Electromagnetic Theory

V. Satya Narayana Murthy

BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
 Chapter 2

Electrostatics

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Learning Objectives

 Coulomb’s Law

 Gauss’s Law and its application

 Electrostatic field and potential

 Induced Charges

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Coulomb’s law

Force on the test charge Q at P due to q:

y q
rs
r' Q
P
o: permitivity of free space = 8.8510-12 C2 / N m2 r
x

z We have a “source”
Electric Field at P due coordinate and a “field"
coordinate
to the source charge q
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Test charge

(a) For small enough q0, the (b) For a larger q0, the
distribution is undisturbed distribution gets disturbed

 Test charge (q0) should be small

 Not to disturb the charge distribution of the source
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Variety of fields

Distribution of point charges (discrete) Continuous charge distribution

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Line charge Surface charge Volume charge

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Calculation of fields

 Nature of charge distribution

 Define suitable coordinate system and locate (elemental) charge
distribution source point
 Locate “field point” as per problem and be sure to calculate the distance of
the field point from the source point
 Identify direction of E and assign it

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Problem 2.5

Find the electric field a distance z above the centre of a flat circular loop of radius r,
carrying a uniform charge density 

 Charge distribution  line charge

 Source pt  a circular ring (R= r), centered at (0,0,0)
 Field pt  a point on z-axis, a distance z from center
 Useful formula

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Problem 2.5 solution

 rs

To be calculated:

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Problem 2.6

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Problem 2.6 solution

Get the result if the ring is replaced by a disk of radius R

R

Z >> R

With respect to field point, source is a point charge!

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Field lines

 Number of lines entering/leaving a charge is proportional

to the charge
 Tangent to the line  direction
of E at that point

 Density of lines  strength of E at that point  Two field lines never cross
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Electric flux

The measure of number of field lines passing through any surface of area A is
defined as the flux of the corresponding vector

S.I. unit (Nm2/C)

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General case

For a nonuniform electric field:

ai 
∆ →

 Number of lines entering or leaving a charge

is proportional to the charge
 Flux through a closed surface is the
measure of number of field lines passing
through that surface

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Useful relation

What happens to for a closed surface?

Source point outside the closed surface

The number of lines entering the surface equals

the number of lines leaving the surface

The net flux within the surface is zero

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 Source point inside the closed surface
 A spherical surface of radius r centered on the
charge +q
dai

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For several point charges

Principle of superposition =>

GAUSS’S LAW ( Integral form )

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Surface enclosing the charge: “Gaussian” Surface

 Flux is independent of the size of Gaussian

surface
 Net flux through any closed surface is
independent of the shape of that surface
 The net flux through any closed surface is related
to the net charge enclosed by the surface –
Gauss law

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Gauss’s law in differential form

Integral form

Charge enclosed by the surface S is continuously distributed within a volume

of charge density 

Divergence theorem,

Differential Form of Gauss’s Law

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Divergence of

Electric field at any field point r

Gauss’s law in differential form

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Problem 2.9

In spherical co-ordinates, the electric field in some region is given by: (k being an
arbitrary constant)

(a) Find the charge density 

Solution:

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(b) Find the total charge Q in a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin. (Do it
two different ways).

By direct integration:

Using Gauss’ law:

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Applications of Gauss’s law

2.3: Find the field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and
total charge q

Solution

 Field is to be calculated at P - Gauss’s law in

integral form should be used
 Draw a Spherical Gaussain surface (radius r)

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Notable point

Field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and total charge q is

The electric field due to a charged

sphere is as good as if all the
charge had been concentrated at
the center

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The role of symmetry

Look back at:

This mathematical manipulation is only possible for a concentric spherical

surface of radius r

Gauss’s law always true but only useful for proper choice of symmetry

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Symmetry

To find E using Gauss’s Law, we need to identify the symmetry of the problem
and choose proper shape of the Gaussian surface

Planer Symmetry →
Spherical Symmetry → Cylindrical Symmetry → a pill-box straddling the
a concentric sphere a coaxial cylinder surface

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 of solid sphere

2.12: Find the field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and total
charge density 

For r > R

+Q
r R
R

r +Q

For r < R

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 of a spherical shell

2.11: Use Gauss’s law to find electric field inside and outside a
spherical shell of radius R, which carries a surface charge density  

Solution R
Inside, r < R

R Charge enclosed=0

Einside= 0
r Gaussian
Surface

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Outside, r > R
Applying Gauss’s Law,

Gaussian Field outside the shell is like a point charge!

Surface
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Hollow spherical shell having non-uniform volume
charge density)

2.15: The electric field due to a Hollow Spherical Shell (non-uniform volume
charge density)

Charge density in the region a ≤ r ≤b:

Find E in three regions:

(i) r < a
a
(ii) a < r < b b
(iii) r > b

Plot |E| as a function of r

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(i) r < a: E=0

(ii) a < r < b:

a
(iii) r > b: b

|E|

r
a b
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 of infinitely long straight wire

2.13: Find the electric field a distance s from an infinitely long straight wire
carrying a uniform charge density 

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 of an infinite plane

Ex 2.4: An infinite plane carries a uniform surface charge . Find its electric field

From Gauss’s Law:

Unit vector pointing

away from the surface

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Note

 The field due to a point charge

 The field due to infinite line charge

 The field due to infinite plane charge …constant at all distances

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Problem 2.18

2.18: Two spheres, each of radius R, overlap partially. To show that the field in the

region of overlap is constant.

KEY: Superposition of Electric Field

-
_
d
+
+

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Curl of E

Electric field due to a point charge at origin:

As E is spherically symmetric, we take,

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 Stokes theorem,

….always with stationary charges

For many charges, from

superposition principle,

40

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Scalar potential

Recall Theorem 1 on Potentials:

If curl of a vector field vanishes, (everywhere), then the field can always be
written as the gradient of a scalar potential

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Electric potential

 Line integral is independent of path

We can define a function: Electric Potential

Any reference point 

From theorem on Gradient:

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Some Points on “Potential”

 Reference point taken at infinity gives:

 Superposition principle is valid:

 Being a SCALAR, easier to handle, preferred route to calculate E from V

 Surface over which potential is constant is called an equipotential surface

 Unit: Nm/C or Joules/C or VOLT

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Problem 2.21

Find the potential inside and outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of
radius R and total charge q. Use infinity as your reference point. Sketch V(r) .

Solution:

From definition of potential,

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Outside the sphere; r > R

Inside the sphere; r < R

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V

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Problem 2.22

Find the potential a distance s from an infinitely long straight wire that
carries uniform line charge 

Mathematical bottleneck
V=0 at infinity does not work!
Choose Reference point : V(a) = 0 at s=a

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Fundamental equations

Take divergence on both sides,

Using Gauss’s Law (diff. form)

Poisson’s Equation

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Poisson’s equation

 The operator is called the Laplacian

 The entire subject of electrostatics, from mathematical point of view, is
merely a study of solutions of the Poisson’s equation
 Once V is obtained by solving, we can immediately find E using

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Potential of localized charge distribution

For a point charge:

For a collection of charges:

For a continuous charge distribution:

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For a volume charge distribution :

One would expect this V(r) to be the solution of the Poisson’s Equation for a
localized charge distribution

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 Problem 2.28

Using the following expression, find the potential inside a uniformly charged solid
sphere of radius R and total charge q. Z

P rs
z
Ans. r
Y

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Problem 2.29

Check that the following expression satisfies the Poisson’s equation

Solution

1 1 𝑟̂
∇ = ∇. ∇ = ∇. − Ref: Prob 1.13
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

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Inter - relation

1 𝜌 𝑟⃗  1 𝜌 𝑟⃗
𝑉 𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝜏 𝐸 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝜌
∇ 𝑉=−
𝜀
𝜌 𝑟⃗
∇⋅𝐸 =
𝜀
𝑉 = − 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗
V E
𝐸 = −∇𝑉

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Origin of Laplace’s equation

 The problem of electrostatic field is basically simple when distribution of charge

is specified. It only requires the evaluation of an integral
 Problem gets complicated for conductors as the charge distribution on it is not
known initially, they get redistributed over the surface to make it equipotential 
Poisson’s equation is of little use!
 How do you go about it for such cases?
 There are, of course, many methods………and one of them is to solve,
 Subject to the condition that the potential V is a suitable constant on certain
boundaries
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 Charge free
region,=0

With no charge, who provides the potential ??

Laplace Equation

Electrostatic problems are essentially “boundary-value” problems and one must be

careful in handling how an electric field or potential behave across a boundary
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Fact 1

Sketch field distribution for a spherical shell of radius R as a function of r

 Field inside the shell, 

R
 Field outside the shell,

E
E undergoes a discontinuity at the
boundary if you cross a surface charge

R r
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Fact 2

What happens to the electric field distribution for a plane sheet of charge?

E is discontinuous at the boundary

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Fact 3

What happens for a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R

Electric field is continuous across the boundary!

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Surface charge - boundary condition

Wafer-thin Pillbox
From Gauss’s law:

In the limit,   0

(normal components)

Normal component of E is discontinuous by an amount /0 at any boundary

Tangential component of electric field is “unaffected” as it does not have to

cross a boundary
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Tangential component of E:

|| ||

Boundary conditions on E can be combined:

Unit vector pointing

from “below” to “above”

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Boundary condition for potential

Potential continuous across any boundary

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Normal derivatives

We have,
Where,

Normal derivative of V

 Boundary conditions relate the fields and potential just above and just below
the surface
 The above derivatives are the limiting values as we approach the surface
from either side
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Work and energy

Work done by an external agency to move a charge from a to b :

Work done to bring a charge from infinity to r

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Energy distribution

How much work is done to assemble a collection of point charges?

Take the case of a few point charges being brought one by one:

r2
q1
rs12
r1
q2

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Three charges

q3

r3

rs23
rs13

r2 q2
rs12
q1 r1
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Four charges

Total Work:

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General formula

To assemble n number of charges :

½ factor to avoid double summation

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Modified formula

, Potential at ri due to
all other charges
qj

, rsij

ri

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Problem 2.31

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Energy for continuous charge

This is “total energy” required to assemble a system of charges which is assumed

“stored” in the field
How does “field” come into picture?

As,

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 Product rule:

Product rule:

is energy per unit volume or energy density

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Problem 2.34

Find the energy stored in a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and
charge q
Any other method?

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Q. Can we applying energy eq. to the system containing just one point charge
at origin ?

This tells us that it would take infinite energy to

pack finite charges to zero volume

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 Energy of a point charge is infinite!

 Energy is stored in the field/charge?

 Doesn’t obey superposition principle!

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Conductors

Basic properties of a conductor -

 - “Electrostatic Equilibrium”

  = 0 inside a conductor

 If charged, all the charges reside on the surface

 A conductor is an equipotential region

 is perpendicular to the surface, just outside the conductor

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Why

 Induced charges set up a field E in

the interior
e- 
E0  E0 must move enough electrons to the
surface such that, E = E0
Electrons move
Electrons accumulate  Field of induced charges tends to
up in response to
on top surface cancel off the original field
applied field
 Net field is zero inside
 The process is instantaneous
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 = 0 inside a conductor

There is no existence of volume charge in a conductor. If charged, charges

must move to the surface and then they should redistribute themselves to
make it equipotential

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Equipotential surface

Since, E = 0, V = constant in a conductor

E V

r R r
R
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E is  to the surface, outside a conductor

Else, the tangential component would cause charges to move

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Energy consideration

Ex 2.9: Energy of a sphere with uniformly

distributed charge over the surface:

Problem 2.34: Energy for a volume

distribution of charge

Charge distribution goes for a configuration

to minimize the potential energy
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Induced charges

Induced charges

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Cavity without charge

Look at the problem of a conductor with an

“empty” cavity

There can be NO field inside the empty

cavity nor any charges inside the cavity

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Faraday Cage

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Cavity with charge

If +q is placed in the cavity, -q is induced on

the surface of the cavity

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Problem 2.39

Two spherical cavities, of radaii a and b, are hollowed out from the interior of a
neutral conducting sphere of radius R. At the center of each cavity a point
charge is placed. They are qa and qb.

a) Find the surface charges a, b and R

b) What is the field outside the conductor

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Force on a conductor

In presence of electric field, a surface charge Boundary conditions

experiences a force/unit area:

What value of E one should take??

Force/unit area:

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Why average

Averaging removes any contribution

from the patch

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For conductors:

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Electrostatic pressure

Outward electrostatic pressure

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Problem 2.37

Two large metal plates (each of area A) are held a distance d apart. Suppose
we put a charge Q on each plate, what is the electrostatic pressure on the
plates ?

Answer:

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Capacitor

Capacitance

 The proportionality is a consequence of superposition principle

 If you know the solution for one set of charge then we superpose two such
solutions
 Charges are doubled, fields are doubled and so is the work done to take a unit
charge from one point to other
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Property

 A geometrical property

 Planer
Possible Geometries:
 Spherical
 Cylindrical

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Parallel plate capacitor




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Spherical capacitor

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Cylindrical capacitor

Capacitance/unit length (Ref. to prob 2.39)

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Work done

Q. How much work is done to charge a capacitor?

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