2022-2023

MORPHOLOGY

1. Types of Grammar. Theoretical Grammar.

Types of Grammar as a branch of linguistics are determined by the major stages in the history of linguistic: pre-
scientific and scientific.
The grammar of the pre-scientific period (from 4th c BC-the mid 19th c AD) is called traditional. The most typical
characteristics of traditional grammar are:
1.emphasis on the formal (esp. written) variety of language
2.focusing on the grammatical regularities of the native tongue only
3.automatically applying the alien categories and practices of Latin eng (grammar)
Eg. Split infinitives
Finally I decided
To simply ignore it
4.disregarding contemporary usage
5.attaching more importance to morphology than to syntax
6.prescriptive character-prescribing certain forms as correct and others as ungrammatical
Eg. Ancient India- panini (4th c BC), Greece-Thrax,Plato,Aristotle, Rome-Varro,Priscian, Britan-Robert Lowth(18 th
c), The USA-Lindley Hurray(18th c)
A variety of traditional grammar-descriptive grammar.
It describes, explains the patterns of usage found in all varieties of the language and recgonises? variations in
usage. EG. Henry sweet (late 19th). Henry Fowler, Dictionary of modern eng
Traditional grammars are called traditional mostly because they generally assume that grammatical facts are
established by tradition, i.e. by previous usage
The major purpose is practical – to present the rules of writing and speaking correctly
Scientific grammars (structural descriptive, generative, transformational)- focus on scientific analysis of
grammar phenomena.
Their appearance was conditioned by the advent of structural linguistic, which presented language as a system.
As a scientific grammar, theoretical grammar uses linguistic data for a theoretical description of the
grammatical subsystem of language.

2. Key notions of the structuralist model of language

Structuralism is an umbrella term for various theories across the humanities, social sciences and economics,
which are concerned with the description of structures of interrelated objects, concepts or ideas.

Common to structuralism in all its approaches are the following ideas:

1.The world is made up of relationships rather than things, so it can only be understood on the basis of
structural relationships.

2.An unconscious logical structure underlies general meanings. -language behind speech

3.the structuralist method allows classifying an infinite number of variations by analyzing structure.

Structuralism originates in Linguistic in the late 19th c. Its found was the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.
The most important of the various schools of Structural linguistic in Europe in the first half of the 20 th c are

-the Prague school (Nikolay Sergeevich Trubetskoy, Roman Jackobson)

-the Copenhagen (glossematics) school (Louis Hjelmslev)

In the course of general linguistic 1916. Saussure makes 4 basic distinctions or dichotomies (a division/contrast)

1.signifier-signified-означаемое

2.synchrony-diachrony

3.langue-parole

4.syntagm-paradigm

1.Saussure argued that language is the system of signs.

A sign is any cultural symbol that conveys a meaning. The sign is made up of 2 elements- signifier and signified.

The signifier indicates a signified. It’s a sound or an image that signifies smth.

Note-обозначающие-ее-оболочка,слово,звук.Означающий сам предмет

The sign is arbitrary (произвольн.). It means that there is no fixed sex of signifies corresponding to a fixed set of
signifieds.

In Linguistics the signified is also referred to as the plan of content and the signifier as the plan of expression.

2.Linguistic synchrony is the study of language at a particular point in time. Diachronic is the study of the history
or evolution of language. (периоды)

3.

-language is a system of means of expression

-speech is a manifestation of this system in the process of communication

-language includes the body of material unit (sounds, morphemes, words, word-groups) and a set of rules
regulating their use. Speech includes the act of producing utterances and the utterances themselves.

4.This dichotomy concerns the way signs relate to 1 another. Syntagmatic relations are immediate, linear,
(horizontal) relations existing between signs in a sequence. Syntagmatically connected are phonemes within
morphemes, morphemes within words, words within word-groups and sentences, sentences within large
textual units. Unlike syntagmatic relations, paradigmatic relations aren’t immediate. They exist between
elements of a system outside the sequences in whin these elements co-occur.

In other words, a paradigmatic (vertical) relationship is 1 where an individual sign maybe replaced by another.
The plane of the syntagm is that of the combination of @this-and-this-and-this@ whereas the plane of
paradigm is that of the selection of @this-or-this-or-this@.

In Grammar paradigmatic series express grammatical categorical meaning. Desk-desks

The structuralist idea of language as a system also implies that:

1. Language is that an integral unity of 3 subsystems – phonological, lexical and grammatical

Theoretical Grammar presents a theoretical description of the grammatical subsystem of language by

identifying its grammatical categories and studying grammatical mechanisms of the formation of utterances

2.language is hierarchical system which consist of language levels formed by the corresponding
language units, and these levels are subordinated 1 another.
Levels :

1 phonemic-the unit of the level is the phoneme. The phoneme gives a material appearance to meaningful
language units(signs). Phonemes have no meaning, their major function is differential.

2 lexemic-the level of words. The word realizes the function of mononomination-it names simple
referents(things and their relations).

3 morphemic – formed by morphemes. A morpheme is the elementary meaningful part of the word built up by
phonemes. Its function is constitutive (word-building)

4 phrasemic- the unit is the phrase (or word-group). The phrase performs the function of polynomination – it
denotes complex referents (thing and its quality)

5 proposemic -formed by sentences. The sentence performs 2 functions- nomination (names a situation) and
predication (relates the denoted event to reality)

6 dictemic(supraproposemic) or the level of the text. The dicteme is an elementary topical unit of the text.

It performs 4 functions-nomination, predication, topicalization (develops a topic) and stylization (gives the text
a certain stylistic colouring).

The 6 levels mentioned above are formed by the co-called segmental units.

Segmental units consist of phonemes(morphemes, words, etc)

Suprasegmental units don’t exist by themselves and are realized together with segmental units. They are
intonation patterns, accents, pauses, word-order patterns.

Suprasegmental units don’t form a hierarchy of levels. Their function is to express different shades of meanings
realized by sequences of segmental units.

3. The morpheme as the basic unit of Morphology.

Its so because Morphology deals with words and their internal structure, and according to the structuralist
model of language words consist of morphemes. The morpheme is generally defined as the smallest
meaningful unit of language. Its function is constitutive (word-building).

The functional and structural complexity of the morpheme is revealed in a variety of its classification.

1.Functionally depending on whether morphemes are used for word-formation or for the expressing of
grammatical meaning. They can be derivational and inflectional correspondingly Eg deriv-un/pack/ed-inflex
2.Semantically, depending on their correlative semantic contribution to the general meaning of the word,
morphemes are classified into roots (morphemes with a more concrete meaning) and affixes (with a more
abstract meaning)

3.Positionally, depending on the location of marginal morphemes in relation to the root, they are classified into
suffixes and prefixes.

(f)=word-building

(f)=expressing grammar meaning

4.In Descriptive Linguistics morphemes are classified as follows:

 Free-bound .Free morphemes can function as separate word, bound cant eg free root-book/s-inflex
 Overt-covert (open-close). Overt morphemes are genuine explicit morphemes (проявлен, выдел их)
building up words. A covert morpheme is a contrastive meaningful absence of a morpheme expressing a
certain function. Eg book=book-+ -øsg (отсутствие что-то обозначение)
 Additive -replacive. Additive morphemes are affixes. Eg book- +-s, nice -+ -ly. Replacive morphemes are
root morphemes of grammatical interchange. Eg give-gave, man-men
 Continuous-discontinuous. Continuous morphemes are expressed uninterruptedly. Eg. Tree/s, nice/ly,
re/write. Discontinuous morphemes are 2-element grammatical units which are found in analyticed
grammatical forms and consist of an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix.
1. Be…-ing eg. Is reading
2. Have…-en eg.has played
3. Be…-en eg.are planned

The allo-emic theory put forward in Descriptive Linguistics describes language units in 2 types of terms:

 Eme-terms denoting generalized, stable units of language

 Allo-terms denoting concrete manifestations or variants of emic units

As a stable generalized unit a morpheme is manifested as 1 or more morphs (surface forms) in different
environments. These morphs are called allomorphs. Eg. Book/s-dat/a-box/es-проявлен морфемы мн ч

Morphs can be fused and amalgamated (сращение и слитные)

Fused morphs share 1 or more common phonemes. Eg.real/ly /rieli/ - /riel/+/ii/

Amalgamated morphs represent several morphemes simultaneously. Eg.girls’ (friends)

As a meaningful language unit the morpheme displays the asymmetry of a language sign, ie cases when there is
no one-to-one correspondence (однознач соотвеств) between the plane of content and the plane of
expression.
In order to identify a morpheme, the following rules should be observed.

1.If 2 morphs occur in the same environment, but are different in form and meaning, they represent different
morphemes. Such morphs are in contrastive distribution. Eg. Speak/s-speak/ing, speak-the environment

2.If 2 morphs occur in the some environments, have different forms, but the same meaning, they represent the
same morpheme. Morphs are is non-contrastive distribution eg.lean/ed-learn/t

3.If 2 morphs occur in different environments, have different forms but the same meaning, they represent the
same morpheme. They are in complementary ( дополнит) distribution. Eg. Criteri/a-desk/s-child/ren

4.Every word has at least 1 root morpheme. Some have more than 1. Eg. Newspaper

5.If 1 part of a word is identified as a morph, the meaning part is also a morph. Eg.submit, sub/mit.
/sub/divide/, /sub/vert/, /per/mit/.

6.the same sequence of phonemes can form an independent morph or can be part of a morph

In order to see which ease it is necessary to establish systemic connections between the morph of the analysed
word and the same morph in other environment. Eg.teach/er(work/er, danc/er)

Thunder-thund/er-нельзя, тк thund-not exist, er не имеет значения суффикса.

A morpheme may coincide with a syllable, but a syllable has no meaning of its own. Eg.un/lady/like-морфемы,
un-la-dy-like слоги.

4. The word as an object of Morphology.

The word is the object of Morphology by definition-it’s the internal of the word that Morphology studies.

Theoretical Grammar focuses on patterns of changes that occur in words for the sake of adequate
communication.

The systemic character of these changes is conditioned be the fact that apart from lexical meaning, words
render abstract generalized meaning, typical not of an individual word but of a whole class of words
(number/case/tense). They’re called grammatical categorial meanings.

A set of correlated grammatical forms expressing a categorical meaning is called a paradigm (cat-cats, cat-cat’s).

A system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatically correlated

grammatical forms is called a grammatical category.

A grammatical paradigm consists of contrasted (mutually exclusive) grammatical forms, which means that any
grammatical category is oppositional by nature and can be represented by a grammatical opposition.

A grammatical opposition is a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which some function is
expressed.

Present

Past ---- Present Past

Future Non-present Non-past

Им.п. – им.п. косвен.п. , и все остальные В.Д.П.Т.Р, никуда не переходят.

According to their quality, opposition can be privative, gradual equipollent.

By the number of members contrasted they are divided into binary, ternary,etc

The most important type is the privative binary opposition, as all the other types are reduable to it.

 A privative binary opposition is formed by a contrasted pair of members 1 of which has a certain
feature called

@the mark@, while the other-the unmarked member is characterized by the absence of this feature eg.
+/b/-/p/- . -day_days+

A gradual opposition is formed by a contrasted pair of members, expressing the same feature but to a different
degree. Eg. Big-bigger-the biggest

An equipollent opposition is formed by a group of members distinguished by different positive features

eg./t/-/m/, he-they

In speech categorial oppositions undergo the process of oppositional reduction.

It consists in the usage of one member of the opposition in the position of the counter-member. Functionally,
there’re 2 types of oppositional reduction: neutralization, transposition.

In the case of neutralization 1 member of the opposition loses its function and acquires the function of the
counter-member. Eg. The computer has changed our lifestyle.

In the case of transposition, the transposed member retains function of its counter member. Eg. You are always
arguing with me! 1.спорит сейчас 2постоянно

The means expressing categorial grammatical meanings are traditionally divided into synthetic and analytical.
That’s why grammatical forms are classified as synthetic and analytical correspondingly.

Synthetic grammatical forms are realized by the inner morphemic composition of the word. They’re based on:
1. Inner inflexion-vowel interchange (woman-women, take-took)

2.suppletivity-grammatical interchange of word roots (go-went)

3.outer-inflexion-affexation (think-thinks)

An analytical grammatical form is a combination of an auxiliary word with a basic word. Some linguists identify
analytical forms by the property of grammatical idiomaticity. It means:

1.the meaning of each element of an analytical form (AF) doesn’t determine the meaning of the whole form

2.There aren’t any syntactic relations between the elements of an AF (would do)

3.the elements of an AF can’t have independent syntactic relations with the other sentence member

From this point of view, the analytical form of comparison are free word-combinations because their elements
retain their meanings.

Yet, some linguists argue that the basic differential feature of analytical grammatical forms is discontinuity of
form.
 5. Grammatical classes of words: polydifferential classifications.
Different branches of Linguistics offer various descriptions of words through organising them into groups
according to certain principles. e.g. Lexicology – synonyms, opposites, homonyms, thematic groupings,
neologisms, archaic words etc. e.g. Stylistics – singles out words belonging to different functional styles of
language – formal, informal, learned words, slang etc. (e.g. Etymology – distinguishes between borrowed and
native words, singles out etymological groupings e.g. Onomastics – singles out names and studies them.)

As is seen from the examples, these classifications are purely semantic, i.e. they only take into account the
semantic aspect of word functioning. In modern Grammar the question of a grammatical classification of words
is very disputable. The fact that words are ideal-material phenomena makes it difficult to group them on a
simple grammatically relevant logical basis. It is reflected in the very term used to denote grammatical classes
of words – “parts of speech”. It originated in Ancient Greece at a time when speech and language and,
correspondingly, the word as a building block for utterances and as a sentence part were not differentiated. The
existing part-of-speech classifications of words are based either on one criterion (monodifferential
classifications) or on several criteria (polydifferential classifications).

The traditional part-of-speech classification of words singles out 2 major classes – that of notional words and
that of functional words. Notional words are words of complete nominative value and self-dependent syntactic
functions. According to the traditional classification, in modern English there are 6 classes of notional parts of
speech: the noun, the verb, the adjective, the adverb, the pronoun and the numeral.

Notional words (otherwise called ‘content words’) are further grouped according to 3 criteria – semantic,
formal and functional. The semantic criterion considers the general (categorial) meaning of all the words
referring to the same grammatical class (e.g. the categorial mg of verbs is process). The formal criterion takes
into account inflexional and derivational features of the given class of words. The functional criterion concerns
the syntactic functions of the word in a sentence and parts of speech that can modify it.

Thus, according to the traditional classification, the Noun can be characterised as follows: semantic criterion:
categorial meaning of substance/thingness formal criterion: morphological categories of number and case;
typical derivational suffixes – er, -ness, -tion etc.; inflexions –s/’s. syntactic criterion: syntactic functions of the
subject, object and predicative; can be modified by adjectives

Functional words are words of incomplete nominative value and non-self-dependent syntactic functions. They
serve to express grammatical relationships between words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood
of the speaker. Most linguists identify 6 functional parts of speech in Modern English:

1) the article (modifies the meaning of the noun in the category of article determination)

2) the particle (modifies and specifies the meaning of the words and helps convey the attitude of the speaker)

3) the conjunction (connects words, phrases, or clauses; unlike the preposition, it doesn’t entail any changes in
the grammatical form of the words it connects)

4) the preposition (relates its object to another word in the sentence)

5) the interjection (a signal of the speaker’s emotions)

6) the modal word (expresses the speaker’s attitude)

Functional parts of speech shouldn’t be confused with form words, i.e. notional words which in
some contexts lose their lexical meaning and perform a purely grammatical function. e.g. to have is a notional
verb, but in the form have done it functions as a form word, yet it doesn’t become a functional part of speech.
Scholars who don’t make this distinction, add another class to the list of functional parts of speech – auxiliaries.

Criticism:

1) this classification is not purely grammatical, but lexico-grammatical

2) the application of all three criteria doesn’t characterise any part of speech as a unique class, because it will
display the same characteristics as another part of speech according to at least one of them (e.g. the syntactic
criterion reveals identical functions in the class of nouns, pronouns and numerals, the formal criterion – the
inflexion –s can be found in verbs and nouns; adjective and verbs can have the same derivational affixes
(uninteresting, to undo) etc.)

3)even within one class of words not every word can meet all three criteria. (E.g. most inanimate nouns in
English don’t have the grammatical category of case, not every noun expresses thingness/substance
(childhood). Not every verb denotes process, and not every verb can function as the predicate of the sentence.)
That’s why it makes sense to view any class of parts of speech as consisting of prototype members (i.e. units
which best represent the given class as a whole) and peripheral members which lack some of the characteristics
of prototypes. (e.g. the verb to do is prototypical, the verb to exist is less prototypical at least because it doesn’t
have the category of voice)

Another polydifferential classification was worked out by Henry Sweet. He singled out declinables and
indeclinables depending on whether or not words can change their grammatical forms. To the group of
declinables he referred nouns, adjectives and verbs. At the same time, applying the syntactic criterion, he
singled out noun-words, adjective-words and verb-words, i.e. words which can function like nouns, adjective or
verbs (I – nouns, noun-pronouns, noun-numerals, the infinitive and the gerund; II – adjectives, adjective-
pronouns, adjective-numerals, participles; III – verbs, non-finite verbs).

Otto Jespersen’s theory of three ranks also combines the morphological and syntactic criteria and classifies
words of the traditional classes into primary, secondary and tertiary, depending on their syntactic role in a
phrase.

e.g. a previously mentioned idea – idea is primary, because it is the head-word, mentioned is secondary
because it modifies the primary word, and previously is tertiary because it modifies the secondary word.

6. Grammatical classes of words: syntactic classification.

The most successful attempt to classify words according to one grammatical principle is represented by the
syntactic classification worked out by L. Bloomfield, Z. Harris and esp. Ch. Fries. It is based on the syntactic
position of the word in a sentence.

For his research, the scholar used tape-recorded telephone conversations. At the first stage Ch. Fries
made up a list of the words used in the conversations (about 250,000 words). At the 2 nd stage the scholar
singled out 3 structural patterns or frames, most commonly used by the speakers.

Frame A. ‘thing – its quality at a given time’ e.g. The concert was good (always)

Frame B. ‘actor – action – thing acted upon – characteristic of the action’ e.g. The clerk remembered the
tax (suddenly).

Frame C. ‘actor – action – direction of the action’ e.g. The team went there.
 The 3rd stage of the analysis consisted in replacing the words in the frames with the words on the list.
Thus, all the words which can fill in the positions of the words concert, clerk, team, tax without destroying the
structural meaning of the frames were referred to as nouns. All the words which can fill in the positions of the
words was, remembered, went were referred to as verbs. All the words which can fill in the positions of the
word good were referred to as adjectives. All the words which can fill in the positions of the words always,
suddenly, there were referred to as adverbs. Pronouns were distributed among the corresponding classes of
Nouns and Adjectives.

All the words which can’t fill in the positions of the notional words in the frames without destroying
their structural meaning were referred to as functional. They were organised into 15 groups. E.g. determiners –
articles and all the words which can fill in their positions, prepositions, interjections, “not”etc.

Advantages:

1) the syntactic principle of grouping words makes this classification purely grammatical and more consistent;

2) it is more universal because it doesn’t consider the morphology of the word, which makes is applicable to
languages of various morphological types.

Critique:

According to this classification, one and the same word can belong to different parts of speech, which makes
the classification as such meaningless.

7. Grammatical classes of words: functional-paradigmatic and universal-typological

classifications.
The functional-paradigmatic classification of words

The main points of the functional-paradigmatic classification are:

1) like the classifications mentioned above, it recognises the subdivision of words into notional and
functional. It characterises the class of notional words as open, because new items appear in it through
derivation, borrowing, becoming obsolete, etc. Function words are a closed word class. It contains a
relatively small number of items, which do not change or change very slowly.

2) the class of notional words comprises nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs as words denoting definite
concepts, reflecting the main aspects of our perception of the surrounding world – objects, processes,
properties, non-substantive properties. The unity of notional words is manifested in the existence of the
lexical paradigm of nomination – the paradigmatic series which distributes any given word root among 4
classes corresponding to the logic of mental perception of reality: objects, their actions, properties of
objects and properties of actions:

e.g. colour – to colour – colourful – colourfully

3) functional words are viewed not only as words expressing grammatical connections between notional
words, but also as means of expressing syntactic categories in phrases and sentences (negation,
interrogation, emphasis etc.). They can be grouped as follows:

a) determiners of nouns, modal verbs, intensifiers of adjectives and adverbs

 b) interpositional elements (conjunctions and prepositions)

c) words referring to the sentence as a whole (question-words, words of affirmation and negation,
sentence introducers it, there, inducement words let, please and some others.

4) pronouns and numerals aren’t included into the class of notional words because they don’t have
positional functions of their own and function like nouns and adjectives

5) pronouns form a third grammatical class of words, intermediate between notional and functional
words. In the broad sense of the word, a pronoun is a word that can perform the function of
substitution. That’s why this class consists not only of pronouns proper, but also of pro-names – i.e.
words of broad semantics (широкозначные слова):

Npron (thing, problem, stuff) – Vpron (make, do, act) – Apron (similar, same) – Dpron (thus, there, so)

The universal-typological theory of parts of speech

The universal-typological theory of parts of speech put forward by William Croft (USA) claims that parts of
speech are not grammatical categories of particular languages but typological prototypes based on universal
communicative functions.

The three universally recognised communicative functions shaping universal constructions in which words
occur are:

1) reference (what the speaker is talking about)

2) predication (what the speaker is asserting about the referents in a particular utterance)

3) modification (additional information about the referent)

e.g. I wrote a long letter. ( “I” and “letter” perform the function of reference, “wrote” – that of predication
and “long” performs the function of modification, adding information about the referent ‘letter’.)

The three functions roughly correspond to the classes of nouns, verbs and adjectives identified in traditional
grammars. The difference is that in the universal-typological theory these word classes are treated as
prototypes for the three major parts of speech. The boundaries of each class are language-particular.

8. Noun: the category of gender.

The existence of the category of gender in English is denied by many linguists due to its semantic character. This
category is called purely semantic because it has no grammatical forms of expression (like –s marking the plural
form in the category of number or the discontinuous morpheme “be …-en” marking the passive form in the
category of voice, etc.)

In English the category of gender is expressed by means of the obligatory correlation of a noun with a 3rd
person singular personal pronoun: a mother  she, a husband  he, a road  it. That’s why 3rd person personal
pronouns are considered to be specific gender-classifiers of nouns. The category of gender in English is
represented by two hierarchically arranged oppositions:
As a result of the double oppositional correlation a specific system of 3 genders arises: the neuter, the
masculine and the feminine genders.

Some English nouns can express both the feminine and the masculine genders by means of pronominal
correlation*. They are called “common gender nouns”.

e.g. a colleague, a friend, a doctor

Besides, there are a few lexemes and lexical suffixes which can express gender distinctions of English nouns:

e.g. a bull-calf – a cow-calf (теленок – телка); a boy-friend – a girl-friend; an actor – an actress

(Yet, these are not grammatical means, that’s why the category of Gender in Modern English remains
semantic.)

In Russian, the category of gender is also hierarchical, but its nature is different:

As is seen from the pictures, in English the category of gender is meaningful, because it reflects the actual
gender distinctions of the named objects. In Russian it is only partially meaningful, because the subdivision of
the set of inanimate nouns into feminine, masculine and neuter is groundless.

Oppositional reduction

Neutralisation

In the plural all gender distinctions are neutralised.

Transposition

The process of transposition takes place when non-person nouns are correlated with the personal pronouns
“he” and “she”.
**
pronominal correlation = correlation with a pronoun
 e.g. Nature generously shares her wealth with people.

This process is also called personification.

9. Noun: the category of number.

The English category of number is represented by the following opposition:

NUMBER
- + (-s)

singular plural

Traditionally, the meaning of the weak member of the opposition (the singular form) was interpreted as “one”,
whereas the meaning of the strong member of the opposition (the plural form) – “more than one”.

Yet, this definition doesn’t work in a number of cases. Thus, in the sentence Here you can buy the best teas
from all over the world the lexeme “teas” can’t mean “more than one tea”. That’s why in modern linguistics
the meaning conveyed by the plural form is interpreted as the denotation of the potentially dismembering
reflection of the referent structure. Correspondingly, the meaning of the singular – as the non-dismembering
reflection of the referent structure.

The suffix –s is the standard marker of the strong member of the opposition, i.e. the plural. All the other
suffixes indicating the plural (oxen, criteria, formulae, nuclei, etc.) are its free variants, i.e. allomorphs.

The interpretation of the categorial meaning of the plural mentioned above is very general. In fact, the
plural can express various meanings depending on the context. There exist the following semantic varieties of
the plural:

1) the standard plural (a class – classes)

2) the plural denoting a fixed set of objects (the eyes of a face, the hands of a clock)

3) the plural expressing various types of the referent (wine – wines)

4) the repetition plural, intensifying the idea expressed (miles and miles away, hundreds upon hundreds)

5) the descriptive plural, stressing the picturesqueness of the referent (the waters of the Atlantic)

6) the lexicalised plural, characterised by a notional difference in meaning (pain – боль, pains – усилия; a
colour – цвет, colours – флаг)

7) Pluralia Tantum1 nouns – or absolute plural nouns – nouns always used in the plural. Opposed to them
are Singularia Tantum nouns, or absolute singular nouns, i.e. nouns always used in the singular. To
express the idea of quantity with such nouns, the speaker should use the so-called partitives – countable
nouns, showing the amount/number of the given object(s).

e.g. advice – 2 pieces of advice, bread – a slice of bread, trousers – 3 pairs of trousers, etc.

Oppositional reduction

Neutralisation

1
tantum (Latin) = only
1) takes place when countable nouns begin to function as absolute singular nouns.

e.g. She had 5 aquarium fish (countable). – Do they serve fish (uncountable, denoting a dish) here?

2) takes place when countable nouns begin to function as absolute plural nouns.

e.g. The committee (usually countable, in this sentence it functions as an absolute plural noun) were
unanimous in their decision.

3) takes place when a singular countable noun denotes the whole class of similar objects.

e.g. The tiger is a predator. (All tigers are predators)

Transposition

Here refer cases of using the descriptive and the repetition plural:

e.g. the sands of the desert (the descriptive uncountable plural is used as a countable noun in the plural form)

e.g. They searched house after house. (The repetition plural used here has 2 meanings: 1) more than one 2)
many, but 1 at a time)

10.Noun: the category of case.

In the discussion of the category of case in English 4 views are usually considered.

I – the theory of positional cases (теория позиционных падежей)

According to this theory, the English noun, by analogy with Latin Grammar, has the inflexional Genitive case
and four non-inflexional, purely positional cases – Nominative (the case form of the noun performing the
function of the subject in the sentence), Accusative (the case form of the noun performing the function of the
direct or indirect prepositional object in the sentence), Dative (the case form of the noun performing the
function of the indirect object in the sentence) and Vocative (the case form of the noun performing the
function of the direct address in the sentence).

This theory is criticised because it mixes up the syntactic and the morphological characteristics of the noun.

II – the theory of prepositional cases (теория предложных падежей)

In light of this theory, combinations of nouns with prepositions in certain object and attributive
collocations are understood as morphological case forms. In particular, it distinguishes the Dative case (to + N,
for + N  to the family, for the people) and the Genitive Case (of + N  of the book), which are said to co-exist
with the inflexional Genitive case and the 4 positional cases mentioned above. The
disadvantage of this theory is that it is inconsistent and limited in the scope of analysis, because it only studies
for-to-of + Noun phrases and doesn’t analyse other prepositional phrases which also express casal meanings *.

III – the limited case theory

It is the most widely spread view on the category of case in English. It recognizes the existence in English
of a limited case system comprising the strong form - the Genitive case (which is treated as inflexional because
‘s is considered to be a grammatical suffix) and the weak form – the Common case.

**
with the knife – instrumental case, in the house – locative case, and so on
IV – the post-positional theory

It is based on the assumption that in the course of its historical development the English noun lost the
morphological category of case*. That’s why the traditional genitive case is treated as a combination of a noun
with a postposition, i.e. as a grammatical form of the word with a particle. The following arguments are put
forward to prove that ‘s is not a grammatical suffix, but a particle:

1) ‘s can be added not only to nouns, but also to phrases and even clauses

e.g. Eric’s child (noun + ‘s)

my elder brother Eric’s child (phrase + ‘s)

The blonde I have been dancing with’s name was Bernice something – Crabs or

Krebs. (clause + ‘s)

2) ‘s is used not only with nouns, but also with adverbs and some pronouns

e.g. yesterday’s newspaper, somebody else’s answer

That’s why ‘s can’t be treated as a grammatical suffix marking the category of case in NOUNS.

Pr Blokh’s treatment of the category of case is based on the advantages of the limited case system and
the postpositional theory. According to it, in modern English there is a 2-case system of the noun: the Common
Case (which he terms the Direct Case) and the Genitive case (or the Oblique Case). Thus, unlike the supporters
of the postpositional theory, the scholar doesn’t deny the existence of the Genitive case in modern English. Yet,
he agrees that the expression of the Genitive case is based on a particle, i.e. that ‘s is not an inflexion but a
particle.

The Oblique Case is subsidiary to the syntactic system of prepositional phrases, as the Genitive case is
mostly used with nouns denoting human beings and animals, whereas of-phrase is not restricted in usage.

e.g. the child’s hand or the hand of the child, BUT the hand of the clock (NOT the clock’s hand)

Pr Blokh claims that the Genitive case renders the categorial meaning of appurtenance, which is broader
than the traditionally recognised meaning of possessiveness.

The categorial semantics of appurtenance is so wide in range that it is possible to single out several semantic
types of the Genitive Case:

1) the Genitive of possessor

e.g. my uncle’s house (= the house belongs to my uncle)

2) the Genitive of integer (or organic possession, i.e. a part organically belongs to a whole)

e.g. the hotel’s lobby (= the lobby belongs to the hotel as its part), Madonna’s voice

3) the Genitive of the agent (= the noun in the genitive case is the doer of the action implied)

e.g. the singer’s arrival (= the singer arrived), the child’s smile (= the child smiled)

4) the Genitive of the author

**
a morphological category means that certain inflexions are needed for its expression
 e.g. Pushkin’s poem (= Pushkin is the author of the poem), the committee’s report (=the committee has
compiled/prepared the report)

5) the Genitive of patient (the noun in the genitive case is the recipient of the action)

e.g. the Titanic’s tragedy (= the Titanic suffered a tragedy), the shop’s owner (the shop is owned by a
person)

6) the Genitive of destination (the noun in the genitive case denotes the addressee/destination of the action)

e.g. women’s magazine (=a magazine published for women), children’s toys (= toys produced for
children)

7) the Genitive of quantity

e.g. an hour’s delay (= a delay that lasted an hour), two months’ time (a period of 2 months)

8) the Genitive of adverbial

e.g. yesterday’s meeting ( = the meeting that took place yesterday)

and some others.

11.Noun: the category of article determination.

Definiteness is a universal language category concerned with the grammaticalisation of identifiability and non-
identifiability of referents on the part of a speaker. Definite identifiability indicates that a referent is in some
way identifiable to both speaker and addressee. The referent is identifiable because of a shared knowledge or
situation, including a previous mention of the referent.

Opposed to definiteness is indefiniteness, indicating that the referent(s) of an expression is not presumed to be
identifiable. The referent is not identifiable because of a lack of shared knowledge or situation, including no
previous mention of the referent.

Different languages have different means of expressing this category. Grammatically, the English category of
definiteness/indefiniteness is realised through a system of articles. Expressed in this way, the category in
question is sometimes called the category of article determination.

The category of article determination in English is represented by the following opposition:

 ARTICLE DETERMINATION
+ -

the a, O
identification non-identification (classification)
(e.g. The house is new.) (e.g. This is a house. Life is beautiful.)

+ -
a, O1 O2
relative generalisation (classification) absolute generalisation
(abstraction)
e.g Scientific progress (what kind of progress?) e.g. Progress (in general) and
has changed our way of life. retrogression are the 2 sides of the
process of development.

As is seen from the picture, the system of articles in Modern English comprises 3 articles: the definite article,
the indefinite article and the zero article.

The definite article conveys the meaning of identification or individualisation, i.e. it shows that the object
denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality.

e.g. Take the book ( =not any book, but the one you see/ I’m giving you/ I’m pointing at, etc.)

The indefinite article has the meaning of classification, i.e. it classifies/presents the denoted object as
one of the objects of the corresponding class of objects.

e.g. Take a pen (= any pen).

The zero article can effect both relative and absolute generalisation. In case of absolute generalisation the zero
article expresses the most general idea of the object denoted.

Cf: Coffee or tea, Alice? (relative generalisation: a kind of beverage served at table is meant)

Coffee stimulates the function of the heart. (absolute generalisation: coffee in general)

Thus, the general function of the article consists in relating the denoted object to a stretch of reality
represented in the given text. This explains why in speech any English noun is always modified by some article.
In other words, any English noun in a textual stretch (a sentence, a text) is not only a word-form possessing
numerical, gender and casal features, but also a unit, characterised from the point of view of article
determination. That’s why the article is treated as a peculiar kind of grammatical auxiliary, expressing the
category of article determination, so the combination Art + N is basically analytical.

Non-conventional use of articles with proper nouns is always transpositional.

e.g. It was not the Jane I used to know.  a case of transposition in the category of article determination

12.Verb: general.
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the
expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between
the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of the verb manifests itself
not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical categories, but also in its various subclass divisions, as well
as in its falling into two sets of forms: finite and non-finite verbs.

The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This holds
true not only for the finite verb, but also for the non-finite verb, which is proved by the fact that in all their
forms verbids are modified by the adverb and, with the transitive verb, they take a direct object.

e.g. He recognised us immediately, which was surprising. – His recognising us immediately was surprising. – It
was surprising for him to recognise us immediately. The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb
determines its combinability with

1) a noun as its subject or its object

2) with an adverb as the modifier of the action.

In the sentence the finite verb always performs the function of the predicate. The non-finite verb can perform
any syntactic function except that of the predicate.

e.g. To be or not to be – that is the question. [Infinitive, subject]

e.g. There was a broken cup on the floor. [Part. II, attribute]

e.g. He is fond of swimming. [Gerund, object]

e.g. Gwendolen was silent, again looking at her hands. [Part. I, adverbial modifier]

Yet, non-finite forms of the verb perform a potentially predicative function, building secondary predicative
centres in the sentence. It means that any semi-predicative construction or phrase formed by a non-finite verb
can always be transformed into a fully predicative sentence:

e.g. He is fond of swimming.  He swims. He likes it.

e.g. I heard them discussing it.  I heard them. They were discussing it.

e.g. Gwendolen was silent, again looking at her hands.  Gwendolen was silent. She was looking at her hands
again.

e.g. She picked up a fallen leaf.  She picked up a leaf. It had fallen off a tree.

The opposition of finite and non-finite verbs creates a special grammatical category – the category of finitude,
whose syntactic content is the expression of predication, i.e. relating the nominative content of a sentence to
reality through the verbal categories of tense and mood.

The finite verb has the categories of tense, mood, person/number, voice and aspect. Non-finite verbs express
the categories of aspect and voice only.

13.Verb: the categories of person and number.

The categories of person and number are closely interconnected and thus should be studied together. The
peculiarity of these categories is that they are reflective, i.e. they don’t convey verbal semantics (which is
process presented dynamically), but reflect in the verb the personal and numerical features of the subject
referent.
 Traditionally, linguists identify 3 verbal persons and 2 numbers. But the semantic and formal analysis of
the person-number forms of 3 morphologically different groups of English verbs enables one to single out 6
person-number categorial forms. These groups are: 1) modal verbs, 2) the verb to be, 3) all the other verbs.

The first level of analysis aims to see how these categories are expressed formally, i.e. to find out what
morphological forms (inflexions or analytical means) are used to express them. The analysis is restricted to the
Present Indicative, because it is in this tense-mood form that person-number distinctions are clearly expressed.

The analysis of the verbal categories of person and number on formal lines

Person Number

modal non-personal, because this category is completely not grammatically featured

verbs neutralised or unexpressed in modal verbs

to be 2-personal, because it has 2 marked person forms in the not grammatically featured, because
system of the verb “to be” – “am” and “is”. The form “are” the form “are” can refer both to the 2nd
can’t be taken into account because it can mark the 1st person singular and the 2nd person
person (we), the 2nd person (you), and the 3rd person plural
(they)

all the 1-personal, because these verbs have only one marked not grammatically featured, because
other form – the 3rd person: the suffix –s expresses not only
verbs number, but also tense, mood and
e.g. he knows
person distinctions of the verb*

On the second level of analysis the semantics (i.e. the meaning) of the person-number categorial forms is
established. The category of person in verbs expresses the relation between the speaker, the listener(s) and
other persons or things. The category of number expresses the quantity of the subjects (one or more than one).

Thus, 1st person singular is the denotation of the speaker by the speaker; 2nd person singular is the denotation
of the listener by the speaker; 3rd person singular is the denotation of a person or thing that is neither the
speaker nor the listener; 1st person plural denotes the speaker and the group of people, to which he/she
belongs; 2nd person plural denotes the group of the speaker’s listeners; 3rd person plural denotes people or
things that are neither the speaker nor the listener.

As each person-number form has its own semantics, 6 person-number forms can be identified. It means that in
the paradigm I speak /we speak/ you speak/ you speak / he (she, it) speaks / they speak the seemingly identical
verbal forms “speak” are grammatically different.

14.Verb: the category of tense.

The category of tense is an immanent verbal category, because the meaning of process rendered by the verb is
fully realised only in certain time conditions. In an utterance these time conditions can be expressed both
lexically and grammatically.

Lexical expression of time can be absolutive (present-oriented) and non-absolutive (non-present-

oriented).


the idea that –s marks the category of person and doesn’t mark the category of number is debatable, because the pre-eminence of the
category of person to the category of number doesn’t seem grounded
 Absolutive time denotation characterises the action as referring to the past (if it precedes the present
moment, i.e. the moment of speech), to the present (if it includes the moment of speech) or to the future (if it
follows the moment of speech).

e.g. yesterday, now, in the future

Relative time denotation is not present-oriented. It means that it does not characterise an action depending on
its orientation towards the present moment (i.e. the moment of speech). Relative time denotation correlates 2
or more events showing some of them as either preceding or following the others or happening at the same
time with them.

e.g. after that, before that, at one and the same time with, some time later

Relative time denotation can also be effected through astronomical time of an event or historical landmarks.

e.g. in 2020, during WWII, in the Bronze age

Lexical expression of time is insufficient without grammatical time denotation, expressed by the verbal category
of tense.

Traditionally, tenses are presented as linear forms, corresponding to the main stages of any process
development:

Past Present Future

Yet this interpretation can’t explain the existence of the Future-in-the-Past. As the Future-in-the-Past is difficult
to interpret, it is often excluded from the analysis of English tenses. Some linguists recognise only 2 tense forms
– the past and the present (e.g. Prof. Barkhudarov), thus making the analysis of the Future-in-the-Past
unnecessary. According to them, Future forms are not tense forms, but free word-combinations with modal
shades of meaning (will expresses volition, determination, shall – promise, threat, warning). (Yet, not every
shall/will+V combination has a modal meaning. Besides, will has a modal meaning only when it is used with a
1st person subject, and shall – with the 2nd and 3rd person subjects. Finally, shall and will as markers of future
forms are often reduced to the contracted –‘ll-form.)

Prof. Blokh’s interpretation of the category of tense doesn’t deny the independent status of Future
tenses and explains the existence of the Future-in-the-Past.

According to the scholar, the category of tense in English is based on 2 categorial oppositions: 1) the
category of primary time and 2) the category of prospective time.

The category of Primary time expresses a direct retrospective evaluation of the time of the process. This
category is absolutive – it is present-oriented, i.e. time denotation is effected with reference to the moment of
speech.

The Category of Primary Time

+ (-ed) -

Past Non-Past (Present)

Oppositional reduction

Transposition
a) historic present (the speaker uses the present tense forms to describe a past event in order to make the
description more vivid)

e.g. I looked out the window and there I see a group of people.

b) the ‘preterite of modesty (the speaker uses the past tense forms instead of the present tense forms in order
to sound polite/less categorical).

e.g. I wondered if you remember me.

The category of Prospective Time is relative, as it characterises the action from the point of view of its
correlation with another action. This category gives the time process a prospective evaluation.

The Category of Prospect

+ (shall/will) -

Future Non-Future (= Past / Present)

The categorial meaning of the marked member of this opposition is ‘after-action’.

As the future tense can be relative either to the present or to the past, it can acquire 2 different forms: the
Future-in-the-Present and the Future-in-the-Past.

Oppositional reduction

Neutralisation

1) the use of the Present instead of the Future when one is speaking about plans, schedules, etc.

2) cases of obligatory neutralization in subordinate clauses of time and condition, when Future tense forms
are replaced by the Present

15.Verb: the category of aspect (Continuous and Perfect forms)

Verbal aspective meanings can be rendered both lexically and grammatically. Lexical aspective meanings are in-
built in the semantics of the verb.

Cf: to arrive, to reach (completion, achievement) – to exist, to sleep (non-completion, duration)

Grammatical aspective meanings are expressed by special morphological forms referring to the category of
aspect. The category of aspect reflects the inherent mode of the realisation of the process irrespective of its
timing.

Traditionally the category of aspect is associated with the opposition of Continuous and Indefinite forms. The
categorial meaning of the Continuous is defined as “duration” or “action in progress”. As to the categorial
meaning of the Indefinite, it is interpreted as a form of a vague content (Prof. Vorontsova), a form with no
aspective meaning (Prof. Ivanova) or as a form stressing the fact of the performance of the action (Prof.
Smirnitsky).

Continuous forms were treated by different linguists

a) as temporal forms (Prof. Sweet, Jespersen, Irtenyeva), with the categorial meaning of simultaneity of an
action with another action. BUT

1) if it’s a tense form, how can 2 different tenses co-exist in 1 form of the Present/Past/Future Continuous?;
2) the Continuous is not a tense form because it doesn’t denote the timing of the action (e.g. is speaking – was
speaking  the forms only differ in the timing, their aspective characteristics being the same);

3) simultaneity with another action is only rendered by the Continuous when the narration refers to the past;

4) the co-existence of the Perfect (always denoting priority) with the Continuous in Perfect Continuous forms
would be impossible if the basic meaning of the Continuous was “simultaneity”, but not “action in progress”.
(An action cannot be prior and simultaneous at the same time.)

b) as temporal-aspective forms (Prof. Ivanova). According to this interpretation, the category of aspect
exists in Modern English in the form of the Continuous aspect, whereas Indefinite forms are not
aspective. Thus, some Continuous verbal forms (Past/Present/Future Continuous) are said to be
aspective-temporal, whereas Indefinite forms are called purely tense forms. BUT the expression of a
grammatical category is oppositional, so the seeming absence of any categorial meaning in the
Indefinite forms doesn’t contradict the essence of the category of aspect. Moreover, the Continuous
can’t be identified as a categorial form without the Indefinite, serving as the basis for categorial
contrast.

c) aspective forms (Proff. Ilyish, Barkhudarov, Blokh). In the light of this approach, the opposition
Continuous – Simple is strictly aspective, because it doesn’t denote the timing of the process, but
reveals its inherent characteristics.

The interpretation of Perfect/Non-Perfect forms is a disputable question in theoretical grammar. Linguists

treated them as

a) tense forms with the categorial meaning of a secondary temporal characteristic of the action – it shows that
the denoted action precedes some other action in the past/present/future (Sweet, Jespersen, Irtenyeva). On
the one hand, it’s a sound idea because the Present/Past/Future Perfect forms denote some action preceding
another moment/action in the past/present/future.

BUT 1) this approach underestimates the aspective function of the Perfect, which is presenting an action as
successively connected with a certain time limit 2) if it’s a tense form, then the Present/Past/Future Perfect
would be a union of 2 tense forms, which is impossible.

b) aspective forms (Proff. Vorontsova, West) with the categorial meaning of transmission of a pre-situation to a
post-situation. The Perfect conveys the meanings of result, completion. Yet, this approach underestimates the
temporal meaning of the Perfect, which is rendered together with the meaning of result. Besides, if it’s an
aspective form, how can two aspects co-exist in one Perfect Continuous form?

c) tense-aspect forms, opposed to the Indefinite, which is devoid of any temporal and aspective functions (Prof.
Ivanova)

d) a special category of correlation, represented by the opposition of Perfect – Non-Perfect forms (Prof.
Smirnitsky). Acc. to Prof. Smirnitsky, the Perfect is neither a tense nor an aspect, and can’t be reduced to either
of them. It shows that an action denoted by a perfect form precedes some moment in time. The functioning of
the category of correlation in the system of the English verb was shown by Pr Smirnitsky as a three-dimensional
parallelepiped.
 16.Verb: the category of aspect (Prof. Blokh’s view)
According to Prof. Blokh, in Modern English there are 2 aspective categories – the category of Development and
the category of Retrospective coordination.

The Category of Development

+ (be… -ing) -

Continuous (“action in progress”) Simple

Oppositional reduction

Neutralisation

a) unlimitive verbs (that is, verbs presenting a process as incomplete) are neutralised when the continuity
of action is indicated by context.

e.g. The night was silent. The snow fell in soft flakes.

b) obligatory neutralisation of the verbs to be, to have, verbs of physical and mental perceptions (the so-
called “verbs never used in the Continuous”)
Transposition

a) the use of the Continuous to denote habitual actions

e.g. He is always losing his key.

b) the continuous use of verbs never used in the Continuous

The Perfect has a mixed categorial meaning: 1) it expresses priority and 2) it shows the connection of a prior
process with the time limit in a subsequent event.

Oppositional reduction

Neutralisation

a) the use of the Past Simple instead of the Present Perfect

e.g. I never met such people. (Instead of: I have never met such people.)

b) the use of the Present Simple instead of the Present Perfect with the verbs of physical and mental
perceptions:

e.g. I hear you’re going abroad? (Instead of: I have heard you’re going abroad?)

The problem of the Perfect Continuous forms

Previously linguists failed to interpret its meaning, because the Perfect Continuous seemed to be either marked
twice in one and the same category (provided that both Continuous and Perfect forms were recognised as
aspective) or to have a mixed temporal-aspective nature (if the Perfect was treated as a tense form). The
recognition of 2 different aspective categories gives the Perfect Continuous a sound interpretation, according to
which this form has 2 positive markers: one in the category of Development and 1 in the category of
Retrospect.

17.Verb: the category of voice.

The category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in
a sentence.

VOICE

+ (be… -en) -

Passive Active

The marked member – the Passive Voice form – expresses reception of the action by the subject of the
syntactic construction, whereas the weak member expresses ‘non-passivity’.
The category of voice has a wider representation in English than in Russian, because in English both transitive
and intransitive can be passivised.

e.g. The house was not lived in.

At the same time, the passive form is alien to many verbs denoting the state of their subject (statal verbs) – to
exist, to have etc. Thus, depending on their relation to the passive voice all the verbs can be divided into
passivised and non-passivised.

The category of voice has peculiar semantics which reveals the subjective evaluation of the situation by
the speaker.

Cf: The Parliament elected him president after months of negotiations.  the focus is on the
Parliament’s action

He was elected president by the Parliament after months of negotiations.  the focus is on the pA
vexed problem in connection with voice identification in English is the problem of the so-called “medial voices”.
The following medial voices are recognised:

1) the reflexive voice (the subject is the object of the action)

e.g. We got out of the pool and dried ourselves.

2) the reciprocal voice (the actions are performed by subject constituents reciprocally)

e.g. They found each other.

3) the middle voice (the action is going on as if of its own accord”)

e.g. The door opened.

As is seen from the examples, the problem arises from the discrepancy between the meaning of the verb
(passive) and its form (active).

Some linguists considered reciprocal and reflexive pronouns to be specific voice auxiliaries marking the
reciprocal and reflexive voice correspondingly. But one should remember that these forms (the pronouns) are
phrasal derivative, but not grammatically relevant.

Today most scholars consider that the recognition of the medial voices is not well-grounded. Prof. Blokh
treats the medial voices as cases of a peculiar neutralisation of the voice opposition. Its peculiarity is that the
Active Voice form in the position of neutralisation does not fully coincide in function with the strong member
(the Passive form). In fact, it is located somewhere in between the functional borders of the
oppositionresident’s experience.

18.Verb: the category of mood.

The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and
reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen or treating it as an
imaginary phenomenon which can be desirable/important/unbelievable, etc.

The best-known mood system of the English verb was worked out by Prof. Smirnitsky. He differentiates
between the indicative, the imperative and the subjunctive mood. The indicative mood presents the action as
real. The imperative mood expresses an urge to perform an action. The basic meaning of the subjunctive is non-
reality.

Pr Blokh suggests identifying the opposition of Direct and Oblique mood forms.

MOOD
-
Direct Oblique+ (tense-retrospect shift)

The Direct Mood is what is traditionally understood as the Indicative Mood. Its categorial meaning is reality.
The strong member of the opposition – the Oblique Mood – comprises what is traditionally understood as the
Imperative mood and the Subjunctive Mood. Their categorial meaning is non-reality. The Oblique mood nature
of the Imperative is clearly seen from the transformations of the type:

e.g. Come in. – I order you that you should come in.

Do as you are told! – I insist that you should do as you are told.

The system of Oblique mood forms in Prof. Blokh’s interpretation can be represented as follows:

Oblique Moods

Spective (or the mood of attitudes) Conditional (= the Past Subjunctive)

(= the Present Subjunctive, i.e. Subjunctive I
and the Suppositional Mood) Stipulative Consective
(= Subj. II in subordinate (= the Conditional Mood in
clauses) principal
clauses and simple
sentences with im-
Pure Spective plied condition)
e.g. Stop here! Modal Spective
I demand that you stop here. - may-spective e.g. If I were you, I would agree.
May it be as you wish! (were – the Stipulative Mood,
- let-spective would agree – Consective)
Let me speak. You could make a good mu-
- should-spective sician.
I demand that you should stop here. (could make – the Consective Mood)

The formal mark of the opposition is the tense-retrospect shift in the Subjunctive standing in opposition to the
integral form of the indicative.

The shift consists in the perfect / imperfect aspect substituting for the past / present tense of the
indicative.

~fin~
____________________________________

Useful reminder:
Traditional Grammar singles out the following types of the Oblique (i.e. Subjunctive) Mood:

1) Subjunctive I [V]
e.g. He demanded that we leave immediately.
The Present Subjunctive Mood
2) The Suppositional Mood [should V / should have V3]
e.g. He demanded that we should leave immediately.

3) Subjunctive II [the Past Simple / the Past Perfect]

e.g. It would be nice if you joined us.
The Past Subjunctive Mood
4) The Conditional Mood [would V / would have V3]:
e.g. It would be nice if you joined us.

SYNTAX

1. The phrase as the object of Minor Syntax.

Syntax (from the Greek words syn (=together) and tassein (=arrange)) is the branch of Grammar that studies
the rules by which words are combined to produce phrases and utterances. As is clear from the definition, the
objects of Syntax are the phrase and the sentence. The grammatical study of the phrase is known as Minor
Syntax. The grammatical study of the sentence is called Major Syntax.

In modern linguistics there is no clear-cut definition of the phrase. The widest possible interpretation of
this term defines the phrase as a syntactically organised group of 2 or more words (which is not an analytical
form of a word), whose constituents can be any part of speech and can be characterised by any kind of
syntagmatic connections. The narrow definition of the phrase treats it as a syntactic group consisting of at
least 2 notional words related to one another by means of subordination. This view excludes from analysis
prepositional phrases, phrases based on coordination and predicative phrases. The phrase is also defined as a
grammatical unit which is neither a word nor a clause/sentence. The demerit of this approach is that it doesn’t
characterise the phrase as an independent language unit.

The controversy over the definition of the phrase stems from its intermediate status between the word
and the sentence. The phrase differs from the word in the following way:

1) in the function of nomination (mono- and polynomination)

2) the semantics of the phrase isn’t a simple sum of the meanings of its constituents (e.g. a green roof – a
green movement; a beach hotel [a hotel situated right by the sea] – a hotel beach [a beach belonging to
a hotel])

3) unlike the word, the constituents of a phrase may have syntactic functions outside a sentence (e.g. to
read a book )

The phrase differs from the sentence in the following way:

 1) unlike the sentence, the phrase is a non-communicative unit as it has no communicative purpose and
therefore no intonation of its own (Cf: the same phrase can be used in sentences with different
communicative purpose – Have you bought the flowers? I never buy flowers here. Do buy some flowers!)

2) the phrase always consists of at least 2 words, whereas the sentence can consist of only 1 word (Stop!)

3) unlike the phrase, the sentence reflects a fragment of reality and is related to it through the category of
modality

2. Types of syntagmatic relations and means of their expression.

Words in phrases (and sentences) are syntagmatically connected. Syntagmatic connections between words within word-
groups are called syntactic relations. The major types of syntactic relations are coordination, subordination and
predication.

Coordination arranges units as units of equal syntactic rank (i.e. they have similar grammatical features and do not
depend on each other grammatically).

e.g. fruit and vegetables

Subordination arranges units as units of unequal syntactic rank, i.e. they don’t have similar syntactic functions,
and one constituent of such a phrase (the head word/the kernel) subordinates the other(s) (the adjunct(s)).

e.g. a good idea

Predication connects interdependent units. Predication can be of two kinds – primary and secondary. Primary
predication is observed between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. Secondary predication is observed in
predicative phrases formed by nominal elements (nouns or pronouns) and non-finite forms of the verb – gerundial,
infinitive and participial word-groups.

e.g. We’re waiting // the show being over // his asking us

Types of syntactic connections shouldn’t be confused with means of their expression. These are: agreement,
government, adjoining (примыкание) and enclosure (замыкание).

In the case of agreement the head-word makes the adjunct (the subordinate word) take the same grammatical
form.

e.g. новый год (м.р., ед.ч.) – новая жизнь (ж.р., ед.ч.) – новые обещания (ср.р., мн.ч.)

Agreement is widely spread in synthetic languages. In Modern English agreement is only found in phrases formed by
nouns and demonstrative pronouns.

e.g. this house – these houses

Some grammarians argue that there is agreement between the subject and the predicate in the English sentence,
but a careful analysis shows that this connection is more complicated than simple grammatical agreement. Pr. L(eonid)
S(tepanovich) Barkhudarov calls this phenomenon correspondence. It becomes particularly evident when the subject is
plural in meaning without any formal expression of the plural, and the verb corresponds to the semantics of the subject
(or vice versa – when the singular form of the verb is used with the plural subject).

e.g. The orchestra were tuning their instruments.

Ten dollars is not enough.

In the case of government the head-word makes the subordinate word take a certain grammatical form, but this form
doesn’t coincide with the grammatical form of the head-word itself. The role of Government in Modern English is not
significant. It is observed in 3 cases:

1) when a personal pronoun is subordinate to a verb, it takes the objective case form

e.g. she  to know her

2) when a noun serves as an attribute to another noun, it should take the form of the genitive case. Yet, the noun is often
used in the common case.

e.g. the administration’s decision – the administration decision

3) when the pronoun “who” is subordinate to a verb, it is used in the objective case ( whom). Yet, in present-day English
the form “who” is often used instead of “whom”.

Adjoining («примыкание») was originally identified in Russian linguistics as the absence of government and
agreement.

e.g. V+Adv (to sleep well) or Adv+Adv (too late) or Adv+Adj (rather bad) OR Adj+N (a nice place)

In the case of enclosure («замыкание») some elements are enclosed between 2 parts of a word-form.

e.g. a flower  a spring flower, to recommend  to secretly admire (sb)

To other means of expressing syntactic connections refer:

- prepositions

- conjunctions

- word-order
3. Structural approach to phrase study.

The structural approach to the study of the phrase takes into account morphological characteristics of the phrase
constituents and the kind of syntactic relations they express.

Thus, according to the types of syntactic relations phrases can be coordinate, subordinate and predicative.

Coordinate phrases are characterised by a syntactic equality of their components: boys and girls.

Subordinate phrases are based on the relation of dependence. Any subordinate phrase consists of a governing element
which is called the head and the dependent element which is called the adjunct (in noun-phrases) or the complement (in
verb-phrases).

According to the type of the head word, subordinate phrases fall into prepositional phrases (in space), noun phrases (a
true friend), verb phrases (to stop talking), adjective phrases (full of trouble) adverbial phrases (very carefully) and
pronoun phrases (something new).

The most important types of subordinate phrases are the noun phrase and the verb phrases because they form the
backbone of the sentence.

The noun phrase (NP) is the main syntactic construction which can appear as the subject, object or complement of a
clause.

e.g. The new model has about 20% percent longer battery life.

e.g. Soon excitement for the new model wore off.

e.g. A complete bundle of nerves, she rushed home.

The NP consists of a head (a noun or a noun-like word) and a modifier (modifiers) also called an adjunct (adjuncts): a good
place, two cars.

The relations of modification between the head and the adjunct of a noun-phrase can take the form of

1) premodification

2) postmodification

3) mixed modification.

Premodification comprises all the words placed before the head: two lovely English poems. Adjuncts used in pre-head
position are called pre-posed adjuncts. The most typical pre-posed modifiers in NPs are adjectives, pronouns, numerals,
participles, and nouns. Premodification of nouns by nouns (N+N) is a distinctive feature of English syntax.

Postmodification comprises all the words placed after the head: a delegation from France. Adjuncts used in post-head
position are called post-posed adjuncts.

Mixed modification comprises all the words in both pre-head and post-head position: two lovely English poems of the 19th
century.

The VP is a subordinate phrase with a verb as the head and a subordinate word as its complement. According to the
nature of their complements, VPs can be classified into nominal, adverbial and mixed.

Nominal complementation takes place when one or more nominal complements (nouns or pronouns) are obligatory for
the realisation of the potential valency of the verb (i.e. the number of syntactic positions a verb can control):

e.g. to give sb sth, to hear sb/sth.

Adverbial complementation occurs when the verb takes adverbial elements obligatory for the realisation of its potential
valency:

e.g. to behave well, to reside here.

Mixed complementation occurs when both nominal and adverbial complements are obligatory:

e.g. He put his hat on the table (nominal-adverbial).

Predicative word-groups based on interdependence consist of a nominal element (a noun or a pronoun) and a finite or a
non-finite verb.

e.g. to behave well, to reside here

Another class of syntactic relations is determined by part-of-speech characteristics of phrase constituents and their
combinability. To them refer: predicative (N+V), attributive (A+N), objective (V+N) and adverbial (V+Adv) syntactic
relations. Correspondingly, they single out predicative, attributive, objective and adverbial phrases.

Leonard Bloomfield divided phrases into endocentric and exocentric. Endocentric constructions can function in
the same way as at least one of its constituents. Exocentric constructions can’t.

e.g. The little girl and her brother were in the garden.  the little girl, her brother, the girl and her brother are
endocentric phrases because their function is the same as that of girl, brother, girl/brother.

e.g. in the garden  is an exocentric phrase, since none of the words can function in the same way as the whole
phrase.
Another well-known structural classification of phrases is based on the part-of-speech characteristics of their
constituents. It singles out the following types of phrases:

1) N+N

Depending on the case form of the 1st noun it’s subdivided into 2 types:

a) N+N: the common case noun + N (speech sound)

b) N’s +N: the genitive case noun +N (the child’s parents)

Subtype A denotes one idea as modified by another in the broadest sense. Subtype B is restricted both in meaning and
usage, its head word having the semantics of appurtenance.

2) Adj + N (a nice day)

This pattern denotes all possible kinds of things with their properties.

3) V+N

This type can express 2 different types of relations between an action and a thing:

a) action + object of the action (to study a language)

b) action + some measure of the action (to walk a mile)

4) N+V (the so-called ‘predicative’ phrase)

Some linguists recognise its existence, arguing that it should be studied like any other phrasal type (Prof. Ilyish). Others
argue that the combination of a noun with a verb always forms a sentence (Prof. Vinogradov).

In modern Linguistics this phrasal type is analysed both on the phrase and on the sentence level.

e.g. they refused – they refuse

Studied on the phrase level, it is a word-combination whose components undergo grammatical changes. Taken on the
sentence level, “they agree and “They agreed” are different sentences, because they nominate different situations.

5) V+Adj (to smell good)

6) V+Adv (to sit quietly)

7) Adv + Adj (terribly difficult)

8) Adv+Adv (very well)

9) N+prep+N (the quality of life)

10) Adj+prep+N (deep in thought)

(and some others)

Besides patterns consisting of several notional words with or without prepositions, linguists identify phrases consisting of
1 notional word and functional words.

e.g. during the break

4. Prof. Blokh’s classification of phrases.

 A different classification based on the criterion of the nominative value of the phrase constituents was put forward by
Pr. Blokh.

On the upper level all the phrases are subdivided into notional, formative and functional.

Notional phrases consist of notional words only. Their nominative value is equivalent to that of a notional word  a big
window, to read a newspaper. Formative phrases are made up of notional and functional words and are so called because
their nominative value is equivalent to that of a word-form  with joy, in class.

Functional phrases consist of functional words alone or are equivalent to functional elements  out of, up to, so that.

Notional phrases fall into 2 groups according to the syntactic rank of their constituents: equipotent (= coordinate,
i.e. the phrase constituents are of equal rank  brothers and sisters; smiles, flowers, greetings) and dominational (=
subordinate, i.e. the syntactic rank is not equal  a good sign; to read a book).

Dominational phrases fall into minor groupings according to the specific features of dominational connection:
predicative and completive.

Predicative phrases can be fully predicative (subject-predicate phrases) and semi-predicative (phrases with verbids): he is
working ; for you to understand; a student answering questions).

Completive phrases are so called because their subordinate elements complete the meaning of the head-word.
Completive phrases fall into completive objective and completive qualifying.

Completive objective phrases denote the relation of the object to the process/state: make notes, full of joy.

Completive qualifying phrases denote the relation of the object / process to its property: a large city; terribly interesting).

5. The differential features of the sentence.

A sentence can be defined as a syntactic construction which is the immediate integral unit of speech made up of words
according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.

Though the sentence has been an object of linguistic studies for centuries, an ideal definition of the sentence
doesn’t exist. The great number of its logical, psychological, phonetic, graphical and grammatical definitions only
emphasises the complexity of the sentence as a language unit. That’s why modern linguists focus on characterising the
differential features of the sentence instead. To them refer:

1) intonation
2) predicativity
3) modality
4) form

Intonation

Every sentence has a definite intonation contour, unlike words and phrases, which, taken in isolation, have no intonation
of their own.

Predicativity

Predicativity inherent in the sentence makes up the main point of difference between the sentence, the word and the
phrase. In modern linguistics predication is understood as the expression of the relation between the nominative content
of the sentence and reality.
 This definition presents the sentence as a 2-aspect unit – predicative and nominative.

There is a great difference between the realisation of the nominative function by the word, the phrase and the
sentence. This difference is conditioned by the nature of their referents.

The word performs the function of mononomination (it denotes simple referents). The phrase performs the function
of polynomination as it denotes complex referents (e.g. an object and its quality, an action and its object etc.) The
referent of the sentence is a situational event, whose constituents are the subject, the action itself, the qualities of the
subject of the action and different kinds of circumstances of the action.

Naming a situational event, the sentence reflects the connection between the nominal denotation of the event and
the objective reality. This connection is marked by the time of the situational event as well as by its presentation as
real/non-real, desirable/undesirable/forbidden, etc. (=the function of predication).

The obligatory correlation of the sentence with a fragment of reality explains one more point of difference between
the word and the sentence: unlike the word, the sentence does not exist in the system of language as a ready-made unit
(with the exception of phraseological utterances), it is created by the speaker in the process of communication.

Predicativity is realised through predication. The center of predication in a sentence of verbal type is a finite verb
expressing essential predicative meanings through the categories of tense and mood. With the help of these categories
the verb predicates or assigns the denoted property/state/action to the subject as corresponding or not corresponding to
reality together with certain temporal characteristics.

It’s necessary to draw a dividing line between predication and modality. The general semantic category of
modality is also defined as exposing the connection between the named objects and reality. Yet these notions are not
identical.

Modality is a broader category relevant both to the grammatical elements of language and its lexical, i.e. purely
nominal elements. In this sense, every word expressing a definite correlation between the object and reality is modal. To
the means of expressing modality refer ‘modal’ words (e.g. necessary, vital), semi-functional words and phrases of
probability and evaluation (e.g. maybe, for sure), modal verbs, word-particles of specifying modal semantics (quite, just,
even).

Confined to the sentence, modality is a narrower notion. It embraces only syntactic modality (= predicativity) as the
fundamental distinguishing feature of the sentence. Though modality expressed on the level of words adds to the general
modality of the sentence.

When considering modality expressed by a sentence it is useful to distinguish between the dictum of the
sentence (what is said) and the modus of the sentence (how it is said, i.e. the speaker's attitude towards the dictum)
e.g. A sentence can have the dictum: It is a nice day. And the modi: I think that it is a nice day. I believe that it is a
nice day. I know that it is a nice day. I hope that it is a nice day. It must be a nice day. It could be a nice day etc.
Form

The form of the sentence consists in a set of constituents used in a certain order. It is thanks to sentence form that we
can identify the sequence “This is a house” as a sentence and “House a this is” as a non-sentence.

6. The main structural types of the simple sentence in English . Лекция 5 – 1

On structural lines, sentences divided into simple and composite.

The simple s-ce has only one predicative line (I.e. the immediate connection between the subject and the predicate)
According to their structure, simple se-ces are further classified into 1-member and 2-member.
Sentence with the grammatical subject denoting the doer of the action and with the grammatical predicate denoting the
action are called 2 member sentences
If a S has only one of these parts, it is described as 1-member.
The principal part of 1-m S is called 'the main part' because the identification of the subject in the absence of the pred-e
and vice versa is meaningles
Simple 2-m S-s are classifiedinto complete and elliptical.
There are different views on the notion of ellipsis.
Pr. B. A. Ilyish argues that any S with 1 or more parts left out but easily restored from the context is elliptical.
He directly links elliptical S-s to the processes of representation amd substitution.
Representation amd substitution embrace the cases when some element of the S is missing, and its function is fulfilled by
another element.
The means of representation are:
1. Auxiliary verbs of analytical predicates
E. g. She likes dancing, she always has (like dancing)

2. Modal verbs
E. g. He can't swim, but I can(swim)

3. The particle 'to' as the mark of the missing infinitive.

E. g. I didn't say it, though I wanted to (say it).
Substitution is the usage of some other word to hint at the meaning of the missing word. The two substitution words in
English are the verb 'to do' and the pronoun 'one'
E.g I don't like winter, but she does.
E. g. Which pen will you take? - The black one. Professor L. S. Barkhudarov defines the elliptical sentence as a sentence in
which at least one word is represented by a zero element (i.e. is missing)
E. g. Reading? - (Are you) reading?
According to the way over restoring zeroed element, Professor Barkhudarov classifies the elliptical sentences in the
syntagmatically and paradigmatically restored
I. e. sentences in which the zero element can be restored from the context through its previous mention and sentences in
which it can be restored in that way.
To Paradigmatically restored elliptical sentences this scholar refers:
1. Imperative sentences with the zeroed subject
e.g. (You) Start working!
2. declarative sentences of the type
E.g. (it's) 3 o'clock
3. interrogative sentences
E.g. (Are you) Going home?
4. A specific subtype of elliptical sentences with a zeroed link verb and exclamatory intonation of the kind
E. g. You (are) here!
5. infinitive sentences
E. g Well, what to do?
Most linguists argue that is the basic point of a difference between one member and elliptical sentenced is that the
missing elements of an elliptical sentence are restored from the context easily and an unambiguously, which is not the
case with one member sentences.
Yet it's not always so.
That's why Professor Blokh suggests dividing simple sentences not into one member/ two member
but into one-axis and 2-axis sentences (axis - the subject group or the predicate group)
In a two-axis sentence the subject and the predicate are explicitly expressed.
In a one-axis sentence only one axis is explicit. One-axis sentences can be free and fixed.
Free 1-axis sentences are restored from the context easily and unambiguously.
E. g. Recognize me? - Do you recognize me? Fixed one-exis sentences can't be restored from the context as easily and
unambiguously as free ones.
Their subtypes include:
1. nominal constructions
E. g. Winter morning.
2. greeting formulas
E. g Hi!
3. affirmation and negation
E. g Yes/No
4. formulas of introduction
E. g. Meet my friend Jack
5. excuses
E. g. Sorry
and come others.

7. The semantic configuration of the sentence. Лекция 4 – 1

In The Same as the word is related to a referent through a concept,

the sentence is related, to the denoted situation not immediately, but through a proportion.

Concept referent Word (треугольнички)

proposition situation sentence

With the Help of the proposition did the speaker linguistically encodes numerous real life situations and reduces them

to certain patterns, such as "someone is doing something"/"something has some quality" etc.

A proportion consists of a number of participants/ arguments/ semantic units centered around their relational predicate.

A preposition is often compared to a plate who with holes which become filled in with words.

denoting the arguments or the participants of the situation

word(argument) word word word

relational predicate (verb)

The underlying relationship that a participant of the situation has with the relational predicate in a sentence is called a

semantic role semantic case, thematic role, deep case)

The main semantic role are:

1. Agent(агенс) - the performer of the action

E. g. The Robber run off. He was chased by a policeman.

2.Experiencer (экспериенсер) experiences the event or state without having direct control over it

Аs experience requires a nervous system, an experiencer must be animate EG the explosion Was Heard by animate.

E. g. The explosion was heard by everyone

An experiencer is easily confused with an agent The difference is that an experiencer is not consciously behind the

experience; it just happens to the experiencer.

3.Causer(каузатив) instigates an event

E. g Peter tripped John - подставил подножку (всегда успешное действие)

E. g. The water destroyed my computer

4 patient(патиенс) is affected by the action of the verb

А patient can be animate or inanimate

E. g. The tree fell on the house

E. g. John died.

E. g. he drove the car skillfully

5. Theme (тема) - neither causes the state or event nor is directly affected by it.
E. g. Mary knows John.

It's also defined as a participant whose properties, location, or involuntary movement is predicated.

E. g. The ball was white.

E.g. The ball was under the chair.

E.g. The ball flew into the window.

6 Posessor (обладатель) о owns or controls another participant.

E.g. The sleeve of the coat was torn.

E.g. John has a dog.

E.g. John's dog is black.

E.g. The dog is John's.

7. Recipient (реципиент) - one who receives smth

E.g. I gave it to the girl

E.g. They sent me a postcard

E.g. I was sent a postcard

8. Instrument (инструмент) - is used by agent to achieve the process

E.g. I opened the door with a key.

E.g. I used a key to open the door.

9. Path(путь) - describes the spatial aspect of notion.

E.g. The baby crawled across the room.

10. Locative (локатив) - denotes the place of the action, but unlike the path, it doesn't imply notion to, from or across

the location.

E.g. It rains a lot in Scotland.

E.g. Your bug is on the chair.

11. Goal (цель) - denotes the place to which an action is directed

E.g. Put the bag on the chair

E.g. He threw the book at me.

12. Source (источник) - denotes the place/ object from which and action originates.

E.g. He flew from Chicago to LA

E.g. John fell off the chair.

E.g. I got the idea from a magazine.

13. Factitive (фактитив/результат) - results from the action or state denoted by the verb

E.g. The workers dug a hole in the ground.

E.g. He drew a picture of his house.

14. Time(темпорптив) - situates the event in time.

 E.g. It happened at midnight.

15. Beneficiary(бенефактив) - denotes a referent for whose benefit the action was performed.

E.g. This book is for you.

E.g. She made me a cup of coffee.

E.g. He helped Susan to fix her car.

Semantic roles do not have to correspond to grammatical relations directly.

E.g. The door was opened by Bob -

Door: subject/patient, Bob- object/agent

For each role there are clear-cut, prototypical examples as well as less clear cases where a participant may share

properties with multiple roles.

E.g. I'm listening to music.

The list of semantic roles is not fixed.

The number of participants is determined by the valency of the relational predicate, i. e. how many semantico-syntactic

positions/arguments it can control.

Thus, there are 1-place, 2-place predicates etc.

E. g. He is running ( 1 place)

E. g. She is reading a book (two- place)

E. g. I showed them the way (3-place)

The nature end valency of the relational predicate determines (though not entirely) the semantic configuration of the

sentence.

The semantic configuration of the sentence is the minimal set of semantic roles necessary forth construction of

semantically adequate sentence.

8. The actual sentence division. Л4-2

The semantic structure of the sentence is determined not only by the semantic configuration, but also by its function

perspective, otherwise called "actual sentence division".

There are usually two kinds of information

One part of a sentence tells us something new the other part tells us something that we were aware of already either from

the previous sentences or from our general knowledge - given information (стартовая, исходная)

General information provides the s theme

It is the starting point of communication

New info provides the s. rheme.

The rheme expresses the basic informative part of the sentence.

It can consist of the informative Center/Peak/ focus and less informative parts.

Some linguists recognize the existence of a third component of the ACD - the so-called transition, placed between the

theme and the rheme from the point of view of its in 45 value.

E. g Again, you have gone to far.

Unlike the notional 's division which divides a sentence into notional parts represented by certain sentence members,

the actual division shows that immediate semantic contribution sentence parts make to the total information conveyed by

the sentence. Every language has a set of means marking the theme and rheme.

9. Language means of expressing the theme

1) The definite article

E. G. The answer was obvious.

2) definite phenominal determiners (pronouns)

E. G. The whole day was spent indoors.

3) loose parentheses, introduced by the phrases "as to", "as far", "regarding"

E. g. As for the passers-by, they didn't notice anything.

4) the direct word-order pattern( in non emphatic speech the theme is found at the beginning of the

sentence)

5) Fronting - moving to the beginning of the sentence an item which doesn't usually belong there.

The item becomes the theme and carries extra prominence .

E. g. Aross the roads they run.

10. Language means of expressing the rheme

1) the indefinite article

E. g. A man called out to us.

2) indefinite pronomanal determines

E. g. Any day I will fine for the meeting

3) inversion (complete and particed. Practical inversion makes the subject/ themantic)

E. g. Only then did she confess.

E g. Down came the rain.

4) the emphatic construction with the pronoun 'it' (the so-called elect s-s)

E. g. It's they who are responsible for it.

5)Contrastive complexes

E. g. Those words were meant not my friend, but for me

6)intensifying particles (even, only, just etc.)

E. g. Even, they understood it.

7) existential constructions(there is/there are)

E. g. There are a number of unusual traditions in that country.

8) ellipsis, by means of which the rheme is isolated

E. g How old are you? - Twenty.

9) Special graphical ways (Italian, bold tips, etc)

Typically Eng. are constructions with multiple rhemes formed by non -finite verbs.

1. A Double-rheme constructions in which two verbal elements correlate with the same theme in such a way

that the second verbal element is connected with the 1st as its complement (=obligatory modifier)

E. g. He is likely to agree.

2. Double-rheme construction formed by verb in the passive voice.

E. g. They were asked to sit down.

3. Double -rheme constructions formed by modal verbs.

E. g. You mustn't agree to it.

By developing the infinitive group, one can build a triple-rheme construction.

E. g. I was asked to come to help them.

The infinitive and the gerund can occupy the position of the theme due to their nominal character.

In this case the theme contains a zeroed theme - theme construction.

E. g. Their coming tonight means a boring evening.

The theme contains the zeroed TH (Their) and the zeroed RH (coming tonight)

Th(THó+RHó) – RH

11. Communicative sentence types. Л4-3

Apart from semantic configuration and functional perspective,

the semantic of the s is also determined by its communicative purpose.

According to the purpose of communication, 3 basic communicative s types are recognised

1) the declarative s

2) the imperative s побудительное

3) the interrogative s вопросительное

Each type has its own structural, semantic, progmatic properties.

The declarative s exspresses a statement and is correlated with the listened signals of attention or appraisal

Structurally it's distinguished by direct word order.

The imperative s expresses inducement and is correlated with the listener's verbal/action response showing

that the inducement was either complied with or rejected.

Structurally it's distinguished by the obligatory use of the verb in the imperative mood.
The interrigative s expresses a request for info and is situationally correlated with the listeners answer, forming

a question - dialogue unity with it.

Structurally the interrigative sentence is distinguished by inverted word order.

Traditional grammar single out a fourth common s type - the exclamatory sentence.

Yet, unlike the 3 above mentioned types, it doesn't have any unique structural and semantic properties, which

would characterise it as an independent communicative type.

That's why it's reasonable to consider the property of exclamation as an accompanying feature of the 3

communicative s types.

It means that each of them is represented by two varieties - exclamatory and non- exclamatory. The American

scholar Ch. Fries worked out a communicative classification of s based not on the purpose of communication,

but on the kind of response they elicit (вызывать)

The unit of analysis in Ch. Fries's classification is not a sentence, but a free a utterance, I. e. A continuous chunk

of talk by 1 speaker in a dialogue

Therefore the s was defined as a minimum free utterance.

At the first stage utterances collected from tape-recorded conversations were grouped into situation utterances

(eliciting a response) and response utterance.

Situation utterances were further subdivided into 3 groups.

1. Utterances regularly followed by oral responses only (greetings, calls, questions)

2. Utterances regularly eliciting action responses (requests, commands)

3. Utterances regularly eliciting conventional signals of attention to continuing discourse (statement)

Apart from these classes, the scholar singles out non- communicative utterances which are not directed to any

listener but are characteristic of situations such as surprise, anger, laughter etc
E. g. Good luck! Sheesh! Geez!

Ch. Fries's classification doesn't establish any new communicative sentense type

greetings and statements (classes 1,3) are typical declarative s;

Questions (class 1) are typical interrogative calls, request and commands (cl. 1,2) are typical imperative s.

It confirms the fundamental difference between the basic communicative sentence types as well as the validity

of the traditional communicative classification of s.

12. Mixed communicative sentence types. Л4-4

In the process of communication properties of different communicative sentence types may combine in one

sentence, which results in the existence of sentences with mixed communicative features

The following mixed communicative types are identified:

1)declarative - interrogative

2) interrogative - declarative

3) declarative - imperative

4) imperative - declarative

5) imperative - interrogative

6) interrogative - imperative

To declarative - interrogative sentences refers structures which are declarative in form but contain a question

E. g. I wonder if I got it right.

E.g. I hope I don't disturb you.

Typical interrogative declarative sentences are rhetorical questions. The purpose of the interrogative sentences

is asking for information.

Yet, the rhetorical question expresses a statement because it contains the necessary answer

E. g Can a leopard change in sports?

E.g. Are you kidding me?

E.g. Are you stupid?

The declarative nature of the rhetorical questions is confirmed by the fact that they can be used as a reply to

genuine questions.

E. g. Am I supposed to do it? - Who else?

Declarative - imperative sentences are declarative in form but express inducement(побуждение), often with

the help of model verbs.

E. g. You should consider it

E. g. It's time to go

Imperative - declarative sentences are mostly found in among proverbs and maxims:

E. g. Leave and learn

E. g. Scratch my back and I will scratch yours. Imperative - interrogative sentences induce the listener not to act,

but to speak, eliciting and answer.

E. g. Tell me about your previous job.

E.g. Tell me what I can do.

Interrogative - imperative sentences are interrogative constructions rendering the meaning of inducement.

E. g. Why don't you do it tomorrow

E. g. Try to be more careful next time, will you?

13. Actual sentence division in different communicative sentence types. Л4-5

Each communicative sentence type is characterized by specific actual division.

The declarative sentence

In a strictly declarative non-emphatic sentence is isolated from the context. The theme is expressed by the subject group,

the theme - by the predicate group

E. g. Kate is fond of music. (Kate - тема, остальное - рема)

But in declarative sentences included into a stretch or coherent text the theme -rheme distribution can be different.

E. g Kate is fond of music

E. g Is Kate or Jane is fond of music?

The imperative sentence

The imperative sentence is rhematic, it's thematic subject is usually zeroed

E. g Don't do it

Sometimes the theme of an imperative sentence is explicitly expressed:

E. g. Let her speak / Let's go

E. g. You go home now.

E. g. Hit the road, Jack.

The interrogative sentence

The theme of an interrogative sentence is expressed by its subject.

In special questions they rhematic peak is expressed by the interrogative pronoun.

E. g. Where(peak) do(RH) you(th) live(rh) ?

14. Paradigmatic syntax and syntactic derivation. Л5-1

Trad. Grammar studies the s syntagmatically, i. e. as a string of constituents performing some semantico-syntactic

functions.

This approach characterises systemic connections between s in terms of various classification (according to the number of

predicative lines, their structural completeness etc)

Paradigmatic syntax treats the s not only as a unit of speech, but also as a meaningful lingual unit existing in a pattern

form.

Paradigmatic relations are always expressed through a system of oppositions which build the corresponding categories.

Syntactic categories (negation, exclamation etc) realised by syntactic oppositions of correlated s - patterns, one member
of which is a base sentence and the other is its transformation, i. e. transition from one pattern of some notional parts to

another pattern of some notional parts.

E. g. A question is a pattern transformed from a statement, a negation is a transformation of an affirmative s.

The transitional relations between base s-s and their transformations are similar to the production of new words and

grammatical forms in Morphology. In other words, syntactic derivation is part of the system of derivational means of

languages.

Syntactic derivation is not a mechanical change of one s into another.

It's paradigmatic production of more complex s-s out of kernel s-s

A kernel s is a syntactic unit which serves as a s-root for the production of new s-s.

Originally, 5 types of kernel s-s were identified:

1. Subject+Intransitive Verb

E. g. John fell.

2. Subject+Transitive Verb + Direct Object

E. g. Jane wrote a book.

3. Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object

E. g. Jane sent John a message.

4. Subject + Linking Verb + Subject Compliment Predicative)

E. g. Fruit is useful

5. Subject + Transitive Verb +Direct Object + Object Complement

E. g. She made John angry.

Structurally l, the kernel s coinsides with the elementary s, I. e. as in which all the positions are obligatory.

E. g. We stayed at a hotel.

The difference is that the elementary s is a unit of syntagmatic syntax, while the kernel s is a unit of paradigmatic syntax, I.

e. a base for producing more complex syntactic structures.

Paradigmatic description of the s compensates for the incomplete syntagmatic s description.

E. g. I heard them taking. - I heard them. - They were talking.

15. Transformational procedures. Л5-2

Is the idea of syntactic derivation originated in Transformational Grammar,whose founder Noam Chomsky noted

each sentence has two levels of representation: a deep structure and the surface structure.

The deep structure translates into the surface structure through kernel sentences and their transformations which

result from transformational procedures.

The major transformational procedures are:

1) Deletion, i. e. omission of some elements of the sentence (эллипсис)

E. g. I put the books on the desk, and the back beside the desk

2) Rearrangement - rearranging a word from its original place within the kernels.

E. g. The house is new - Is his house new?

3) Addition - changing the basic sentence pattern by adding some components to it

E. g. They leave here - Do they leave here? They do leave here.

4) Substitution - the use of various substitutes (pronouns)

E. g. The mother came in. - She came in.

5) Morphological arrangement, which doesn't produce a new s pattern, but generates transformations within

the same model.

E. g. The main works here. The man worked here. The man worked here.

6) Nominalization - changing a kernel sentence into a nominal phrase or a semi-predicative construction.

E. g The day was cold. - a cold day/ the day being cold

7) Clausalization, I. e changing a kernel sentence into a clause with the help of connectives.

E. g. They arrived. It was too late. - When they arrived, it was too late.

8) Transformations derived from one kernel sentence are single-base trans-s, whereas sentences derived from

two kernels are double-base transformations.

16. The predicative load of the sentence. Л5-3

The s is a 2- aspect unit - nominative and predicative.

The predicative function of the s consists in relating its nominative content to reality.

It's achieved through realising predicative meanings expressed by the following syntactic oppositions:

+ сильный - слабый

1) question statement
2) inducement - statement

3) negation - affirmation

4) unreality - reality

5) probability - fact

[probability is expressed by modal verbs]

6) modal subject-action relation - fact

[modality is expressed by modal verbs]

7) modal identity - fact

[ modality is expressed by the structure seem/prove to V]

8) specialised actual s division - non-specialised actual s division

[ non-specialised ASD means the theme coincides with the subject group and the rheme - with the predicate

group]

9) phrase of action - fact

10) passive action - active action

11) emphasis - neutrality

12) specified subject - action relation - fact

[ sp. s attempt to perform an action]

These patterns make up a paradigm of the predicative functions of the s.

On the basis of these categorial oppositions the predicative load of the s is determined.

A s is predicatively loaded if it renders at least one of the strong meanings of the predicative paradigm.

The predicative load is light if the number of positive features is 1 or 2.

If there are more, the load is described as heavy.

E. g. They study English (PL=0)

E. g. They don't study English (PL=0, negation)

17. Textual units.

The number of textual units has not been universally recognised so far. What remains indisputble is that irrespective of

their specific features, all textual units are related by their common function – they represent the text as a whole, which

is expressed in the textual topic.

 According to their communicative direction, sentence-sequences in speech are divided into monologue- and

dialogue-sequences. Earlier within the text linguists identified only one-direction (monologue) sequences of sentences

which were known as “complex syntactic unities”, “super-phrasal unities” or “supra-sentential constructions”. In Prof.

Blokh’s terminology, they are called “cumulemes”. Correspondingly, a two-direction textual stretch (i.e. a dialogue-

sequence) in which sentences are positioned to meet one another, is termed “occurseme”.

Hierarchically, the occurseme occupies the place above the cumuleme, as it can be built up by 2 or more

cumulemes, because the interlocutor’s utterances can be formed not only by separate sentences, but by cumulemes as

well.

The cumuleme, in turn, is described as a universal language unit, because it is used in all functional varieties of

speech.

The functional characteristic of the cumuleme and occurseme is conditioned by the function of the text as a

whole. The function of a text is always exposed in its topic. The cumuleme and the occurseme should, therefore, be

considered topical elements.

The basic semantic types of cumulemes are factual (narrative and descriptive, i.e. cumulemes used in narrations

and descriptions), modal (reasoning, perceptive etc.) and mixed.

The cumuleme can correlate either with a multi-sentence construction or with a separate sentence placed in the

text in a topically significant position. In writing the cumuleme is marked by a paragraph. From the point of view of the

communicative content of the text, a one-sentence paragraph has the same topical function as a multi-sentence

paragraph. Thus it’s reasonable to identify a more general elementary unit of the text which wouldn’t be limited by

structural characteristics, communicative direction or form of the text (written/oral). Pr Blokh suggests terming it the

dicteme.

The dicteme is a textual topical unit built either by a cumuleme or a separate sentence. It performs 4 functions –

nomination (nominates the referent – a situational event or a series of events), predication (relates the denoted event(s)

to reality), stylisation (realises various functional styles, whose language marks function as their stylistic indicators in the

concrete topical stretch) and topicalisation (develops a certain topic).

In written text the dicteme is represented by a paragraph, but the two units are not identical:
 1) the paragraph refers to written literary speech only, whereas the dicteme is typical of all speech varieties;

2) apart from representing the dicteme, the paragraph is used to introduce utterances in a dialogue as well as

separate points in various enumerations;

3) a paragraph can contain more than one dicteme;

4) a paragraph can be subjected to the writer’s will (forced paragraph division).

The existence of cumulemes, occursemes and dictemes doesn’t mean that the sentence is a secondary element of

syntax. On the contrary, it testifies to the fact that together with the word the sentence is the basic unit of language. It

remains the central structural-syntactic element in all the formations of topical significance.

18. Types of cumulation. Parcellation and its stylistic load.

Cumulation is considered to be a universal semantico-syntactic means of textual cohesion. It can be prospective and

retrospective. Prospective cumulation is effected by connectives which relate the given sentence to the one following it.

In other words, prospective cumulation always indicates a continuation of speech.

e.g. The choice lies with you.  You can wait or you can act.

Retrospective cumulation is effected by connective elements relating the sentence to the one which precedes it and

which is semantically complete by itself.

e.g. It was unfair.  Hope you won’t deny it.

Retrospective cumulation is the basic type of cumulation in ordinary speech.

On the basis of the functional nature of connective means cumulation is divided into conjunctive and correlative.

Conjunctive cumulation is effected by conjunction-like connectives – genuine conjunctions (and, but, because etc.) and

adverbial connectives (besides, nevertheless, however etc.)

Correlative cumulation is realised by a pair of elements, one of which is related to the other either prospectively or

retrospectively.

e.g. We were late.  However, we didn’t miss anything important. (conjunctive cumulation)

e.g. Jackie entered the room. She looked pale. (correlative cumulation)

e.g. I went home. Maria accepted my departure indifferently. (correlative cumulation)

 By way of transposition a sentence can be turned into a cumuleme (the process is called parcellation) and vice versa.

A parcellated construction presents 2 or more collocations (parcellas) separated by a sentence tone but related to one

another as parts of one and the same sentence. In writing these parts – the leading parcella and the sequential parcella –

are delimited by a full stop.

e.g. Having been so good, I deserve a little reward, so I go to a coffee shop and sit down outside in the sun with a

cappuccino.

I want those clementine shoes, pops into my head as I take the first sip.

Stop it. Stop it. Think about… something else. Luke. The holiday. Our first ever holiday together. God, I can’t wait. (S.

Kinsella)

This kind of transposition adds topical significance to the sequential parcella. With some authors, parcellation as the

transposition of a sentence into a cumuleme can take the form of forced paragraph division, i.e. the change of a sentence

into a supra-cumuleme.

e.g. The President had come only to hold them to their word. To have them keep their promises. Honour their pledges.

The President had come only to collect. To collect what was his –

From the steelmen. The lorry drivers. The railwaymen. The seamen.

The promise and the pledge to cease all movement of coal –

By road. By rail. By sea –

To cut off the power stations. To shut down the steel works –

The whole country.

This was what he had come to collect and the President meant to collect it. (D. Peace)

Opposed to parcellation is the process of transposing a cumuleme into a sentence. The cumuleme-sentence

construction is characteristic of careless and familiar speech and is used in fiction for the sake of vividness of description.

The transposition of a cumuleme into a sentence also occurs in literary passages dealing with reasoning and mental

perceptions. One of the means of transposing a cumuleme into a sentence is the use of the semicolon.
 e.g. Our form tutor, Mrs Bates, introduced her to the class. ‘This is Claire Parks. She’s feeling rather nervous. This is a big

school and Claire’s bound to feel a little lost for a few days. So make sure you look after her, 4B.’

Nervous? A little lost? Look after her? It was soon very obvious that Claire Parks could look after herself, thank you

very much. (Ch. Culshaw)

e.g. I slip my feet into them with a frisson of delight – and they’re just fantastic. My feet suddenly look elegant, and my

legs look longer… and OK, it’s a tiny bit difficult to walk in them, but that’s probably because the shop floor is all slippery.

(S. Kinsella)

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENTS

1) describe the morphemic structure of the words on the lines of the traditional and distributional classifications

2) dwell upon the theme-rheme arrangement of the given sentences

3) state the types of the oppositions below

4) identify the semantic types of the genitive

5) dwell upon the cases of oppositional reduction in the given sentences

6) state the communicative types of the given sentences

7) build the IC-model of the given sentence

8) state the type of morphemic distribution

9) provide part-of-speech characteristics of the underlined words acc. to polydifferential (traditional, H. Sweet’s, O.

Jespersen’s), syntactic (Ch. Fries), functional-paradigmatic and universal-typological classifications.

10) classify the given phrases (acc. to the type of the head word, acc. to the type of syntactic connections between

the constituents of a phrase, acc. to Leonard Bloomfield’s classification, acc. to according to the part-of-speech

characteristics of the phrase constituents and acc. to Pr. Blokh’s classification)

11) identify the semantic roles of the underlined units in the given sentences

12) determine the predicative load of the given sentences

13) identify transformational procedures applied to the kernel sentences in the production of the given

transformations

14) characterise the given Grammar rules as prescriptive / descriptive. Explain your choice.

15) dwell on the means of textual cohesion in the given excerpt

 16) state the structural type of the sentences (according to the traditional classification / Prof. Ilyish’s / Prof.

Barkhudarov’s / Prof. Blokh’s classifications where possible)

LIST OF TERMS

1. Actual sentence division-shows what immediate semantic contribution sentence parts make to the total
information conveyed by the sentence
2. Adjoining (примыкание)- was originally identified in Russian linguistics as the absence of government and
agreement.e.g. V+Adv (to sleep well) or Adv+Adv (too late) or Adv+Adj (rather bad) OR Adj+N (a nice place)

3. Agreement – in the case of agreement the head-word makes the adjunct ( the subordinate word) to take the
same grammatical form (новый год-м р ед ч, новая жизнь-ж р ед ч)
4. allomorph as a stable generalized unit, morpheme is manifested as one or more morphs in different
environment. These morphs are called allomorphs
5. amalgamated morphs represent several morphemes simultaneously. (girl’s-morphemes = of plurality, of the
genitive case)
6. analytical grammatical form is a combination of an auxiliary word with a basic word. Some linguists identify
analytical forms by the property of grammatical ideomaticity.
7. category (negation, exclamation) are related by syntactic oppositions of correlated sentence patterns, one
member of which is a base sentence, the other is its transformation.
8. Dicteme is a more general elementary unit of the text which wouldn’t be limited by structural characteristics,
communicative direction or form of the text
9. dictum is what is said in a sentence
10. ellipsis is the omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader for the sentence
to be understood.
11. enclosure In the case of enclosure («замыкание») some elements are enclosed between 2 parts of a word-form.
e.g. a flower  a spring flower, to recommend  to secretly admire (sb

12.endocentric /exocentric phrase Leonard Bloomfield divided phrases into endocentric and exocentric. Endocentric
constructions can function in the same way as at least one of its constituents. Exocentric constructions can’t.

e.g. The little girl and her brother were in the garden.  the little girl, her brother, the girl and her brother are
endocentric phrases because their function is the same as that of girl, brother, girl/brother.

e.g. in the garden  is an exocentric phrase, since none of the words can function in the same way as the whole
phrase.

13. free utterance is a continuous chunk of talk by one speaker in a dialogue

14. fused morphs are morphs that have common phoneme in their structure (really=real+ly)
15. government In the case of government the head-word makes the subordinate word take a certain grammatical
form, but this form doesn’t coincide with the grammatical form of the head-word itself
16. kernel sentence is a syntactic unit which serves as a sentence root for the production of the new sentence
17. modus is how smth is said in the sentence (the speaker’s attitude towards the dictum)
18. morph is the smallest unit of language that has meaning
19. morpheme is generally defined as the smallest meaningful unit of language. Its function is word-building.
20. nominative sentence division The notional parts of the sentence referring to the basic elements of the reflected
situation form, taken together, the nominative meaning of the sentence. For the sake of terminological
consistency, the division of the sentence into notional parts can be just so called — the "nominative division" (its
existing names are the "grammatical division" and the "syntactic division").

21. grammatical opposition is a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which some function is
expressed
22. Paradigm is a set of correlated grammatical forms, expressing a categorical meaning
23. Phrase
 The widest possible interpretation of this term defines the phrase as a syntactically organised group of 2 or
more words (which is not an analytical form of a word), whose constituents can be any part of speech and can be
characterised by any kind of syntagmatic connections.
 The narrow definition of the phrase treats it as a syntactic group consisting of at least 2 notional words
related to one another by means of subordination.
24. predication connects interdependent units. Predication can be of two kinds – primary and secondary. Primary
predication is observed between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. Secondary predication is
observed in predicative phrases formed by nominal elements (nouns or pronouns) and non-finite forms of the
verb – gerundial, infinitive and participial word-groups. e.g. We’re waiting
25. predicative line predicative line the immediate connection between the subject and the predicate

26. pro-names - words of broad semantics (широкозначные слова)

prospective cumulation is effected by connectives which relate the given sentence to the one following it.
In other words, prospective cumulation always indicates a continuation of speech.

27. retrospective cumulation- is effected by connective elements relating the sentence to the one which precedes it
and which is semantically complete by itself.

28. segmental units The segmental units of language form a hierarchy of levels.
29. 1 phonemic-the unit of the level is the phoneme. The phoneme gives a material appearance to meaningful
language units(signs). Phonemes have no meaning, their major function is differential.
30. 2 lexemic-the level of words. The word realizes the function of mononomination-it names simple referents(things
and their relations).
31. 3 morphemic – formed by morphemes. A morpheme is the elementary meaningful part of the word built up by
phonemes. Its function is constitutive (word-building)
32. 4 phrasemic- the unit is the phrase (or word-group). The phrase performs the function of polynomination – it
denotes complex referents (thing and its quality)
33. 5 proposemic -formed by sentences. The sentence performs 2 functions- nomination (names a situation) and
predication (relates the denoted event to reality)
34. 6 dictemic(supraproposemic) or the level of the text. The dicteme is an elementary topical unit of the text.

35. semantic configuration of the sentence is the minimal set of semantic roles, necessary for the construction of a
semantically adequate sentence
36. semantic role is the underlying relationship that a participant of the situation has with the relational predicate in
a sentence
37. sentence can be defined as a syntactic construction which is the immediate integral unit of speech made up of
words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative
purpose.
38. Suppletivity grammatical interchange of word roots (go-went)

39. suprasegmental units do not exist by themselves and realized together with segmental units. They are intonation
patterns, pauses, accents, word order patterns.
40. syntactic derivation The idea of syntactic derivation originated in Transformational Grammar, whose founder
Noam Chomsky argued that each S has 2 levels of representation: a deep structure and a surface structure
through kernel S and their transformations which result from transformational procedures.

41. synthetic grammatical form is realized by the inner morpheme composition of the word. They are based on:
inner inflexion-vowel interchange (woman-women), suppletivity grammatical interchange of the word group (go-
went), outer inflexion-affixation (think-thinks)
42. the categorial meaning of the Perfect

The interpretation of Perfect/Non-Perfect forms is a disputable question in theoretical grammar. Linguists treated
them as

a) tense forms with the categorial meaning of a secondary temporal characteristic of the action – it shows that the
denoted action precedes some other action in the past/present/future (Sweet, Jespersen, Irtenyeva). On the one
hand, it’s a sound idea because the Present/Past/Future Perfect forms denote some action preceding another
moment/action in the past/present/future.
 BUT 1) this approach underestimates the aspective function of the Perfect, which is presenting an action as
successively connected with a certain time limit 2) if it’s a tense form, then the Present/Past/Future Perfect would be
a union of 2 tense forms, which is impossible.

b) aspective forms (Proff. Vorontsova, West) with the categorial meaning of transmission of a pre-situation to a post-
situation. The Perfect conveys the meanings of result, completion. Yet, this approach underestimates the temporal
meaning of the Perfect, which is rendered together with the meaning of result. Besides, if it’s an aspective form, how
can two aspects co-exist in one Perfect Continuous form?

c) tense-aspect forms, opposed to the Indefinite, which is devoid of any temporal and aspective functions (Prof.
Ivanova)

d) a special category of correlation, represented by the opposition of Perfect – Non-Perfect forms (Prof. Smirnitsky). Acc.
to Prof. Smirnitsky, the Perfect is neither a tense nor an aspect, and can’t be reduced to either of them. It shows that an
action denoted by a perfect form precedes some moment in time. The functioning of the category of correlation in the
system of the English verb was shown by Pr Smirnitsky as a three-dimensional parallelepiped.

The Perfect has a mixed categorial meaning: 1) it expresses priority and 2) it shows the connection of a prior process
with the time limit in a subsequent event.

43. the meaning of the category of number (sg/pl – traditional and modern interpretations)/definiteness
(indefiniteness)/mood/voice/aspect)

Traditionally, the meaning of the weak member of the opposition (the singular form) was interpreted as “one”, whereas
the meaning of the strong member of the opposition (the plural form) – “more than one”.

Yet, this definition doesn’t work in a number of cases. Thus, in the sentence Here you can buy the best
teas from all over the world the lexeme “teas” can’t mean “more than one tea”. That’s why in modern linguistics
the meaning conveyed by the plural form is interpreted as the denotation of the potentially dismembering
reflection of the referent structure. Correspondingly, the meaning of the singular – as the non-dismembering
reflection of the referent structure.