PHF1

Practical 1

Determination of the Young modulus by a

simple method

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● Equipment:
○ 2 1.5m long steel wires
○ Main scale and vernier scale
○ 1kg masses and 2 1kg holders
○ Micrometer
○ Metre ruler
● Method:
○ Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
○ Measure the initial length l of the test wire with the
metre ruler.
○ Add a 1kg mass holder to both wires so they are taut
and record the initial scale reading.
○ Add an additional 1kg mass to the test wire and
record the new scale reading. Find its extension e by
subtracting the initial scale reading from this and
record it.
○ Add another 1kg mass and repeat this, adding 1kg
each time up to around 8kg.
○ Repeat the experiment twice more and find and
record the mean e for each m, where m is the mass
of the 1kg masses on the test wire’s holder.
○ Measure the diameter d of the test wire at various points along it using the
micrometer and find and record the mean diameter.
● Graphs and calculations:
2
πd
○ Calculate the cross-sectional area A of the wire by A= 4
○ Find the force F on the test wire for each m by calculating mg and tabulate this.
○ Plot a graph of F against e and draw a line of best fit. The young modulus E will be l
multiplied by the gradient divided by A.
stress F /A Fl lG
○ E= strain = e/l = Ae = A where G is the gradient.
● Safety:
○ The wire will be stretched very tightly and could break and injure eyes, so safety
goggles must be worn.
○ If the wire breaks, the masses could fall and cause injuries, so a sand tray should be
placed beneath them to catch them.
● Improvements and notes:
○ The comparison wire compensates for sagging of the beam and thermal expansion
effects and provides a reference point against which to measure the extension.
○ The original length l of the test wire should be as long as possible to reduce
uncertainty in its measurement.

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 PHF1

Practical 2

Investigation of Boyle’s (constant temperature)

law for a gas

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Boyle’s law
● Equipment:
○ Stand and clamp
○ Syringe
○ Rubber tubing
○ Pinch clip
○ String
○ 100g masses with 100g holder
● Method:
○ With the plunger removed from the
syringe, measure the inside diameter d of
the syringe using a vernier caliper.
○ Replace the plunger and draw in about
4.0ml of air and record this. Fit the rubber
tubing over the nozzle and clamp it with
the pinch clip as close to the nozzle as
possible.
○ Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, with only the 100g holder and one
100g mass suspended.
○ Gently move the plunger up and down to ensure it is not sticking and release it.
Record the new volume V on the syringe scale.
○ Add two 100g masses to the holder and repeat this, adding two 100g masses each
time until the total mass is 1000g.
○ Repeat the experiment twice more and find and record the mean V for each m.
● Graphs and calculations:
2
πd
○ Calculate the cross sectional area A of the syringe using A= 4
○ Calculate and tabulate the force F exerted by each mass m using F=mg.
○ Find the pressure exerted by this force using F/A. Subtract this from standard
atmospheric pressure, 101kPa, to obtain the pressure P of the air sample at each V.
○ Plot a graph of 1/V against P and draw a line of best fit. A straight line through the
origin should be obtained, showing that the pressure is inversely proportional to the
volume.
● Safety:
○ The stand could topple over and cause injury so a counterweight can be used if it is
deemed unstable.
● Improvements and notes:
○ The clamp should be high enough that it does not distort the syringe barrel and
make it more difficult for the plunger to move freely.
○ The syringe can be lubricated to prevent the plunger from sticking.

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 PHF1

Practical 3

Determining the Planck Constant

using LEDs

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Equipment
● Light emitting diodes of varying colours
● Ammeter
● Voltmeter
● Leads
● Cell
● Resistor

LEDs are a type of diode hence their I-V characteristic is such

that they have a threshold voltage which is a certain point where
current begins to flow.

Method
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Find the wavelength of light the LED is emitting,
this will either be on the packaging or you can find it
online depending on the colour of the LED.
3. Find the threshold voltage of the LED by recording
the potential difference across it at which it lights
up/current is shown to be flowing by the ammeter.
4. Find the threshold voltage for a range of LEDs of different wavelengths and record these in
a table of wavelength against threshold voltage.

Calculations
● Plot a graph of threshold voltage (V) against 1/wavelength (1/λ) and calculate the gradient.

The energy of the photons emitted by the LED have energy (E) equal to:
E = hf = hc/λ ​they also have energy​ E = eV​ where e is the charge on an electron and V is
the potential difference applied, we can equate these to get:
hc
λ = eV
Multiply both sides by λ and divide both sides by e to find:
hc
e =Vλ
Vλ is the gradient (m) of the graph so planck’s constant (h) can be found by calculating the
product of gradient and e/c (where e is the charge on an electron and c is the speed of light
in a vacuum).

Notes
● Use a wide range of wavelength LEDs and take repeats to draw the most accurate line of
best fit.
● Make sure the wavelength is in metres and the voltage is in volts.

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