SAMPLING

Dr. Ali Abd El-Monsif Thabet

 SAMPLING
• Sampling: is the process by which a subgroup of
subjects is selected for study from a larger group of
potential subjects.
• Assignment: is the process by which subjects in the
sample are assigned to groups within the study.
• The way in which subjects are identified for study, and
for groups within the study, has a profound impact on
the validity of the study (the extent to which the
conclusions of that research are believable and useful)
Sampling methods influence the characteristics of the
sample, which in turn influence the generalizability “ or
external validity” of research.
• The method by which subjects are assigned to
groups within the study influences the
characteristics of subjects within each group, which
in turn influences the internal validity of the study.
• A population is the total group of interest.
• There are generally two types of population who
are considered in research
• The target population is the group to whom
researcher hope to generalize their findings.
• The accessible population is the group of potential
research subjects who are actually available for a
given study.
 MODELS / Methods of SAMPLES
• The most basic distinction between sampling
methods is between probabilistic and
nonprobabilistic methods.
• Probability samples involves randomization at some
point in the process
• Nonprobability samples does not involves
randomization.
• Probability samples are preferable when the
researcher hopes to generalize from an accessible
population to a target population. This is because
probability samples tend to have less sampling error
than nonprobability samples.
Probability Sampling
 Simple Random (Independent) Sampling

• Random implies that each member of the

population has the same chance (probability) of
being selected for the sample,
• Independent means that the selection of anyone
member is no way affects the selection of any
other member.
• When defined populations are small, the random
sampling method is used commonly
• Example: if we sampled the physical
therapists graduating in a particular year, the
names and addressees could be obtained,
labeled and a sample of desired size drawn
from the complete listing.
• This procedure would be random and
independent if every new graduate had an
equal chance of being selected into the
sample, and if a selected graduate in no way
affected the next selection into the sample
• Tables of random numbers are available for the
purpose of random sampling .
• The researcher places a finger over a spot on the
table of random numbers without looking, the
number underneath the finger is selected and the
graduate's name having a corresponding number is
selected into the sample. The procedure is
continued until the sample quota is reached.
• Another procedure involves placing all numbers
into a hat and selecting concealed numbers from
the hat (lottery)
• This type of sampling is impossible in practice if the
population is defined as the universe.
 Systematic Sampling
• It is an efficient alternative to simple random sampling,
and it often generates samples that are as representative
of their populations as simple random sampling.
• It is used in conjunction with other methods (e.g.
stratified).
• This procedure is effective when a complete list of the
members of the population is available for selecting the
sample.
• If the researcher knows he has access to 100 children
with cerebral palsy but wants a sample of only 25 for
study, the systemic sampling method is appropriate.
• The 100 is divide by the size of the
sample 25 to obtain a quotient of 4
(100/25=4). The researcher places the
name of the first 4 children in a hat
and selects the name of one
randomly.
• Thereafter, every fourth name
appearing on the list is selected until
25 children are in sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling
• The population is divided into subgroups
or strata, each stratum contains a
particular characteristic of insert, but
only one characteristic is contained in
anyone stratum.
• Each stratum is sampled randomly and
the various subsamples collected from
the strata are combined into the desired
sample.
• Example
• Let us say that the Saudi physiotherapy Association
has 4000 members consisting of 1%,(40 members
having doctoral degrees, 10% (400 having masters
degrees), 89% (3560) having bachelor degrees.
• Strata are represented by the numbers enclosed in
parenthesis. If the size of the sample was 10% (400
of the population), then each stratum would
contribute the percentage of proportional to the
population percentages.
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling is the use of naturally occurring
groups as the sampling units. Cluster sampling is a
sampling method that divides the population into
larger groups or clusters that are geographically or
administratively defined, such as regions, districts,
schools, or households. Then, a simple random
sample of clusters is selected, and all the units within
the selected clusters are included in the sample.
Cluster sampling can help to reduce the cost and
complexity of survey, especially when the population
is widely dispersed or hard to access.
• Cluster sampling is used to reduce the large
numbers of subjects needed for the random and
stratified methods
• The main difference between cluster sampling and
stratified sample is that in cluster sampling the
cluster is treated as the sampling unit so analysis is
done on a population of clusters. In stratified
sampling, the analysis is done on elements within
strata
• In stratified sampling, a random sample is
drawn from each of the strata, whereas
in cluster sampling only the selected
clusters are studied.
• The main objective of cluster sampling is
to reduce costs by increasing sampling
efficiency. This contrasts with stratified
sampling where the main objective is to
increase precision.
 multistage sampling
Multistage sampling is a
sampling method that
combines cluster sampling
and stratified sampling in two
or more stages. For example,
first select a random sample
of regions, then a random
sample of districts within
each region, then a random
sample of schools within
each district, and finally a
random sample of students
within each school.
Multistage sampling can help
balance the trade-offs
between precision, cost, and
feasibility of your survey.
Non Probability Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
• Samples of convenience Involve the use of
readily available subjects.
• This method is used when other procedure
are not practical.
• The term “sample of convenience” seems to
give the negative implication that the
researcher has not worked hard enough at
the task of sampling.
• Considerable savings in time and costs result
from using a sample of convenience.
• It is not representative and the results cannot
be generalized to individuals who did not
participate in the research
• It is acceptable provided that the researcher
infers that the study results apply only to
population resembling the sample.
• Once volunteers have consented to
participate in the research study, they can be
assigned randomly to a control group or to
different experimental modes.
• Example: First 10 patients in the clinic
• Consecutive sampling is a form of
convenience sampling.
• Consecutive samples are used in a
prospective study in which the
population does not exist at the
beginning of the study.
• Example: study will be carried from
2019 – 2021 Not all subject of study
available at the beginning
 Purposive sample
• Purposive sampling is used when a
researcher has a specific reason for selecting
particular subjects for study, whereas
convenience sampling uses whatever units
are readily available
• Purposive sampling uses handpicked units
that meet the researcher's needs
• Sampling done on the basis of some
predetermined idea.
• Examples:
• –Samples from different age groups.
• –Samples based on the clinical
condition of patients (select all
hypertensive).
• The results of such a sample cannot
be generalized
• Distinguish between Random, Convenience, and
Purposive samples
• Example: If there are 40 schools in a district and the
researchers randomly select two of them for study, this
is a random sample of schools from the accessible
population of a single school district.
• If the researchers select two of them in close proximity
to their place of work, this constitutes a sample of
convenience.
• If the researchers pick the first school because it is
large and students are from families with high median
incomes and pick the second school because it is small
and from families with modest median incomes, this
constitutes a purposive sample
 ASSIGNMENT TO GROUPS

• When a study requires more

than one group, the
researchers need a method
for assigning subjects to
groups
 Random Assignment by Individual
• The first method of random assignment is to
randomly assign each individual in the sample to
one of the different groups. This could be done
with a roll of a die, ignoring rolls of number
more than the number of needed groups
• The advantage of assignment by individual is that
easy to do.
• The main disadvantage is that it resulting group
sample size are not likely to be equal. May lead to
small size group
 Random Assignment by Block
• The second assignment method uses blocks
of subjects to ensure equal group sizes.
• Say that in our sample of patients (32pt)
who underwent ACL reconstruction, we
wish to have four group of eight subjects. To
assign by block, we can use a random
numbers table to select eight numbers for
the first group, eight for the second group,
and so on.
 Systematic Assignment
• Researchers count off by using a list of
the sample and systematically placing
subsequent subjects into subsequent
groups.
• The first person was assigned to the first
group, the second person to the second
group, the third person to the third
group, the fourth person to the fourth
group, the fifth person to the first group
and so on.
 Matched Assignment
• In matched assignment, subjects are matched on
important characteristics and these subgroups are
randomly assigned to study groups.
• Subjects were matched on both age and sex. The four
youngest women in the sample were placed in a
subgroup and then were randomly assigned to study
groups.
• The four youngest men were then placed into a
subgroup and were assigned randomly to study groups
• The disadvantages is the possibility that other
characteristics may not be evenly distributed across the
groups
 Sample size determination
• Sample size can be estimated by:
• –Using certain formula of sample size calculation
• –Sample size tables
• For experimental research, group sizes of about 30
participants are often considered the minimum size
needed to make valid generalizations to a larger
population and to meet the assumptions of certain
statistical tests.
Thus, if you have 5000
customers and you want to
sample a sufficient number to
generate a 95% confidence
interval that predicted the
proportion who would be repeat
customers within plus or minus
2.5%, you would need
responses from a (random)
sample of 1176 of all your
customers.
• Several factors should be considered
in making the sample size
• 1.Definition of Variables (which
include and exclude)
• 2. Assurance of representation
• 3. Time and Costs
• 4. Criterion for publication
• Large samples are needed when
• a) Many variables are uncontrolled
• If the researcher cannot control the important
variables in the study, large samples are needed
to achieve confidence in results (dropout of
patients)
• b) Small changes are expected (effect size)
• When differences between group means will be
small because of the nature of the measurement,
large samples are needed,
• c) Groups are subdivided.
• Because of the research design, the researcher
must subdivide the cases into small groups. So,
large samples are needed.
• d. Dependable scores on the dependent variable
are not available.
• If the data are inconsistent because of the elusive
nature of the dependent variable, a greater
number of cases or measurements should be
included in the study.
• Advantages of sampling have been
cited
• 1. Reduced cost
• 2. Increased speed
• 3. Increased accuracy
• 4. Save time
References
 Vancouver system
(author number system)
 A- Citing of references in
text
• References should be numbered consecutively
in the order in which they are first mentioned
in the text.
B- At the end of the research in
the references
• Article
1- Author surname followed by initials.
2- Title of the article
3- Journal name
4- Year
5- Volume number
6- Page number
 Authored Book
• Author(s) surname followed by initials.
• Title of book.
• Edition.
• Place:
• Publisher;
• Year.
• Number of pages in the book.
• EXAMPLE
• Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Kobayashi GS, Pfaller MA
. Medical microbiology. 4th ed. New York : Mosby;
2002. p. 322-325
 Chapter by author(s) in Edited Book
• Author(s) of chapter (surname followed by initials).
• Chapter title.
• In :
• Editors of book (surname followed by initials),
• Title of book.
• Edition.
• Place:
• publisher;
• Year.
• pages number of chapter.
• EXAMPLE
• Meltzer PS, Kallioniemi A, Trent JM. Chromosome alterations in human solid
tumors. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, editors. The genetic basis of human
cancer. 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 93-113.
 Thesis
• Author(s) (surname followed by initials).
• Thesis title.
• Master or Doctor:
• Place (School & University);
• Year.
• pages number.
• EXAMPLE
• Scott M. Factors associated with non-urgent
utilization of the Emergency Department. Master of
Science thesis: College of Nursing, The Florida State
University; 2007. p. 12-17
Harvard system (author date system
or parenthetical referencing)
• References at the end of research will be
arranged ALPHABETICAL
1- Author
2- Year
3- Title of the article
4- Journal name
5- Volume number
6- Page number
 A- Citing of references in text
• References are cited by giving in parentheses the
surname of author and year of publication.
• Example: ………………….. (Edwards 2006)
• •When the author’s name is part of a sentence,
only the year is put in parentheses.
• Example: Edwards suggested……..(2006)
• •When a reference is written by 2 authors, both
names are written.
• Example: ………….( Pipkin and Strunk 2005).
• More than two author’s (Edwards etal., 2006)
• When several references are given together, they
should be listed in chronological order and
separated by a semicolon.
• Example: Several researchers studied this problem
……………………(Wildsmith 1998; Lester 2002;
Edward 2006)
• •When 2 citations have the same author and the
same year of publication, alphabetical annotation
is used.
• Example: ……………………(Edwards 2004a,2004b)
 American Psychological Association
(APA) Style
1- Author
2- Year
3- Title of the article
4- Journal name
5- Volume number
6- Page number
• Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019).
Emotions in storybooks: A comparison of storybooks that represent
ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Psychology of Popular
Media Culture, 8(3), 207–217.
 Citation Format of Internet Sources in Reference List
• 1- Journal article on the Internet:
• Abood S. Quality improvement initiative in
nursing homes: the ANA acts in an advisory role.
Am J Nurse. 2002; 102:23. Available online at:
http://www.nursingworld.org/AJN/june/Wawatc
h.htm (Accessed May 15,2006)
• 2- Book on the Internet:
• Foley KM, Gelband H, editors.
Improving palliative care for cancer.
Washington: National Academy
Press; 2001. Available online
at:http://www.nap.edu/books/0309
074029/html/. (Accessed May 15,
2006)
 Citation Format of Internet Sources in Reference List
• EXAMPLES --- Web Sites
• 1- National Coordinating Council for Medication Error
Reporting and Prevention. Taxonomy of medication
errors. Available online at:
• http://www.nccmerp.org/aboutMedErrors.html
(Accessed May 15, 2006)
• 2- National Transportation and Safety Board 2008.
Railroad accident report. Available online at:
http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/2006/RAR0603.htm
(Accessed June 23, 2008)
• 3- Timeanddate.com 2008. The world clock—Time zones.
Available online at:
http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ (Accessed
Thank you