REMEDIAL TEACHING

 Remedial teaching or Remedial learning is an activity in the teaching and learning process
conducted by the teachers or related parties to aid students who have difficulty learning so as
to achieve learning outcomes According to its capabilities.
 A remedial program primarily helps students address language skills deficits by helping them
acquire self-confidence to face their own weakness and overcome these through the
acquisition of self-help strategies.
 A thorough assessment must be conducted before organizing a remedial program
 Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based on need.
 Time must be provided in the classroom for practice.
 Composing should be an integral part of the program.
 Students should be given opportunities to become independent and self- monitor their
progress.
 Use assessment to guide instruction.
 School- based remedial sessions tend to involve 3 to 10 learners, and typically last between
30 to 50 minutes.
 Curriculum is the heart of education

The orientation component - The orientation component provides continuity and focus to the
remedial session. It may be an engaging question or statement related to local or national news, or even
school life. It must focus on structured routines, materials, equipment, venue, people involved, and the
objective of the program.
Direct Instruction Component. This is the instructional heart of the remedial session. It should never
be traded away, even for one period, without some compelling reason.
Reinforcement and Extension Component. This period ideally should build on the direct instructional
period and be spent in empowered reading, writing, and discussion of what was read. Writing activities
may vary from simply listing key words to summarizing and reacting.
Schema-Enhancement Component. This unit of time should be spent in building a knowledge base
for further reading and independent thinking. It is an ideal time to teach study skills such as outlining,
note taking, and memory training. Ideally, it should flow or precede Component 3.
Personal-Emotional Growth Development. There is little learning or consequence that can occur
without the learner involvement and anticipation of personal progress.
Cognitive Development Component. This component should contain an attempt to enhance basic
thinking operation such as: inference, abstract verbal reasoning, analogical reasoning, constructive-
critical/ creative reading, convergent and divergent analysis, problem-solving, and metacognition.

THE 10 PRINCIPPLES IN HELPING LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTIES IN REMEDIAL TEACHING

1. Teaching preparation

Before preparing for their lessons, remedial teachers should identify pupils' diverse learning needs as
soon as possible so that they may design appropriate teaching plans to facilitate pupils' effective
learning.
2. Devise various learning activities
Since pupils have different characteristics in learning, teachers must devise different learning
activities with the same teaching objective to develop pupils' varied abilities and skills in problem
solving. It is more effective for teachers to adopt a series of relevant and simple teaching activities
than assigning one long teaching activity since pupils may acquire the required knowledge and skills
through diversified activities.

3. Design meaningful learning situations

Remedial teachers should specifically design meaningful learning situations, language environments
(especially for English subject), games or activities so as to provide personal learning experiences
for pupils and stimulate their interest and initiative in learning.

4. Teaching approaches
Teachers should give concrete examples before proceeding to abstract concepts by way of simple
and easy steps at a pace in line with the learning abilities of students. Teachers may teach new
concepts from different perspectives by various approaches so that pupils can grasp the ideas
through meaningful and repeated illustrations. Teachers should encourage pupils' active participation
by more frequent use of teaching aids, games and activities. They can also make use of information
technology and all the teaching resources available to help pupils understand the main points.

5. Provide clear instructions

Pupils with learning difficulties are less competent in understanding written language. Therefore,
remedial teachers should give pupils short and clear instructions to avoid confusion. They must
clearly explain the arrangement of each learning activity. If necessary, they may ask pupils to repeat
the steps of activities so that every pupil may understand the instructions.

6. Summarize the main points

At the course of teaching, teachers should always sum up the main points in teaching and write the
key phrases on the board to enhance pupils' audio and visual memories. Teachers can guide their
pupils to link up the knowledge they learn from class with their life experiences so as to enhance the
effectiveness of learning. Besides, guiding pupils to repeat the main points in verbal or written form is
also an effective way of learning.
7. Enhance learning interest and motivation
Suffering from frequent frustrations in their work, pupils with learning difficulties may gradually lose
their interest in learning. Therefore, teachers should adapt the curriculum to meet the needs of
pupils. With less pupils in the IRTP, teachers can design interesting activities coupled with reward
scheme to stimulate pupils' interest. It is most important to help pupils overcome their learning
difficulties so that they may gain a sense of achievement and recover their confidence and interest in
learning.

8. Encourage pupils' active participation in class activities

Pupils with learning difficulties usually lack self-confidence and are more passive in class. They
seldom ask questions or express their views. Remedial teachers should patiently encourage active
participation in class. Pleasurable learning experiences may help enhance pupils' interest in learning.
9. Focus on the learning process
Teaching should not only focus on the transmission of knowledge. It is also important to see that
pupils are benefited from the entire learning process. Teachers should provide ample opportunities in
class for pupils to practice and think what they have learnt and allow them to solve problems by
different means. Teachers should also carefully observe the performances of pupils and give them
appropriate assistance, feedback, and encouragement so as to help them acquire the learning skills,
solve their problems and understand their own capability, thus enhancing self-confidence and
improving their learning skills.

10. Show concern for the performances of individual pupils

Pupils may encounter different problems in their studies; therefore, teachers should carefully observe
the learning process of individual pupils in class. Whenever necessary, they should provide
individualized remedial teaching before and after class, during recess or lunchtime, so that they can
remove their learning obstacles as soon as possible. When marking assignments, teachers should
take note of the common errors of pupils and deliver the correct concepts and knowledge to them
promptly.
 TECHNICAL WRITING
DEFINITIONS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
Technical writing is writing about scientific subjects and about various technical subjects associated
with the sciences.
Technical writing is characterized by certain formal elements, such as its scientific and technical
vocabulary, its graphic aids, and its use of conventional report forms.
Technical writing is ideally characterized by the maintenance of an attitude of impartiality and
objectivity, by extreme care to convey information accurately and concisely, and by the absence of
any attempt to arouse emotion.
TYPES OF WRITING
 Technical Writing- Conveys specific information about a technical subject to a specific
audience for a specific purpose.
 Creative Writing- is fiction-poetry, short stories, plays and novels- and far different from
technical writing.
 Expressive Writing- is a subjective-response to a personal-experience – journals and diaries-
whereas technical writing might be objective observations of a work related experience or
research.
 Expository Writing- “exposes” a topic analytically and objectively such as news reports. Like
technical writing the goal of expository writing is to explain or reveal knowledge, but expository
writing does not necessarily expect a response or action from the reader.
 Persuasive Writing- depends on emotional appeal. Its goal is to change ones attitudes or
motivate him/her to action.
PRODUCTS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
 Business Letter- is a type of written communication. It is written using formal language and
follows formal elements of letter writing. People usually write business letters to communicate
with companies, organizations, or individuals with the purpose of applying for a job, making
requests, seeking appointments, etc.
 Contract- is a written agreement between two people under mutually agreed terms.
 Monograph- is a detailed essay or book on a very specific topic. It is usually written by
professionals or academicians on topics of interest concerning their specific fields.
 Printed Action Memo- is a ready-format memorandum that only requires a checkmark on the
appropriate box that contains the message. This is specifically useful for busy people who
need to make quick decisions and act on the circumstances or situations.
 Graphic Aids- are drawings, sketches, and illustrations that aid the readers in understanding
the presented data.
 Instructional Manual- are written to guide the readers on how to assemble, maintain, and
operate an apparatus, machine or gadget.
 Brochures- are pamphlets or flyers that endorse a product in such a way that the potential
costumer will be convince that the product is effective and eventually avail of the products.
 Proposals- are written suggestions on how to make the company or organizations require this
before an agreement is reached.
 Memoranda- are inter-office written communication used to disseminate information.
DO’S OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
 Abide by relevant laws
 Abide by the appropriate corporate or professional code of conduct.
 Tell the truth
 Be clear.
 Avoid discriminatory language.
 Acknowledge assistance from other.
DONTS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
 False implications- assuming the outcome of a project or making sweeping generalizations.
 Exaggerations- expressing situations in extreme proportions.
 Euphemisms- writing about situations in seemingly good conditions even though they are not.
 Don’t mislead your readers.
10C’s
1. Completeness- refers to the inclusion of complete information. The business letter should
answer the question WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE and HOW to produce a good and
complete business letter.
2. Correctness- refers to the correct grammar, punctuation, spacing, information, and structure. It
also refer to the correct format of a business letter.
To attain correctness, double check the spelling of the names, address, letters properly, verify
numbers and amounts, always check the dictionary.
3. Conciseness- refers to being direct and brief without compromising the complete idea. In
writing a business letter, we should not include unnecessary information which might confuse
the reader.
4. Coherence- refers to the smooth flow of ideas in a business letter. The content of a business
letter should be in order and easy to follow.
Some of the devices that you may use of to achieve coherence are use of synonyms, use of
transitional words, use of pointers, use of repetition of words, and use of sentence patterns.
5. Clarity- refers to the readability of information which is easy to understand. We should bear in
our minds that simple words are more preferred than complex ones.
6. Concreteness- refers to the use of specific words not general words.
7. Courteousness- refers to the politeness of the tone of the business letter. Being friendly by
showing positive approach is the key for a successful communication in business. But then
again, positive words are more are more preferred in doing business.
8. Consideration- refers to the use of professional tone to show respect to the reader of the letter.
Also, we need to anticipate the “YOU” attitude in writing our letter.
9. Consistency- refers to the uniformity of the time and style of the writer of a business letter.
10. Credibility- refers to the personality of the writer as himself which might reflect on his writings.
DIFFERENT STYLES IN WRITING A BUSINESS LETTER
 Full Block Style
 Modified Block Style
 Semi- Block Style
 Simplified Style
 Indented Style
  Hanging Indented Style
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTER
 Letter Header
 Dateline
 Inside Address
 Salutation
 Body of the letter
 Complimentary close/closing
 Signature line
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESUME
 Application Letter
 Resume
▪ Chronological Resume- employment experience
▪ Functional Resume- skills of employee
▪ Combination Resume- both chronological and functional
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LETTER
 Letter of Inquiry
 Letter of reply or response
 Letter of request
 Letter of order
PERSONAL BUSINESS
NATURE PERSONAL IMPERSONAL AND
UNIVERSAL
PURPOSE FAMILY- RELATED BUSINESS- RELATED
SCOPE LIMITED WIDE
STRUCTURE DOES NOT FOLLOW ANY FOLLOWS OFFICIALLY
RECOGNIZED STRUCTURE RECOGNIZED STRUCTURE
FORMALITY INFORMAL FORMAL
SIZE LARGE CONCISE
TYPES CANNOT BE CATEGORIZED CAN BE CATEGORIZED
SALUTATION DEAR FRIEND DEAR, SIR
LANGUAGE POETIC EASY AND SIMPLE
METHOD DIRECT DIRECT AND PERSUASIVE
 ASSESS312
1. Which is NOT true performance-based assessment?
A. It is more authentic than traditional assessment.
B. It requires rubrics as the key to judging performances.
C. It requires demonstration of knowledge and skills learned.
D. It assesses students more efficiently than traditional assessment.

ANSWER: It assesses students more efficiently than traditional assessment.

2. To find out what intervention program to offer to students who are consistently performing
poorly in a test, what kind of assessment is bet to administer?
A. Summative Assessment
B. Formative Assessment
C. Diagnostic Assessment
D. Placement Assessment

ANSWER: Diagnostic Assessment

3. Who among the teachers below performed a formative assessment?

A. Teacher Mayra who gave a long test about the unit taught.
B. Teacher Jozelle who gave a short quiz and checked immediately to find the result of
instruction.
C. Teacher Dominic who gave a ten-item test to find out the specific lessons which the
students failed to understand.
D. Teacher Nadda who administered a readiness test at the beginning of the school year.

ANSWER: Teacher Jozelle who gave a short quiz and checked immediately to find the result
of instruction.

4. Which is considered an assessment FOR learning?

A. Giving grades to students
B. Reporting to parents the performance of their child
C. Recommending for new policies in grading students.
D. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of students.

ANSWER: Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of students.

5. Which is being done if Teacher Marrielle is doing assessment OF learning?

A. Giving immediate feedback to student’s strengths and weaknesses.
B. Determining the area of interest of learners.
C. Certifying student’s achievement.
D. Designing a relevant instruction.

ANSWER: Certifying student’s achievement.

6. If you review the test items to ensure that all learners understood the context used, what
principle on student assessment are you trying to consider?
 A. Assessment should have a positive consequence to student’s learning.
B. Assessment should be balanced.
C. Assessment should be reliable.
D. Assessment should be fair.

ANSWER: Assessment should be fair.

7. Teacher Laika emphasizes what problem is and not how to solve problems. What learning
target should her assessment cover?
A. Skill
B. Knowledge
C. Disposition
D. Product

ANSWER: Product

8. Teacher Donabelle give a quiz for the lesson objective “Identify the planets in the solar
system”. Can quiz be enough to assess student’s learning for the given objective?
A. Yes, since the objective is meant for the quizzes only.
B. No, doing oral questioning is better than giving a quiz.
C. No, it is better if essay is given so that higher thinking skills are assessed.
D. Yes, since selective type of test is possible to use so results could be reported immediately
to the students.

ANSWER: Yes, since selective type of test is possible to use so results could be reported
immediately to the students.

9. Which is likely happening in a class that is doing a performance-based assessment

A. Students are evaluated using a multiple-choice test.
B. Students are evaluated based on different written test.
C. Students do peer-evaluation using key to corrections provided to them.
D. Students perform a group activity in creating a model of digestive system.

ANSWER: Students perform a group activity in creating a model of digestive system.

10. For the principal to have clear basis in choosing the best applicant, which of the following
should she do first?
A. Prepare the “Table of Specifications” of her assessment.
B. Set the criteria in scoring their performance.
C. Set the competencies to be assessed.
D. Prepare a scoring rubric.

ANSWER: Set the competencies to be assessed.

11. Which is a correct assumption about traditional assessment?

A. It can assess individuals objectively.
B. It can assess individuals at the same time.
C. It is more valid than performance assessment.
D. It can assess fairly all the domains of intelligence of an individual.
 ANSWER: It can assess individuals at the same time.

12. In the district achievement test, the students’ performance showed a positively skewed
distribution. What can you say about the said students?
A. The students performed fairly in the test.
B. Most of the students performed poorly in the test.
C. Generally, the student’s performed well in the test.
D. Around 10% of the students made a very satisfactory performance in the test.

ANSWER: Most of the students performed poorly in the test.

13. A test item cannot discriminate those who know from those who do not know, what can you
say about the item?
A. The item has a negative discrimination
B. The item is either too easy or too difficult
C. Its difficulty index is .72
D. Change the test item

ANSWER: The item is either too easy or too difficult

14. Which of the following statement is TRUE about grades? Grades are,
A. Necessarily a measure of student’s potential
B. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for learning
C. Measures of student’s achievement in a given subject
D. Exact measures of student’s intelligence and learning process

ANSWER: Measures of student’s achievement in a given subject

15. Which item measures a wide range of educational outcomes?

A. Alternate Response
B. Multiple Choice
C. Completion
D. Essay

ANSWER: Multiple Choice

16. Teacher Carlo wants to emphasize creativity among his students. For this purpose, he often
gives practice exercises involving questions that would meet his purpose. If you were him, and
you would like to do the same, what type of question will you give to your students?
A. Analysis Questions C. Evaluation Questions
B. Application Questions D. Synthesis Questions

ANSWER: Synthesis Questions

 TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING LEARNING 2
LEARNING ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP THE STUDENTS’
MACROSKILLS

Learning Activities to develop Listening Skills

Developing listening skills is crucial for communication in various settings such as work,
education, and social interactions. There are several learning activities that can help individuals
enhance their listening skills.
1. Listening Exercises: Various listening exercises can help individuals develop their
listening skills. These may include quizzes, dictation exercises, and listening to audio clips or
videos. These exercises help individuals identify specific words and phrases, develop their
vocabulary, and adjust to different accents and speech patterns (Moradian, 2018).
2. Role-plays: Role-plays are an effective way of learning to listen actively. In role-plays,
an individual is required to listen actively and respond appropriately to the other person by
asking questions, clarifying doubts, and paraphrasing. Role-plays can help an individual
develop effective listening skills in settings such as interviews, meetings, and negotiations
(Pegrum, 2018).
3. Group Discussions: Group discussions are an excellent way of developing listening
skills. In a group discussion, participants listen to each other, follow the conversation, and
understand the points being made. This helps individuals develop their ability to comprehend
others’ ideas and opinions, help clarify their own ideas, and improve their communication skills
(Moradian, 2018).
4. TED Talks: TED Talks can be an excellent resource for individuals looking to develop
their listening skills. TED Talks are informative and engaging, and they cover a wide range of
topics. By listening to TED Talks, individuals can learn to identify keywords and phrases, listen
for main ideas and supporting details, and anticipate what will be said next (Dannenfeldt,
2018).
Learning activities such as listening exercises, role-plays, group discussions, and TED Talks
can help individuals enhance their listening skills. These activities help individuals focus on different
aspects of effective listening, such as identifying keywords and phrases, listening for main ideas, and
responding appropriately. The use of such activities is supported by research and practice in the field
of language learning (Moradian, 2018; Pegrum, 2018; Dannenfeldt, 2018).
Learning Activities to develop Reading Skills
Developing reading skills is important to improve one's knowledge and understanding of
various subjects. Some learning activities that can improve reading skills include:
1. Reading comprehension exercises: Comprehension exercises test an individual's ability
to understand, interpret, and retain the information from the text. These exercises also help in
improving vocabulary and understanding sentence structure (Marczak, 2020).
2. Choosing appropriate texts: Selecting appropriate texts according to one's level of
expertise can help in content comprehension. For English language learners, grade-level texts
help in understanding age-appropriate sentences and phrases (Spooner, 2018).
 3. Group Discussion: Group discussions can help in understanding key points and
identifying questions from the reading material. Group discussions also enhance critical
thinking and provide multiple perspectives on a topic (Marczak, 2020).
4. Visual aids: The use of visual aids such as pictures, charts, and graphs can aid
comprehension while reading. Visual aids help in promoting active thinking while reading and
encourage individuals to integrate information (Spooner, 2018).
5. Reading aloud: Reading aloud is an excellent way to identify the tone, volume, and
speed of the text. It also helps in understanding word usage and the sound of written words
(Marczak, 2020).
Various activities such as comprehension exercises, selecting appropriate texts, group
discussions, visual aids, and reading out loud can help in enhancing reading skills. These activities
assist in understanding content, using critical thinking skills, and promote active reading. These
activities are supported by research in the field of language development and can help individuals
reach their full potential in reading ability (Marczak, 2020; Spooner, 2018).
Learning Activities to develop Writing Skills
Writing skills are essential for academic and professional success, and there are several
learning activities that can help individuals develop these skills. Some of these activities include:
1. Freewriting: Freewriting allows individuals to write down their thoughts without concern
for grammar, syntax, or structure. This activity helps develop creativity and expressiveness in
writing (Huot, 2018).
2. Peer review: Peer review provides individuals with an opportunity to receive feedback
from others on their writing. This feedback helps improve writing structure, organization, and
clarity (Thonus, 2015).
3. Writing prompts: Writing prompts provide a topic or theme to write about, which
encourages creativity and develops writing skills. This activity assists individuals in developing
writing structures, grammatical structures, and coherent paragraphs (Huot, 2018).
4. Writing conferences: Writing conferences allow individuals to discuss their writing with a
teacher or mentor. This activity enables individuals to gain insights into how they can improve
their writing by analyzing their work through the eyes of a teacher (Thonus, 2015).
5. Writing games and puzzles: Writing games and puzzles can be used to develop writing
skills by working on vocabulary expansion, sentence structure, and the development of ideas
in writing (Huot, 2018).
There are several learning activities that can help individuals develop their writing skills. The
use of freewriting, peer review, writing prompts, writing conferences, and writing games and puzzles
can improve the creativity, structure, organization and clarity of writing. These activities are supported
by research and can be beneficial for individuals at various levels of writing expertise (Huot, 2018;
Thonus, 2015).
Learning Activities to develop Spearking Skills
Developing speaking skills is important for effective communication in personal and
professional contexts. There are various learning activities that can aid in the development of
speaking skills such as:
 1. Role-play: Role-play is an effective way to practice speaking skills in simulated
scenarios such as meetings, job interviews, or negotiations. This activity helps individuals
develop communication skills and increase confidence in speaking (Hawes & Thomas, 2009).
2. Debate: Debating requires individuals to organize their thoughts and present them
effectively while responding to counter-arguments. This activity helps develop language skills
and critical thinking ability while also improving pronunciation and intonation (Xie, 2018).
3. Storytelling: Storytelling is a good activity for developing speaking skills, as it
encourages the use of descriptive words, tone, and intonation. This activity also helps with
improving communication skills and listening comprehension (Hawes & Thomas, 2009).
4. Conversations: Engaging in conversations with native speakers of a language or other
learners is an effective way to develop speaking skills. Conversations help individuals practice
using the language in a contextual and authentic setting, and improve pronunciation, fluency,
and vocabulary (Xie, 2018).
5. Presentations: Presentations help individuals develop speaking skills by requiring them
to speak in front of an audience, organize their thoughts, and present information in a coherent
and engaging manner. This activity improves pronunciation, intonation, and increases
confidence in speaking (Hawes & Thomas, 2009).
Learning activities such as role-play, debate, storytelling, conversations, and presentations can
aid in the development of speaking skills. These activities help individuals improve their fluency,
pronunciation, intonation, and confidence in speaking while also developing communication skills and
critical thinking ability. The use of such activities is supported by research and practice in the field of
language learning (Hawes & Thomas, 2009; Xie, 2018).
Learning Activities to develop Viewing Skills
Viewing skills refer to the ability to understand and comprehend visual content such as videos
or images. Here are some learning activities that can help develop viewing skills:
1. Watching videos with subtitles: Watching videos with subtitles improves an individual's
ability to understand different accents, intonations, and vocabulary. This activity also helps
improve listening comprehension and vocabulary retention (Ghafournia & Dolatabadi, 2016).
2. Close viewing: Close viewing requires individuals to analyze visual content carefully,
focusing on details such as camera angles, lighting, and sound effects. This activity improves
critical thinking, comprehension and interpretation of visual content (Baker & Freitas, 2017).
3. Video discussions: Video discussions help improve comprehension and encourage
individuals to share their opinions on visual content. This activity also helps develop
communication and critical thinking skills as individuals discuss and analyze visual content
(Ghafournia & Dolatabadi, 2016).
4. Image associations: Image associations involve presenting images to individuals to
stimulate critical thinking and creative expression. This activity helps improve comprehension
of visual content, creativity, and imagination (Bakalar, 2019).
5. Visual note-taking: Visual note-taking involves summarizing visual content by drawing or
sketching important ideas, symbols, or themes. This activity improves comprehension of visual
content, information retention and helps individuals develop their personal note-taking style
(Baker & Freitas, 2017).
 Learning activities such as watching videos with subtitles, close viewing, video discussions,
image associations, and visual note-taking can help develop viewing skills. These activities help
individuals understand and interpret visual content, improve listening comprehension and critical
thinking skills, and encourage creative expression. The use of such activities is supported by research
and practice in the field of language education (Baker & Freitas, 2017; Ghafournia & Dolatabadi,
2016; Bakalar, 2019).

Nature of Project-based and Problem-based Approaches

Project-based approach
In a project-based approach, teachers present students with a project or task that requires
them to apply English language skills to accomplish a goal. Rather than teaching grammar or
vocabulary in isolation, learners use these skills in a real-world or simulated scenario. For example,
students may be asked to create a video about a topic of interest or write a persuasive letter to
promote a local community event. This approach allows students to develop important skills such as
critical thinking, research, and collaboration while simultaneously improving their English language
abilities.
Benefits of project-based approach:
- Students take active roles in their learning experiences and are more engaged in the
language acquisition process.
- Students develop a range of valuable skills beyond just language proficiency, such as
creative thinking, teamwork, and problem-solving.
Problem-based approach
In a problem-based approach, students begin by examining a real-world problem and then
work together to develop strategies to address it. In this method, students take a more active role in
defining the problem, conducting research, and finding solutions using English language skills. For
example, students may research and propose solutions to an environmental issue such as plastic
waste in their community.
Benefits of problem-based approach
- Students become more engaged and invested in their learning as they grapple with
real-world issues.
- Problem-based learning encourages critical thinking, inquiry-based skills, and self-
reflection, all of which are valuable skills for language learning and beyond.
Project-based and problem-based approaches are effective methodologies for teaching
English as a secondary or additional language. Both methods emphasize active, student-centered
learning in which students are engaged in solving real problems or creating projects that combine
language skills with creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking.

Characteristics of Digital Technologies in Education 4.0

Digital technology is drastically transforming education and is playing a significant role in it as
well. Below are some key characteristics of digital technology in education 4.0:
1. Personalization: Digital technology allows for personalized learning paths for different learners,
and it can be adapted to meet their needs and preferences. According to ElShazly and Tolba (2020),
digital technologies "tailor the learning experiences to the learners’ preferences and styles, better
meeting their individual needs and enhancing motivation and engagement."
2. Collaboration: With digital technology, learners can communicate and collaborate with each
other in real-time, irrespective of geographical barriers. This encourages social learning and helps
develop teamwork skills. According to Foong and Mohamad Raid (2020), "technology [enables
educators] to connect students regardless of their geographic locations and enables interaction and
collaboration among them."
3. Flexibility: Digital technology provides learners with access to online learning resources and
activities that can be accessed anytime and anywhere. It allows for flexible learning environments
that cater to different learner situations. As stated by Atan and Abduljabbar (2020), "digital technology
enables education stakeholders to provide flexible learning opportunities that cater to diverse
learners' needs, preferences, and timescales."
4. Feedback: Digital technology enables learners to receive immediate feedback on their
performance, which helps to improve their learning outcome. Feedback about the students'
performance is effective in helping them monitor and improve their progress. As noted by ElShazly
and Tolba (2020), "digital technologies provide direct feedback to the learners, leading to more
targeted, immediate, and detailed support from teaching staff."
Copyright and plagiarism are relevant topics to the Philippines, as they affect the country's creative
output and the education sector. Here's an overview of copyright and plagiarism in the Philippines
with relevant citations and references:
Copyright and Plagiarism
Copyright
The Philippines has a copyright law called the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines
(Republic Act No. 8293). This law protects literary and artistic works, including books, articles, music,
films, and computer programs (IP Philippines, n.d.). The copyright owner has the exclusive right to
reproduce, distribute, and display the protected work, and anyone who infringes on these rights can
face legal liability (De Vera, 2018).
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's work, presenting it as one's own without
attribution. In the Philippines, plagiarism is considered a violation of academic integrity and can lead
to penalties, including suspension or expulsion from school (Commission on Higher Education, 2011).
Promoting Digital Citizenship
Promoting digital citizenship is crucial in today's digital age. Below are some strategies and
best practices to promote digital citizenship, along with relevant citations and references:
1. Education and awareness: Educating children, young adults, and educators about the
importance of digital citizenship is key to promoting responsible behavior online. Providing
workshops, online courses, talks, and seminars on digital citizenship can help develop a
comprehensive understanding of the digital environment, the risks, and ways to manage such risks
(Hendon, 2019).
2. Encourage responsible use: Encouraging responsible use of digital technology is important in
promoting digital citizenship. One strategy to this regard is to teach children about online safety,
privacy, and security, which helps them make informed decisions about their online presence (Kumar,
2019).
3. Role Modeling: Promoting digital citizenship requires modeling good digital behaviors. Adults,
especially parents and educators, should lead by example creating an atmosphere of responsible
behavior and character modeling in the digital world (Miller, 2017).
4. Inclusion of Digital Citizenship in Curriculum: The inclusion of digital citizenship in the school
curriculum ensures that a comprehensive understanding of digital behavior is taught at a young age.
In this manner, the principles of digital citizenship incorporated in the curriculum get assimilated into
the daily behavior of kids, young adults, and educators (Ribble & Bailey, 2017).

Components of Language Competencies (Bachman,1990)

Language competence is a complex term that includes various components that contribute to a
speaker's proficiency in a language. Bachman (1990) proposed a model of language competence that
includes four components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and strategic competence. Below is an overview of each component along with relevant
citations and references:
1. Grammatical competence: Grammatical competence involves the knowledge of the rules of a
language that govern the forms and meanings of words, phrases, and sentences. It includes
knowledge of the sound system, syntax, morphology, and vocabulary of a language (Bachman,
1990). A person with good grammatical competence can produce grammatically correct sentences
that adhere to the rules of the language (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, & Goodwin, 2010).
2. Sociolinguistic competence: Sociolinguistic competence involves the knowledge of the social
and cultural rules of a language. This includes understanding the context in which the language is
used and the appropriate use of language in different social situations (Hall, 2013). Sociolinguistic
competence is necessary when communicating with people from different backgrounds, as it relates
to cross-cultural awareness and sensitivity.
3. Discourse competence: Discourse competence is the ability to use language appropriately in
various discourse situations, such as conversation, storytelling, and writing (Bachman, 1990). It
includes the ability to understand and produce coherent and cohesive texts, use appropriate
discourse markers, and organize information in a logical and effective manner (Celce-Murcia et al.,
2010).
4. Strategic competence: Strategic competence involves the ability to compensate for
communication breakdowns and to use language effectively in communication (Bachman, 1990). This
includes the ability to use communication strategies and techniques such as using appropriate
nonverbal cues, asking for clarification, and checking comprehension.

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the ability to use language in all its
aspects - speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is a complex, multi-faceted process that begins
at birth and continues throughout life. Here's an overview of language acquisition, along with relevant
citations and references.

Theories in Language Acquisition in a language classroom

Theories of Language Acquisition: The three most prominent theories of language acquisition
are behaviorism, innatism, and interactionism. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental
factors, such as input and reinforcement, in shaping language acquisition. Innatism, on the other
hand, emphasizes the role of innate linguistic abilities and predispositions in language acquisition.
Interactionism posits that both innate and environmental factors are important in language acquisition
and that it is a product of dynamic interactions between the learner, the environment, and the learning
process (Chomsky, 1965; Berko Gleason & Ratner, 2018).
Stages of Language Acquisition: Language acquisition typically progresses through predictable
stages during the first few years of life. These stages include prelinguistic communication, one-word
stage, two-word stage, and telegraphic stage (Bowen, 2020). However, the timing and duration of
these stages can vary widely across individuals and languages.
Factors Affecting Language Acquisition: Several factors can influence language acquisition,
including age, input, motivation, aptitude, and cognitive development. For example, children acquire
their native language(s) more easily and efficiently than adolescents or adults, who may face
challenges in language acquisition (Long, 2015). Input, or exposure to the target language, is another
critical factor for language acquisition, as it provides the learner with the necessary language models
(DeKeyser, 2007).