Manarat Jeddah

International School
Academic Year 2021-2022
Prepared By Ms. Sarah Magdy
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 Physics
Block 2: Thermal Physics
Chapter 9: The kinetic model of
matter

Week 14
Objectives (as per Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus)
 What is the difference?
❖ Solids have a definite shape and a
definite volume. Solids cannot flow
and are not compressible.
❖ Liquids have no definite shape but do
have a definite volume. Liquids are
able to flow to take the shape of a
container but they are not
compressible.
❖ Gases have no definite shape and no
fixed volume. Gases can flow to take
the shape of their container and are
highly compressible
 Changes of State
When a substance changes state, the number of molecules in that substance doesn't
change and so neither does its mass. The only thing that changes is its energy.
Changes of state are physical changes and so they are reversible

Melting & Freezing

1. Melting occurs when a solid turns into a liquid (e.g. ice to water)
2. Freezing occurs when a liquid turns into a solid.

Boiling & Condensing

1. Boiling occurs when a liquid turns into a gas. (This is also called evaporating)
2. Condensing occurs when a gas turns into a liquid.
Changes of State

An increase in
temperature means an
increase in internal
energy. With more
energy the molecules can
move about more as they
get more kinetic energy.
Once they are moving
more they can break their
bonds and spread apart,
which we experience as a
change of state.
 Heating
Gas
Temperature

Boiling point
Liquid

Solid Melting point

Time
 Cooling
Temperature Gas

Condensing
Liquid

Freezing
Solid

Time
 Arrangement & Motion of Particles
1. In a solid:
The molecules are very close together and
arranged in a regular pattern. The
molecules vibrate about fixed positions.
2. In a liquid:
The molecules are still close together (no
gaps) but are no longer arranged in a
regular pattern. The molecules are able
to slide past each other.
3. In a gas:
The molecules are widely separated -
about 10 times further apart in each
direction. The molecules move
about randomly at high speeds.
Forces & Distances between Molecules
• The forces between particles affect
the state of matter. This is because
the magnitude of the forces affects
the relative distances and motion of
the particles.
• This affects the ability of the
substance to change its shape,
volume or flow.
• The particles that make up matter
include: Atoms, Molecules, Ions &
Electrons.
 Intermolecular Forces and Motion of Particles
▪ The molecules in a solid are held in place by strong
intermolecular forces.
Solids

▪ They only vibrate in position.

▪ The distance between them is fixed.
▪ This gives the solid its rigid shape and fixed volume.

▪ The molecules in a liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces between them.
Liquids

▪ They are still held close together.

▪ The volume of the liquid is the same as the volume of the solid.
▪ Molecules can move around (by sliding past each other).
▪ This allows the liquid to change shape and flow

▪ The molecules in a gas have more energy and move randomly at high speeds.
▪ The molecules have overcome the forces holding them close together.
Gases

▪ Because of the large spaces between the molecules.

▪ The gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand.
▪ Gases flow freely
 SOLIDS
❖ strong forces of attraction Lattice structure refers to
❖ held in fixed position the arrangement of the atoms
❖ lattice/regular arrangement of a substance in 3D space

❖ don’t move, so they have definite shape and volume

❖ vibrate

❖ as they become hotter, the particles vibrate more.

❖ so they expand
❖ can’t be compressed Since its particles are already
very close to one another.
❖ generally very dense

❖ when heated, molecules gain energy.

❖ they vibrate more and more
❖ strong forces are overcome, molecules start to move = MELTING
 LIQUIDS
❖ some attraction between molecules.
❖ free to move
❖ no definite shape, but take shape of container
❖ molecules in constantly random motion

❖ when heated, they move faster and expand

❖ can’t be compressed
❖ quite dense

❖ heat makes the molecules move faster as they gain energy.

❖ fast moving molecules at the surface will overcome forces of attraction
and escape = EVAPORATION
 GASES
❖ no force of attraction
❖ free to move, travel in straight lines
❖ sometimes collide
❖ no definite shape or volume, expand to fill space

❖ exert pressure on wall of container

❖ constantly moving randomly
❖ move faster when heated
❖ can be compressed
❖ very low densities

❖ when heated enough, molecules have enough speed and energy

to overcome forces and escape each other
❖ molecules break away in big bubbles of gas
 Identify the state of matter..?
Q. Two states of matter are described below. Identify each of the states of matter.
Substance 1
• molecules are spaced very far apart
• molecules move very quickly at random
• molecules move in a straight line
Substance 2
• molecules are quite closely packed together
• molecules move about at random
• molecules do not have fixed positions
A. Substance 2
Step 1: Identify the distances between the molecules
The molecules are closely packed
This could describe either a solid or a liquid
A. Substance 1 Step 2: Identify the motion of the molecules
Step 1: Identify the distances between the molecules The molecules move at random and do not have fixed
The molecules are spaced far apart positions
This can only describe a gas This confirms that substance 2 is a liquid
Step 2: Identify the motion of the molecules
The molecules move quickly, at random and in a straight line
This confirms that substance 1 is a gas
 Temperature & Energy of Particles
The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its
container is dependent on the temperature of
the gas. This is because particles gain kinetic
energy as their temperature increases. As the
temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure
on the container also decreases.

Absolute zero (0 Kelvin) is a temperature at

which the particles in a gas exert no pressure
as they are not moving, and hence not
colliding with their container. This In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin,
temperature is equal to -273 °C. recognised that there must be a temperature at which the
particles in a gas exert no pressure. At absolute zero, or -
273 °C, particles will have no net movement. It is therefore
not possible to have a lower temperature.
 Motion of Particles in a Gas
Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high speeds.
Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in no specific path and undergo
sudden changes in their motion if they collide:
1. With the walls of its container
2. With other molecules
Pressure in a gas is caused by the collisions with the surface (walls) of the container.

Random motion of gas molecules in a container

Pressure & Force of Particles in a Gas
Gases fill their container, moving
about randomly and colliding with
the walls of their containers.
These collisions produce a net force at
right angles to the wall of the gas
container (or any surface).

Therefore, a gas at high pressure

has more frequent collisions with the
container walls and a greater force.
The higher the pressure, the higher
the force exerted per unit area.
Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container. Gas
molecules hit the sides of the container and exert a force,
which creates pressure.
…..
 Brownian Motion
The Kinetic Theory of Matter, which states that all
matter is made up of tiny particles, was discovered
almost by accident.
The scientist Robert Brown first described the
random motion of pollen grains in water, which he
saw under a microscope.
This observation could not be explained at the time,
but later it was realised that it shows that substances
are made of particles which are in constant
motion (hence 'kinetic’).
Brownian motion: is the random movement of particles in
a liquid or a gas produced by large numbers of collisions
with smaller particles which are often too small to see.
Brownian Motion
 Brownian Motion - Explanation
When observing Brownian Motion, even with a
microscope, only the microscopic particles can
be seen. The pollen or smoke particles are seen
to move. Smaller atoms and molecules, of water
or air, are still too small to be seen.

These light, fast-moving atoms and

molecules collide with the larger microscopic
particles. The collisions give the particles a little
nudge, causing them to change their speed and
directions randomly, each time they are struck Viewed through a microscope, smoke can be seen
by a molecule. to be made up of millions of tiny bits or particles.
The bits of smoke glint in the light from the lamp.
The Kinetic theory of matter explains this
Brownian motion.
Objectives (as per Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus)
 Absolute Temperature
The kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute
zero. An increase of 1 K is the same change as an
increase of 1 °C. It is not possible to have a
temperature lower than 0 K. A temperature in
kelvin will never have a negative value.
To convert between temperatures θ in the Celsius
scale, and T in the Kelvin scale, use the following
conversion:
θ (in °C) = T (in K) − 273
T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

Convert the following values between the Kelvin

and Celsius scales of temperature.
a) How much is 0 K in the Celsius scale? Answers:
a) How much is 0 °C in the Kelvin scale? (a) 0 K = −273 °C
c) How much is 20 °C in the Kelvin scale? (b) 0 °C = 273 K
(c) 20 °C = 293 K
 The Gas Laws
1. Pressure & Volume (Constant Temperature)

If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the gas changes when it is:
Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the pressure
Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the pressure

If a smaller container is used then there will be more

collisions with the walls as the particles are being
squashed closer together. The pressure will increase.
If the same amount of gas is put into a bigger
container, there will be fewer collisions with the walls
of the container, so the pressure will decrease.

When a gas is compressed, the molecules will hit the walls of

the container more frequently, creating a larger overall net
force on the walls which increases the pressure.
 The Gas Laws
1. Pressure & Volume (Constant Temperature)

Similarly, a change in pressure can

cause a change in volume. A vacuum
pump can be used to remove the air
from a sealed container. The diagram
shows the change in volume to a tied
up balloon when the pressure of the
air around it decreases:

Volume is the amount of space

occupied by a substance.
 The Gas Laws
1. Pressure & Volume (Constant Temperature)

At a constant temperature, the pressure

is inversely proportional to the volume of a gas

So If
Volume Pressure

And If
Volume Pressure
 The Gas Laws
1. Pressure & Volume (Constant Temperature)

At a constant temperature, the pressure is inversely

proportional to the volume of a gas
So If
Boyle’s Law
Volume Pressure
The relationship between the pressure and volume for a fixed
And If mass of gas at constant temperature can also be written as:
Volume Pressure

Where:
P1 = initial pressure (Pa)
P2 = final pressure (Pa)
V1 = initial volume (m3)
V2 = final volume (m3)
 The Gas Laws
1. Pressure & Volume (Constant Temperature)
Calculations

Example
At constant temperature, E.g. A gas a constant temperature in a
100 ml container has a pressure of 1.2
atmosphere (atm). What is the new
pressure x volume = constant pressure if the container volume is
reduced to 60ml?

pV = constant Answer: P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
1.2 x 100 = P2 x 60
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
1.2 x 100 = P2 = 2.0 atm
60

For Your The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101,325 Pa.
Information The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but not part of the International System of Units (SI)
 The Gas Laws
2. Pressure & Temperature (Constant Volume)

Molecules in the same volume collide with the walls

The average speed of motion of of the container more as the temperature increases.
molecules increases when the
temperature increases (and vice versa).
The hotter the gas, the higher the
average kinetic energy. The cooler the
gas, the lower the average kinetic
energy.
As the gas heats up, the molecules will
travel at a higher speed. They collide
with the walls more often, increasing
the pressure.
At constant volume, an increase in the temperature
of the gas increases the pressure due to more
collisions on the container walls
 The Gas Laws
2. Pressure & Temperature (Constant Volume)

At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly

proportional to its temperature.

So If

Temperature Pressure
And If

Temperature Pressure

Since temperature is proportional to the

pressure, the graph is a straight line.
Pressure Changes Simulation
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gas-properties/latest/gas-properties_en.html

Change the temperature and the volume of a

container and observe how pressure changes !
Topics Covered (as per Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus)
Topics Covered (as per Cambridge IGCSE Syllabus)
END OF CHAPTER 9
Do you have any questions?

● Solve end of chapter questions

for good practice!
● Then start practicing Past
Paper Questions.