TO STUDY

PRINCIPLES

OF SUPERPOSITIONS

PRINCIPLES
.

Superposition of almost plane waves (diagonal lines) from a distant source and

waves from the wake of the ducks. Linearity holds only approximately in water

and only for waves with small amplitudes relative to their

wavelengths.Rolling motion as superposition of two motions. The rolling motion of

the wheel can be described as a combination of two separate

motions: translation without rotation, and rotation without translation.

The superposition principle,[1] also known as superposition property, states that,

for all linear systems, the net response caused by two or more stimuli is the sum

of the responses that would have been caused by each stimulus individually. So
that if input A produces response X and input B produces response Y then input

(A + B) produces response (X + Y).

A function F(X) that satisfies the superposition principle is called a linear

function. Superposition can be defined by two simpler properties: additivity

F(x`+y`)=F(x`)+F(y`)

and homogeneity

F(ax)=aF(x)

for scalar a.

This principle has many applications in physics and engineering because many

physical systems can be modeled as linear systems. For example, a beam can be

modeled as a linear system where the input stimulus is the load on the beam and

the output response is the deflection of the beam. The importance of linear

systems is that they are easier to analyze mathematically; there is a large body

of mathematical techniques, frequency domain linear transform methods such

as Fourier and Laplace transforms, and linear operator theory, that are

applicable. Because physical systems are generally only approximately linear, the

superposition principle is only an approximation of the true physical behavior.

The superposition principle applies to any linear system, including algebraic

equations, linear differential equations, and systems of equations of those

forms. The stimuli and responses could be numbers, functions, vectors, vector

fields, time-varying signals, or any other object that satisfies certain axioms.

Note that when vectors or vector fields are involved, a superposition is

interpreted as a vector sum. If the superposition holds, then it automatically

also holds for all linear operations applied on these functions (due to definition),

such as gradients, differentials or integrals (if they exist).

Relation to Fourier analysis and similar methods

By writing a very general stimulus (in a linear system) as the superposition of

stimuli of a specific and simple form, often the response becomes easier to

compute.

For example, in Fourier analysis, the stimulus is written as the superposition of

infinitely many sinusoids. Due to the superposition principle, each of these

sinusoids can be analyzed separately, and its individual response can be

computed. (The response is itself a sinusoid, with the same frequency as the

stimulus, but generally a different amplitude and phase.) According to the

superposition principle, the response to the original stimulus is the sum (or

integral) of all the individual sinusoidal responses.

As another common example, in Green's function analysis, the stimulus is

written as the superposition of infinitely many impulse functions, and the

response is then a superposition of impulse responses.

Fourier analysis is particularly common for waves. For example, in

electromagnetic theory, ordinary light is described as a superposition of plane

waves (waves of fixed frequency, polarization, and direction). As long as the

superposition principle holds (which is often but not always; see nonlinear

optics), the behavior of any light wave can be understood as a superposition of

the behavior of these simpler plane waves.

Wave diffraction vs. wave interference

With regard to wave superposition, Richard Feynman wrote:`

No-one has ever been able to define the difference between interference and

diffraction satisfactorily. It is just a question of usage, and there is no

specific, important physical difference between them. The best we can do,

roughly speaking, is to say that when there are only a few sources, say two,

interfering, then the result is usually called interference, but if there is a large

number of them, it seems that the word diffraction is more often used.

Other authors elaborate:

The difference is one of convenience and convention. If the waves to be

superposed originate from a few coherent sources, say, two, the effect is called

interference. On the other hand, if the waves to be superposed originate by

subdividing a wavefront into infinitesimal coherent wavelets (sources), the

effect is called diffraction. That is the difference between the two phenomena

is [a matter] of degree only, and basically, they are two limiting cases of

superposition effects.

Yet another source concurs:

In as much as the interference fringes observed by Young were the diffraction

pattern of the double slit, this chapter [Fraunhofer diffraction] is, therefore, a

continuation of Chapter 8 [Interference]. On the other hand, few opticians

would regard the Michelson interferometer as an example of diffraction. Some

of the important categories of diffraction relate to the interference that

accompanies division of the wavefront, so Feynman's observation to some

extent reflects the difficulty that we may have in distinguishing division of

amplitude and division of wavefront.

Wave interference

Main article: Interference (wave propagation)

The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on this idea. When two

or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the

sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-

canceling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the

component variations; this is called destructive interference. In other cases,

such as in a line array, the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than

any of the components individually; this is called constructive interference.

combined

waveform

wave 1

wave 2

Two waves 180° out

Two waves in phase
of phase

Departures from linearity

In most realistic physical situations, the equation governing the wave is only

approximately linear. these situations, the superposition principle only

approximately holds. As a rule, the accuracy of the approximation tends to

improve as the amplitude of the wave gets smaller. For examples of phenomena

that arise when the superposition principle does not exactly hold, see the

articles nonlinear optics and nonlinear acoustics.

In quantum mechanics, a principal task is to compute how a certain type of

wave propagates and behaves. The wave is described by a wave function, and the

equation governing its behavior is called the Schrödinger equation. A primary

approach to computing the behavior of a wave function is to write it as a

superposition (called "quantum superposition") of (possibly infinitely many) other

wave functions of a certain type—stationary states whose behavior is

particularly simple. Since the Schrödinger equation is linear, the behavior of the

original wave function can be computed through the superposition principle this

way.

Other example applications

 In electrical engineering, in a linear circuit, the input (an applied time-

varying voltage signal) is related to the output (a current or voltage

anywhere in the circuit) by a linear transformation. Thus, a superposition

(i.e., sum) of input signals will yield the superposition of the responses. The

use of Fourier analysis on this basis is particularly common. For another, a

related technique in circuit analysis, see Superposition theorem.

 In physics, Maxwell's equations imply that the (possibly time-varying)

distributions of charges and currents are related to

the electric and magnetic fields by a linear transformation. Thus, the

superposition principle can be used to simplify the computation of fields that

arise from a given charge and current distribution. The principle also applies

to other linear differential equations arising in physics, such as the heat

equation.

 In engineering, superposition is used to solve for beam and

structure deflections of combined loads when the effects are linear (i.e.,
 each load does not affect the results of the other loads, and the effect of

each load does not significantly alter the geometry of the structural

system).[9] Mode superposition method uses the natural frequencies and

mode shapes to characterize the dynamic response of a linear structure.[10]

 In hydrogeology, the superposition principle is applied to the drawdown of

two or more water wells pumping in an ideal aquifer. This principle is used in

the analytic element method to develop analytical elements capable of being

combined in a single model.

 In process control, the superposition principle is used in model predictive

control.

 The superposition principle can be applied when small deviations from a

known solution to a nonlinear system are analyzed by linearization.

 In music, theorist Joseph Schillinger used a form of the superposition

principle as one basis of his Theory of Rhythm in his Schillinger System of

Musical Composition.

 In computing, superposition of multiple code paths, code and data, or

multiple data structures is sometimes seen in shared memory, fat binaries,

as well as overlapping instructions in highly optimized self-modifying

code and executable text.