAW technologies are used.
Before testing and production, each technology must be
considered comprehensively. Technology costs, safety
issues, and quality issues need to be fully explored.
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5.3 Freezing food
Food freezing technology is used as a preservation method
food. Can increase storage time and extend life
store food (Kobayashi, Ishiguro, Ozeki, Kawai, & Suzuki, 2020). Know
frozen is a delicious and famous Asian food made with
freeze soft or hard tofu (Ji et al., 2017). It is produced by
food companies and is widely used in everyday cooking in
China and Japan. However, one problem is that once cooked, the tofu
frozen still has a rough surface with a sponge-like texture,
which is not as good as fresh tofu with a smoother texture (Nishinari et al.,
2018).
In general, two methods can be used to maintain or improve
frozen tofu taste in the mouth. One of them is a useful addition
ingredients (polysaccharides or starch), and others are of various applications
freezing technologies, such as explosion freezing, HP, and supercooling.
Curdlan is a polysaccharide produced by bacteria.
The addition of curdlan to the raw material makes the frozen tofu texture better
more subtle (Miwa, Nakao, & Nara, 1994). Nakao, Yamaguchi, and Taguchi
(1994) prepared freeze-dried tofu using the optimal curdlan formula
(0.5%), corn starch wax (1%), and controlled freezing conditions. After
dissolved in hot water, frozen and thawed tofu has
smoother and softer texture. Thus, you know what you can process
This frozen can be used to make Agedashi dofu (fried tofu
ready-to-eat), Mabo-dofu, (Chinese dish, tofu with spicy minced meat),
and Miso Soup, all of which require a smooth, creamy texture
(Nakao et al., 1994). Adachi (2010) reported that modified starch can
improve the texture of frozen tofu. On the other hand, Fuchigami, Teramoto, and Ogawa
(1998) studied the effect of HP freezing on the structural changes of tofu.
The results showed that tofu was frozen at a temperature of 200 MPa (ÿ18
up to ÿ20 ÿC) is useful for maintaining its initial texture
fine. Kobayashi et al. (2020) studied changes in the texture of Kori-tofu (food
traditional preparations in Japan), WHC, ice crystals, and frozen concentration phase
during frozen storage. They freeze fresh tofu in ÿ9 ÿC water
blast freezer for 3 hours, and then place it at ÿ2 ÿC
up to 21 days. The thawing process is carried out by thawing frozen tofu
in ice water for 3 hours. The research results showed that dehydration
plays an important role in inducing new protein-protein interactions and texture
firmer tofu with frozen storage for 0 to 7 days.
This also shows that the balance between regions is changing
hydrophilic and hydrophobic caused by dehydration with ice recrys
tallization plays an important role in the formation of new protein interactions. Xu, Tao,
and Shivkumar (2016) examined the effect of freeze-thaw treatment on
characteristic texture of soft and firm tofu. Tofu is sealed in a bag
polyethylene, stored at atmospheric pressure in a freezer at ÿ16 ÿC
for different times, and then melted at 20 ÿC for
20 minutes. The results showed that after freezing and
25
thawing, the tofu becomes firmer, more cohesive, gummier, and springier.
Poudyal, Kobayashi, Suzuki, and Watanabe (2019) studied the effects
supercooling freeze protection at atmospheric pressure on tofu
hard. Texture, droplet loss, and microstructure were analyzed and
compared with conventional methods after storage. Results
Research shows that after 1 month of storage, tofu is made
Using supercooling is proven to have advantages
significant.
Higher freezing rate after release from extreme state
cold successfully reduces drip loss, with less damage
on microstructure. Rapid freezing and storage at ÿ20 ÿC are considered
as the best way to freeze tofu storage.
In short, the texture of frozen tofu can be improved by adding
curdlan and modified starch and using freezing techniques
appropriate. Frozen tofu can be stored using the freezing technique
different, including explosion freezing, HP or atmospheric pressure freezing,
and super cooling.
Among them, HP is limited to industrial processing. Many households
preserving tofu using simple atmospheric pressure freezing.
Supercooling has the potential to maintain product quality and convenience
handling. Supercooling at atmospheric pressure is convenient because it is not
requires HP equipment. However, one problem is that there is no supercooling
stable and difficult to maintain for a long time. Data about conditions
optimal for achieving limited effective supercooling.
6 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS
There is a strong interest, expressed by many consumers, in reducing
amount of animal products in their diet for ethical, environmental,
and health. Tofu consumption is motivated by its high nutritional value and
included in a vegetarian and hypocaloric diet.
Therefore, to make high quality tofu products and
superior flavors to meet ever-increasing consumer demand,
it is important to understand the critical factors that can affect quality
know. The quality of the final tofu product depends on many factors involved
in production, such as soybean diversity, soybean protein composition,
structural properties and nutritional value, coagulant type, production technology, and materials
packer. In this review, recent developments with coagulants
New mixtures and coagulants are discussed. It was shown that research
should not only focus on the mechanisms and impacts of mixing
traditional coagulants. Perhaps it is equally important that a major effort should be made
carried out to discover/develop new coagulants, especially extracts
plant. To be commercially effective, the coagulant extraction rate must be
targeted needs to be improved, which is also related to the need for
reduce plants
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26
waste generation. The application of Okara in HFT (and in alternative
uses) serves the same purpose.
To make tofu with new production technology such as
ultrasonic and HP processing, essential to retain value
nutrition and taste of tofu while increasing its sensory properties. The more
many high-quality tofu products will enter the market, it is hoped
More and more consumers are including tofu in their diet
they. To help meet this goal, it is important to
extend the shelf life of tofu and maintain its quality
high through the supply chain to the consumer, ideally
with environmentally friendly packaging materials.
Given the current status summarized in this review, the
following recommended future research directions:
1. Basic understanding of the relationship between essential AAs in
soybeans. It is interesting to know how these interrelationships
affect quality, taste, and...
nutritional value of tofu products.
Greater understanding will help identify the best approaches to
improve outcomes and quality.
2. Explore the concentration, time, and temperature effects of coagulant application
mixture and how it affects quality, taste,
and the nutritional value of tofu when the same raw materials are used.
3. Developing new coagulants from plant extracts. Coagulant
The ideal plant extract should be economical (i.e., affordable at
most developing countries, especially less developed countries
growing), convenient, has a high extraction rate,
it may also be an anti-oxidant, and have other functional properties
along with being highly nutritious and environmentally friendly. By
overall impact on quality and sense of need
studied.
4. Machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) are moderate
developed quickly and may offer real benefits to the complexity of tofu
research. For example, ML models can
used as a prediction tool by using the relationship between chemical
quality properties and tofu characteristics. This can be used
in selecting high quality soybeans. There are some early results
published along these lines (Lee, Kwon, Chai, & Oh,
2017; Wang, Meng, et al., 2020; Wang, Zhang, et al., 2019). M.L
and AI can be leveraged to improve all aspects
research knows, so it has great potential to help
public.
5. Development of environmentally friendly and healthy packaging materials
to extend the shelf life of tofu.
THANK-YOU NOTE
The authors thank the Five Year Plan
13th (research grant numbers: 2016YFD0401402, 2016YFD0400702, and
2016YFD0400402) for their financial support for
this research. The author also wants to
Tofu products: Review...
recognizes Key Technology Research and Development Projects
Heilongjiang Province Applied Technology (GA17B002) and Foundation
National Natural Sciences of China (research grant number:
31430067, 31571876, 31601475, and 31671807). Meanwhile,
This work was carried out with support from the Talent Training Program
Innovative Youth General Scholars of Heilongjiang Province
(NYPYSCT-2018163), University Nursing Program for
Young Scholars with Creative Talents in Heilongjiang Province
(UNPYSCT-2017015), Talent” Northeast Agricultural Project (17QC18),
and Heilongjiang Province Science Foundation Project (C2018024). Final,
Li Zheng would like to thank the China Scholarship Council (CSC)
for your support.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Li Zheng developed the manuscript idea, drafted the manuscript, and
editing the manuscript. Joe M. Regen stein revised and edited the
manuscript and edited the tables.
Fei Teng provided suggestions and discussions on technical parts.
Yang Li revised the manuscript.
ORCID
Yang Li https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2853-8916
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