CHAPTER

12 Atoms

Rutherford Model it absorbs energy and when it jumps back from an outer
™ Rutherford concluded that the majority of the space in an stationary orbit to an inner orbit it radiates energy.
atom is empty. The entire positive charge and mass of an hc
Ei − E f = hv =
atom is concentrated in a small space known as the nucleus. λ
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits. ™ Bohr radius: First orbit of hydrogen atom is called Bohr
™ The perpendicular distance between the initial velocity vector radius (a0).
of the alpha-particle from a central line passing through the ™ Ground state: Lowest state of atom, called the ground state,
center of nucleus when the alpha-particle is far away from the is the state in which electron revolves in the orbit of smallest
nucleus is known as impact parameter.
radius, the Bohr radius, a0.
™ Distance of closest approach: Distance of a point from nucleus
™ Ionization energy: Minimum energy required to free
at which α-particles are nearest to the centre of nucleus.
an electron from the ground state of an atom is called the
™ The centripetal force required to make an electron move
ionization energy.
in a circular orbit is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction between the negatively charged electron and the ™ The stationary orbits are not equally spaced. The ratio of radii
positively charged nucleus. of the first three stationary orbits is 12 : 22 : 32 = 1 : 4 : 9.
™ Electrons are bound to the nucleus because the total energy of Spectral lines and Hydrogen Like Atoms
an electron in orbit is negative.
™ In hydrogen like atoms,
™ Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain the stability
of the atom. It was also not able to explain the line spectra  n2 
th orbit, r a=
Radius of n= n 0  , a0 0.529Å
for various elements and the energies of electrons and their Z 
distribution around the nucleus.
Z
Orbital speed, v0 219 × 106 m / s
vn v0   , =
=
Bohr’s Model n
™ According to Bohr’s first postulate, every atom consists of  Z2 
a central core called nucleus in which the entire mass and Energy in nth orbit, En = E0   , E0 = −13.6eV
positive charge of the atom is concentrated. Electrons revolve  n2 
around the nucleus in circular orbits. The centripetal force PE
required for the circular motion of electrons is provided by ™ For central forces like in atoms, TE =
− KE =
2
the electrostatic force of attraction between the negatively
charged electrons and the positively charged nucleus. ™ Wavelength corresponding to spectral lines is given by the
Rydberg’s formula,
( Ze)e mv 2
= 1 1 1
4πε0 r 2 r
= R 2 − 2 
λ  n1 n2 
™ According to Bohr’s second postulate, an electron can revolve
in certain fixed orbits known as stationary orbits. When an R = Rydberg constant = 1.097 × 107 m–1
electron revolves in a stationary orbit its energy is constant ™ Total number of possible transitions between any two states
and the angular momentum of the electron is an integral
n ( n + 1)
multiple of h/2π, where h is Planck’s constant. is , where n = difference between the two state
2
nh numbers.
mvr =
2π
™ The lines for hydrogen are said to be grouped into series,
™ According to Bohr’s third postulate, when an electron jumps according to the level at which upward jump starts and
from an inner stationary orbit to an outer stationary orbit downward jump ends.
 ™ When an electron jumps from a higher energy state n to ™
ground state, n = 1, the series of spectral lines emitted is Kβ
Continuous Kα
called Lyman series. All of them lie in the ultraviolet region. spectrum Kα – Kβ – Characteristic
™ When an electron jumps from a higher energy state n to state 2, I spectrum
the series of spectral lines emitted is called Balmer series. These
line in visible region.
™ When an electron jumps from a higher energy state n to state 3,
the series of spectral lines emitted is called Paschen series. All of
them lie in near infrared region.
™ When an electron jumps from a higher energy state n to state λmin
4 the series of spectral lines emitted is called Brackett series.
All of them lie in infrared region.
hc
™ When an electron jumps from a higher energy state n to state Characteristics for continuous X-rays,=
eV hv
=max
λ min
5 the series of spectral lines emitted is called Pfund series. All e = electronic charge;
of them lie in infrared region.
V = accelerating potential
When Effect of motion of Nucleus is Considered, vmax = maximum frequency of X-Rays
2
Radius of =
the orbit, rn ( 0.529 Å ) nZ ⋅
m
µ
™ Intensity of X-rays depends on number of electrons hitting
the target.
Z2 µ  Cut off wavelength or minimum wavelength,
( −13.6 eV )
Energy of the orbit, En = ⋅
n2 m 12400
Mm λ min ≅ Å
Here µ is reduced mass, µ = , V
( M + m)  Where V (in volts) is the potential difference applied to
Where, M = mass of nucleus, m = mass of charge particle the tube

X-Rays  Continuous spectrum is due to retardation of electrons.

™ X-rays are produced by bombarding high speed electrons on a ™ Characteristic X-Rays
target of high atomic weight and high melting point.
hc hc
™ X-ray are electromagnetic radiations of short wavelength (0.1 For K α , λ
= = For Kβ , λ
Å to 10 Å). EK − EL E L − EM
™ Are not affected by electric and magnetic fields. ™ Moseley’s Law, = v a ( Z − b ) , here a and b are positive
™ They cause photoelectric emission. constants for one type of X-rays (independent of Z).

28 JEE (XII) Module-4 PW