 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Classical Conditioning, Features of Classical Conditioning

 Is a type of learning where a natural stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and produces a
similar response. A learning involves environment interaction.
 Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning during his dog experiments in the late 1890s. connecting a
neutral stimulus with a positive one, such as Pavlov’ dogs hearing a bell (neutral) and expecting food
(positive). The learned behavior is called a conditioned response. His seminal work on classical conditioning,
often called Pavlovian conditioning, If the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the
unconditioned stimulus, the association between the two can weaken and eventually disappear. This is called
extinction. In Pavlov’s experiment, if he continued to ring the bell without presenting food, the dogs’
salivation would eventually stop.
 Phases of classical Conditioning
 acquisition phase, a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus (US) to create a
conditioned response (CR).
 extinction phase, the CS is presented repeatedly without the US, causing the CR to weaken and eventually
disappear.
 Spontaneous recovery can occur when the CS is presented again after a period, resulting in a weaker and
shorter-lived CR.
 Generalization involves responding to similar stimuli, while discrimination involves responding only to the
specific CS.
 Principles of Learning in Classical Conditioning and its Implications
 Acquisition refers to the process of learning a new response by repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus. For instance, a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the
presence of food (unconditioned stimulus) and starts salivating (conditioned response) when hearing the bell.
 Extinction occurs when a conditioned response gradually weakens and disappears because the conditioned
stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the bell (conditioned
stimulus) is repeatedly sounded without the accompanying food (unconditioned stimulus), the dog's salivation
(conditioned response) will eventually decrease and vanish.
 Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of
time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus. For instance, if the bell (conditioned stimulus) is presented
again after a break, the dog may exhibit some level of salivation (conditioned response) even though it had
previously been extinguished.
 Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. For example,
if a dog has been conditioned to salivate to a specific bell, it may also salivate when hearing similar-sounding
bells.
 Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the specific
conditioned stimulus. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate to a particular bell, it may not
salivate when hearing other similar-sounding bells.
 BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER Operant and Reinforcement
 suggests that individual behaviors can be modified through reinforcement, punishment, or extinction. B.F.
Skinner, a renowned behavioral psychologist, played a pivotal role in developing modern ideas about
reinforcement theory.
 Operant conditioning is a type of learning where the motivation for a behavior follows the demonstration of
the behavior itself. In this form of learning, an animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a
specific behavior.
 Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. For example, giving a treat to a dog for sitting on command.
 Negative reinforcement, involves removing an averse stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. An example of negative reinforcement is turning off a loud alarm after waking up.
 Types of Reinforcers
 Positive Reinforcers - providing a sticker to a student once they've completed an assignment.
 Negative Reinforcers - are such conditioned stimuli as money, grades or tokens for good behavior.
 Primary Reinforcers – are biological.
 Secondary Reinforcers - are such conditioned stimuli as money, grades or tokens for good behavior.
 Schedules of Reinforcement and cite examples.
 Continuous Reinforcement: This schedule is effective for initial learning but can lead to rapid extinction if
the reinforcement is suddenly stopped.
 Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior after a fixed number of responses. For example,
giving a reward after every 5 correct answers on a test.
 Variable Ratio (VR) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior after an average number of responses, with
the number varying unpredictably. For example, giving a reward after an average of 5 correct answers on a test,
but the actual number of correct answers required may vary.
 Fixed Interval (FI) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior after a fixed amount of time has elapsed. For
example, giving a reward every 10 minutes of studying.
 Variable Interval (VI) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior after an average amount of time has elapsed,
with the time varying unpredictably. For example, giving a reward after an average of 10 minutes of studying,
but the actual time required may vary.
 Types of reinforcement

Principles of learning Description Classroom-based example

Positive Reinforcement
involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Negative Reinforcement
involves removing an averse stimulus to increase
the likelihood of a behavior being repeated
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Presentation of an aversive
stimulus after a behavior,
decreasing the likelihood of the
behavior being repeated.
Removal of an aversive stimulus
after a behavior, increasing the
likelihood of the behavior being
repeated.
Presentation of an aversive
stimulus after a behavior,
decreasing the likelihood of the
behavior being repeated
Removal of a desirable stimulus
after a behavior, decreasing the
likelihood of the behavior being
repeated
Giving praise or a reward (such as
a sticker) to a student for
completing a task correctly.
Allowing a student to skip an
assignment if they have already
demonstrated mastery of the
concept
Giving detention to a student for
being disruptive in class
Taking away recess time for a
student who does not complete
their homework

 EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE’S Connectionism

 is a theory that says we learn by connecting things we see or experience with our actions or responses. For
example, if we keep doing something and it leads to a positive outcome, we are more likely to do it again in the
future.
Principles of Learning in Connectionism & it’s implications
1. Multiple Responses - It shows that people or animals have various ways of reacting to a stimulus.
2. Law of set and attitude - If we have a positive and motivated mindset, we are more likely to learn and
perform well. On the other hand, a negative attitude can hinder our learning and performance.
3. Laws of Readiness - It suggests that we are more open to new information and activities when we are ready
and receptive.
4. Law of Exercise - states that repeating and practicing behaviors or skills strengthens the connections between
stimuli and responses.
5. Law of effect – it says that the outcomes or consequences of our actions influence our future behavior.
6. Halo effect - refers to our tendency to make assumptions or generalizations about a person or thing based on
overall positive qualities or impressions.
 COGNITIVISM APPROACH
 It focuses on how our minds process and understand information. It recognizes that learning is an active
process that involves acquiring, organizing, and remembering information in our minds.
 It helps us organize and understand information and allow us to connect new information to what we already
know. When we're aware of how we're learning and thinking, we can monitor our progress and adjust our
strategies if needed.
 Beliefs of Cognitivist Approach
an approach to understanding behavior and mental processes that emphasizes the role of mental
processes in how we perceive, learn, remember, and think about the world around us. They believe that we
learn from our experiences and that we can change our behaviors based on new information.
 EDWARD CHANCE TOLMAN’S Latent Learning-Place Learning
 Children may learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it later, when the learned
material is needed.
 Latent learning refers to learning that occurs without any immediate reinforcement or outward behavior.
Tolman's experiments with rats in mazes demonstrated that they were able to learn the layout of the maze
without any reinforcement or motivation. This suggested that learning can occur without the presence of a
reward or punishment.
 Place learning, on the other hand, refers to learning the spatial layout or location of objects or places. Tolman's
research emphasized the importance of spatial cues and the ability of organisms to form cognitive maps of their
environment.
 DAVID AUSUBEL’S Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory
 In the 1960s, David Ausubel developed the theoretical approach of meaningful verbal learning as an alternative
to rote learning.
 He emphasized the distinction between rote learning, which involves memorization without understanding, and
meaningful learning.
 Ausubel's theory assumes that concepts are organized hierarchically in the mind, with more inclusive concepts
at the top that encompass less inclusive and more differentiated sub concepts. Overall, Ausubel's approach
highlights the importance of understanding and internalizing information rather than simply memorizing it.
-Two Dimensions of Learning Process
 JEROME BRUNER’S Discovery Learning Theory/ Inquiry Method/ Theory of Instruction.
 Discovery Learning is an instructional method that was developed by Jerome Bruner.
 This theory emphasizes the importance of learners building upon their previous experiences and knowledge. It
encourages learners to use their intuition, imagination, and creativity to actively search for new information
to discover facts, correlations, and new truths. Fostering a deeper understanding and retention of knowledge.
 Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/ Problem Solving Theory
 suggests that learning can happen in sudden moments of realization, rather than through gradual accumulation
of knowledge.
 This theory emphasizes the importance of critical thinking and problem-solving skills in the learning
process. They can also design lessons that encourage active learning and student engagement, such as group
work, project-based learning, and other interactive approaches.
 emphasize the importance of student-centered learning, where the focus is on the learner rather than the
teacher.
 George A. Millir’s Theory of Data Processing
 suggests that our brains process information in different stages, including receiving information, storing it,
organizing it, and recalling it. Teachers can use this theory to improve learning in the classroom. They can
provide clear and organized information to students through well-structured lessons and visual aids.
 Teachers can also help students remember information by repeating it, summarizing it, and using memory
tricks. Engaging students through quizzes, discussions, and group activities can further enhance their ability to
remember and understand the material.
 Three Main Elements of Information Processing
1. Information stories
 Sensory record - deals with information that is brought in by the senses. For ex, visual sensory memory,
viewing a flash of light.
 Short-term memory - Students who have deficits in registering information in short-term memory often have
trouble remembering instructions or directions they have just been given.
 Long term memory - a relatively permanent information storage system that enables one to retain, retrieve,
and make use of skills and knowledge hours, weeks, or even years after they were originally learned.
 Semantic memory - is conscious long-term memory for meaning, understanding, and conceptual facts about
the world.
 Recollectional memory - recalling something from memory.
 Operational memory - the ability to retain information or a representation of past experience, based on the
mental processes of learning or encoding, retention across some interval of time, and retrieval or reactivation of
the memory.
 Cognitive Processes
 Attention - it influences how learn from technologies as much the technologies can influence how we attend to
them.
 Perception - for us to be able to interpret our surroundings with the stimuli that we receive throughout sensory
organ.
 Repetition - it is a process that increases the quality of learning.
 Coding - This is when information from the environment is processed and transformed into a form that can be
stored in memory. Paying attention and focusing on the information helps it get encoded better.
 Retrieving - This is when we recall or remember information from storage. We can retrieve information
through recognition (identifying previously learned information) or recall (retrieving information without any
cues).
 Storing - Once information is encoded, it is stored in memory. There are different types of memory storage
systems. Sensory memory holds information briefly, short-term memory stores information temporarily, and
long-term memory stores information for a longer time.
 Information Processing Model
 our memory is often compared to a computer. When we encounter information through our senses, it is
processed by our brain.
 This information can be stored in our short-term memory or long-term memory, depending on its importance
and relevance to us.
 sometimes our memory system doesn't work smoothly, and we may experience information loss. For example,
when we're distracted or not paying attention, the information may not be encoded properly into our memory.
 Executive Cognition or Cognition Information
 They allow one to generate plans, solutions to problems, or organizing structures that guide future action.
 They rely on working memory, mental flexibility, and retrieval of relevant information from semantic and
episodic memory stores.
 Executive Cognitive Functions do not, in and of themselves, assure that behaviors will be effectively executed.
 Richard Atkinson’s amd Richard Shiffirin’s Information Processing Theory
 The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory suggests that information first enters the sensory memory, which
holds sensory information for a very brief time.
 If the information is attended to, it moves into the short-term memory store, which has a limited capacity and
duration.
 if the information is rehearsed or repeated, it can be encoded into the long-term memory store, which has a
seemingly unlimited capacity and duration.
 Stages of Human Memory
stages of human memory:
1. Encoding: This is when information from the environment is processed and transformed into a form that can
be stored in memory. Paying attention and focusing on the information helps it get encoded better.
2. Storage: Once information is encoded, it is stored in memory. There are different types of memory storage
systems. Sensory memory holds information briefly, short-term memory stores information temporarily, and
long-term memory stores information for a longer time.
3. Retrieval: This is when we recall or remember information from storage. We can retrieve information through
recognition (identifying previously learned information) or recall (retrieving information without any cues).
 Three Components of Long term Memory (LTM) According to Tulong (1993)
 Episodic - memories of events, including the locations and people involved. These are recalled
consciously and with effort
 Procedural - memories on how to do things, e.g. tie shoelaces. Recalled without conscious or
deliberate effort.
 Semantic - memories of knowledge of the world and facts. Recalled consciously and deliberately
 Causes of Forgetting
 Retrieval - the process of getting something back.
 Decay Theory - Memories are lost in Decay Theory by the passing of time.
 Interference Theory - memories are lost due to newly acquired memories.

 Guidelines to help Learners Effectively Process Information (Zhou and Brown, 2015) give example for
each guideline.
1. Pay attention and actively engage: focus on the material and actively interact with it. Summarizing key
ideas, or asking questions to stay engaged.
2. Organize and structure information: Make sense of complex concepts by organizing the information. 3.
Relate new information to prior knowledge: Connect new information to what you already know.
4. Elaborate and generate examples: Expand on new information by explaining it in your own words or
creating examples.
5. Practice retrieval: Test your memory and understanding by recalling information
6. Monitor understanding and seek clarification: Be aware of your own comprehension and ask for help
when needed.
7. Reflect on learning: Take time to reflect on what you have learned. Think about what strategies were
effective, what you struggled with, and how you can improve your learning process.
 Allan Palvio’s Dual-Coding Theory
 In 1991, Paivio introduced the influential dual-coding theory, which offers valuable insights into human
cognition.
 This theory posits that our mental processes can be categorized into two distinct systems: the visual system
and the verbal system. The visual system is responsible for processing and interpreting graphical
information, while the verbal system focuses on linguistic processing.
 Dual coding suggests that these two systems work in tandem to enhance learning and memory.
 utilizing diverse instructional strategies that cater to different learning preferences. While some individuals
may benefit more from visual representations, others may find verbal explanations more effective.
 By incorporating both modalities, educators can accommodate a wider range of learning styles and optimize
the learning experience for all students.
 Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning
 In 1968, American psychologist Robert M. Gagne revolutionized the field of education with his
groundbreaking concept of cumulative learning.
 Gagne argued that intellectual skills could be effectively mastered by breaking them down into simpler, more
manageable components.
 His influential model emphasized the crucial role of prior learning in the acquisition of new knowledge,
highlighting that the process of learning is intricately linked to the integration of previously acquired
information.
 suggests that individuals build upon their existing knowledge and skills to develop a deeper understanding of
complex concepts.
 By recognizing the interconnectedness of different learning experiences, educators can effectively guide
students towards mastery and promote a more comprehensive understanding of subject matter.
 Hierarchy of Learning
1. Signal Learning - The learner associates a stimulus with a specific response through classical
conditioning, such as salivating at the sound of a bell.
2. Stimulus-response learning - Voluntary responses are acquired through learning, such as acquiring
verbal skills or physical movements, often through feedback and praise.
3. Chaining/ motor-verbal response - The learner connects previously learned stimulus-response bonds
into a linked order, allowing for the acquisition of more complex psychomotor skills, often occurring
naturally.
 4. Verbal Association - The learner makes associations using verbal connections, which is crucial in
language skill development, enabling the application of medical terminology to clinical situations.
5. Discrimination Learning - The learner can perform different responses to similar stimuli that differ in
a systematic way, overcoming roadblocks or interference that can hinder continuous learning, such as
differentiating various sources of abdominal pain in a patient.
6. Concept Learning - The learner consistently responds to different stimuli, organizing learning in a
systematic structure and fostering deeper understanding, recognizing that interventions appropriate for
one patient may not be suitable for another.
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning) - The learner learns relationships between concepts and applies
them in different situations, forming general rules or procedures, such as applying advocacy and
confidentiality to various patient situations.
8. Problem-solving - often seen as an important indicator of higher-level cognitive abilities, as it requires
learners to apply their knowledge, think critically, consider multiple perspectives, and make informed
decisions. It is a skill that is valuable across various disciplines and real-life situations. Learners need
to fully comprehend the nature of the problem and the desired outcome. This involves analyzing and
interpreting the problem statement or scenario. Learners must determine what information is necessary
to solve the problem and what can be disregarded. This step requires critical thinking and the ability to
prioritize and filter information.
9. Events of Instructions (Enumerate and Briefly Explain)
1. Gain Attention: This step is about grabbing the attention of students to be more engage and interest in
class during discussion.
2. Inform Learners of Objectives: informing learners about the topic that is going to teach them is so
important and what is expected from them.
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning: This step helps activate the learners' prior knowledge related to the
new content. It can be done by asking questions, reviewing relevant concepts, or connecting the new
information to their existing knowledge.
4. Present Stimulus: This step involves presenting the new information or content to the learners. It can be
presented through lectures, videos, reading materials, or interactive multimedia.
5. Provide Learner Guidance: Learners need guidance and support to understand about everything that
pertaining about at school like in discussion, if students ask a question teacher must answer in a good way.
This can be done through explanations, examples, demonstrations, or step-by-step instructions.
6. Elicit Performance: Learners need opportunities to practice and apply what they have learned. This step
involves providing activities, exercises, or simulations that allow learners to actively engage with the new
information.
7. Provide Feedback: Feedback is essential for learners to understand how well they have performed and
to make necessary improvements. It can be provided through immediate feedback during practice activities
or through assessments.
8. Assess Performance: this is about evaluating students performance if those student met the content
of objective. Assessments can be in the form of quizzes, tests, projects, or demonstrations.
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer: Finally, it is important to help learners retain and transfer the new
knowledge or skills to real-life situations.
 Types of Transfer of Learning
Positive transfer - occurs when prior learning assists new learning.
Negative transfer - occurs when prior learning hinders or interferes with new learning.
Zero transfer - occurs when prior learning has no influence on new learning.
 Constructivism Approach
 Posits that individuals actively construct or create their own knowledge through their experiences.
 This approach challenges the traditional view that knowledge is simply transmitted from a teacher or a text to a
passive learner.
 learning is seen as a dynamic process where learners build upon their existing knowledge and mental
frameworks called schemas.
 They actively seek out new information, make connections to their prior knowledge, and integrate new ideas
into their existing understanding.
 Recognizes the importance of social interaction in the learning process.
 Acknowledges that knowledge is not fixed or universal. Instead, it is context-dependent and shaped by the
individual's experiences and cultural background.
 Learners' understandings of concepts and ideas may vary based on their unique perspectives and the contexts in
which they learn.
 Beliefs of Constructivism
 Emphasizes that learners actively engage in constructing their own knowledge through interacting with their
environment and reflecting on their experiences.
 It recognizes the importance of learners' prior knowledge and experiences in the learning process. Individuals
build new understandings by connecting new information to their existing knowledge and mental structures
called schemas.
 It highlights the role of social interaction in learning. Learners benefit from collaborative activities and
discussions with peers, as well as interactions with teachers and experts who can provide guidance and support.
 It acknowledges that knowledge is not fixed or universal but is shaped by the context in which it is acquired.
Learners' understanding of concepts and ideas may vary based on their individual experiences and cultural
backgrounds.
 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
 Proposes that individuals actively construct knowledge and understanding of the world through their
experiences.
 This theory emphasizes the importance of active learning, stages of cognitive development, assimilation and
accommodation, scaffolding and social interaction, and individual differences.
 Piaget's theory highlights how learners construct their own knowledge through their interactions with the
environment and others, and how instruction should be tailored to support their cognitive development.
 Suggests that children go through four main stages of cognitive development:
 Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years): During this stage, children's cognitive abilities progress from
instinctual drives to more organized concepts. They also develop their first emotional attachments.
 Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years): Children in this stage start using language to understand the world. They
learn to sort objects and count.
 Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years): At this stage, children begin to think logically, but mainly about
concrete objects and events. They can perform logical operations but struggle with abstract concepts.
 Formal operational stage (12 years and beyond): In this final stage, adolescents develop the ability to think
abstractly and hypothetically. They can reason about complex ideas and consider multiple perspectives.
 Major Consideration when applying this Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Theory
1. Active learning: Learning is an active process, and individuals learn best when they are actively
engaged in hands-on, experiential learning activities.
2. Stages of cognitive development: Cognitive development occurs in distinct stages, and learners in
different stages have different cognitive abilities and limitations. Instruction and learning experiences should be
designed based on the learners' stage of development.
3. Assimilation and accommodation: Learners incorporate new information into their existing mental
frameworks (assimilation) and modify their mental frameworks to accommodate new information
(accommodation). Instruction should provide opportunities for both assimilation and accommodation.
4. Scaffolding and social interaction: Social interaction and collaboration play a crucial role in
cognitive development. Instruction should provide scaffolding and opportunities for collaboration to enhance
learning.
5. Individual differences: Learners have different cognitive abilities, background knowledge, and
learning styles. Instruction should consider these individual differences and provide differentiated learning
experiences.
 Enumerate the elements that influence learners’ cognitive development according to Elliot (2007)
According to Elliot (2007), there are several elements that influence learners' cognitive development.
1. Social interactions: Learners' cognitive development is influenced by their interactions with others, such as
parents, teachers, and peers. These interactions provide opportunities for the exchange of ideas, learning from
others, and the development of cognitive skills.
2. Cultural context: The cultural context in which learners are situated plays a significant role in their cognitive
development. Cultural norms, values, and practices shape the way learners think, reason, and solve problems.
3. Language development: Language is a crucial element in cognitive development. Learners acquire language
skills through social interactions, and language plays a vital role in their ability to communicate, think, and
learn.
4. Motivation and self-regulation: Learners' cognitive development is influenced by their motivation to learn
and their ability to regulate their own learning. Motivated learners are more likely to engage in cognitive
processes, such as critical thinking and problem-solving.
5. Prior knowledge and experiences: Learners' prior knowledge and experiences serve as a foundation for their
cognitive development.
6. Instructional strategies: The instructional strategies used by teachers and educators can have a significant
impact on learners' cognitive development. Effective instructional strategies provide opportunities for active
engagement, meaningful learning, and the development of cognitive skills.
 Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
 A learning theory that focuses on how individuals actively construct knowledge and understanding through
mental processes.
 It emphasizes the role of the learner's cognitive abilities in the learning process. This theory suggests that
learning is not simply the absorption of information from the environment but rather an active process of
constructing meaning and understanding.
 also emphasizes the importance of collaboration and social interaction in the learning process. This aspect is
closely related to social constructivism, which was developed by Lev Vygotsky, a prominent Soviet
psychologist. Social constructivism proposes that learning is a social and cultural activity, and it highlights the
role of social interaction and collaboration in the construction of knowledge.
 4 Major Considerations when applying Social Constructivism by Vygotsky
 When applying Vygotsky's Social Constructivism, there are four major considerations to keep in mind.
First, the
1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) suggests that learning is most effective when it occurs within the
range of a learner's current abilities, with the guidance and support of more knowledgeable individuals.
2. scaffolding is a technique that involves providing temporary support to learners as they work towards
mastering a task or concept.
3. Social Interaction: Social interaction is a key element of social constructivism. Vygotsky emphasized that
learning is a social process that occurs through interactions with others.
4. Cultural and Historical Context: Vygotsky highlighted the influence of cultural and historical context on
learning and development.
 Albert Bandura’s Social learning Theory
 Emphasizes the importance of observation and modeling in the learning process.
 According to this theory, individuals learn not only through direct experiences with the environment but also
through observing others and imitating their behaviors.
 Bandura believed that people learn by watching others, particularly those they perceive as role models, and
then replicating their actions.
 Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their own ability to successfully perform a task or achieve a
desired outcome.
 Classification of models according to Bandura
1.Live Models: These are real people or individuals who directly demonstrate behaviors or actions for others to
observe and learn from.
2.Symbolic Models: Symbolic models are representations of behavior in various forms, such as through media,
like television, books, or even fictional characters. Observers learn from these representations.
3.Verbal Models: Verbal models involve descriptions and explanations that guide behavior.
 Concept in Social Learning Theory according to Bandura
 Emphasizes the role of observational learning in human behavior. According to this theory, people learn not
only through direct experience but also by observing others and imitating their behavior. Here are some
important details about the Social Learning Theory:
1. Observational Learning: The theory suggests that individuals can learn new behaviors and gain knowledge
simply by observing others. This process is known as observational learning or vicarious learning.
2. Imitation and Modeling: People are more likely to imitate behaviors they observe if they perceive the model
as competent, attractive, or possessing higher status. Models can be real-life individuals or even fictional
characters portrayed in media.
3. Reinforcement: Bandura proposed that reinforcement plays a crucial role in observational learning.
Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors that are rewarded or positively reinforced, while behaviors that
are punished or negatively reinforced are less likely to be imitated.
4. Cognitive Factors: The theory also highlights the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Individuals
actively process and interpret information from the environment, make judgments about the consequences of
behavior, and decide whether to imitate or refrain from imitating observed behaviors.
5. Self-Efficacy: Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's belief in their
ability to successfully perform a particular behavior.
 4 Phases of Observational Learning According to Bandura
Attention: The individual pays attention to what is happening in the surroundings. Retention: the ability to keep
something to be able to retained. Initiation: the act of starting something. Motivation: influence that causes
someone to do something.
 Jean Love and Wenger’s Situational Learning
 it is emphasized that what individuals learn, see, and do is situated within their role as a member of a
community.
 Individuals acquire knowledge and skills through their interactions with others and their environment. The
community in which they belong plays a crucial role in shaping their understanding and influencing their
behaviors.
 highlights the importance of creating learning environments that are rich in social interaction, collaboration,
and real-world connections.
 Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligence
 Understanding the relationship between the internal world of individuals, the external world they interact with,
and the role of experience is crucial for adult educators to comprehend the dynamic nature of human
intelligence and its relevance in everyday life.
 The internal world of an individual refers to their thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and cognitive processes.
 The external world includes the physical environment, social interactions, cultural contexts, and various
external stimuli that individuals encounter.
 Experience plays a vital role in the relationship between the internal and external worlds. Through experience,
individuals acquire knowledge, skills, and understanding of the world around them.
 By considering the dynamic and interrelated qualities of human intelligence, educators can create learning
environments that foster growth, adaptability, and the application of knowledge in real-life situations.
 Kinds of Intelligence by Robert Sternberg’s Theory
 emphasized the practical aspect of intelligence, focusing on how well individuals can adapt to and interact with
real-world situations.
 This perspective acknowledges the importance of the individual's ability to adapt to various environmental
changes and challenges. It considers practical problem-solving skills, creativity, and the ability to effectively
use one's knowledge and experiences in real-life situations as essential components of intelligence.
 It emphasizes the importance of promoting practical intelligence and problem-solving skills in educational
settings, rather than focusing solely on traditional measures of intelligence such as IQ tests.
 Wilhelm Wundt’s Structuralism
 He firmly believed that psychological experiences were interconnected with physiological experiences, and
thus could be studied in a more objective manner.
 He argued that mental processes were closely linked to physiological processes and that studying the mind
required an understanding of both.
 Structuralism had a significant impact on the development of psychology as a scientific discipline. Wundt's
emphasis on systematic observation and analysis laid the foundation for many subsequent psychological
theories and methodologies.
 William James’ Functionalism
 helping individuals’ function and survive in their environment.
 Functionalism emphasizes the practical functions of the mind rather than its structure or components. It
explores how different mental processes and behaviors contribute to an organism's adaptation. For example,
emotions like fear or joy can prompt appropriate responses to environmental stimuli, enhancing an individual's
chances of survival.
 It considers the social, cultural, and environmental context in which individuals live, recognizing that behavior
and mental processes are shaped by these influences.
 Kurt Lewin’s “Life and Space” and “Field theory”
 are concepts that explain how our behavior is influenced by the environment we live in.
 "Life and space" refer to the idea that our actions and choices are not just determined by our internal thoughts
and feelings, but also by external factors like the people and places around us.
 It highlights the interaction between individuals and their surroundings.
 It compares individuals to magnets in a magnetic field, being constantly shaped by the forces around them.
These forces include both internal factors, like our thoughts and emotions, and external factors, such as social
and cultural influences.
 Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
 Emotional intelligence refers to being aware of and recognizing our own emotions and how they can influence
our behavior.
 It also involves understanding and empathizing with the emotions of others and being able to manage those
emotions effectively.
 Emotional intelligence is crucial in various aspects of life, including personal relationships, work
environments, and leadership roles.
 David Kolb’s Experiential Learning
 Kolb's experiential learning theory is influenced by other education theorists like Piaget, Dewey, and Lewin.
According to Kolb, learning happens in four stages: concrete learning, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation. In concrete learning, a learner has a new experience or
interprets a previous experience in a new way. Then, in reflective observation, the learner reflects on the
experience to understand its meaning. Next, in abstract conceptualization, the learner adapts their thinking or
generates new ideas based on their experience and reflection. Finally, in active experimentation, the learner
applies their new ideas to real-life situations to test their effectiveness and make any necessary changes.
 Connectivism Approach
 modern theory of learning that emphasizes the importance of using technology to gather and connect
information. It suggests that students should combine their thoughts and ideas in a helpful way.
 This theory recognizes that technology is a big part of how we learn and that being constantly connected allows
us to choose how we learn.
 Connectivism also encourages working together in groups and discussing ideas to solve problems and
understand information better.
 It focuses on learning from sources outside of ourselves, like social media, online networks, blogs, and
information databases. It also promotes group collaboration and discussion, allowing for different viewpoints
and perspectives when it comes to decision-making, problem-solving, and making sense of information.
The key principles of connectivism include:
1. Learning is a process of creating and navigating networks of resources and connections.
2. Knowledge is distributed across networks of people and resources.
3. Learning is a social and collaborative process that involves interacting with others and sharing
knowledge.
4. Technology plays a central role in learning by providing access to information and facilitating
connections between learners.
5. Learning is an ongoing process that requires continuous adaptation and change.