2.

4 River diversion during the construction of the hydraulic

scheme
One of the characteristics of the river hydraulic schemes is the essential need, in the
course of the entire period of construction, to divert the river water from the dam site,
i.e. to give passage to that water. This is ensured by means of a series of individual
structures: cofferdams (temporary dams), embankments, channels, and tunnels, as
well as by utilizing the permanent works of the hydraulic scheme, temporarily, for this
purpose, as well.

The maximum quantity of water that is to be diverted in the course of the

construction of the hydraulic scheme is called construction water. It is determined by
means of a technical-economical analysis. It is evident that if we assume a smaller
quantity of water that has to be diverted, that is to say, against which the
construction foundation pit is to be protected, the costs will be lower, while the risk of
flooding of the construction pit will be greater. Or, vice versa the larger the quantity of
such construction water, the smaller the risk to the safety of the construction pit. The
usual practice for the construction water is to assume the water with a return period
that is 3–5 times longer than the period that has been anticipated for the construction
of the hydraulic scheme. Of course, here as well, the specific conditions prevailing at
the dam site are of great importance in making decisions.

In selecting the scheme for diverting, i.e. letting through, the construction waters, one
must take account of: the hydrological, topographical, and geological, as well as the
construction and economy conditions of the locality anticipated for construction, the
utilization of the river in the course of construction and other water economy needs
(navigation, rafting, and floating of logs), etc. A poor solution for giving passage to
the construction water leads to slowing down the construction of the hydraulic
scheme, while the danger of damage is increased. A detailed working out of the
issue for letting through the construction waters is essential during the execution of
dams at large plain-land rivers, especially if they are constructed upon a soil (non-
rock) foundation.

Depending on the width of the river at the dam site and the quantity of construction
water, in the course of construction of the hydraulic scheme the river waters can be
evacuated in three main ways: (A) without diversion from the parent river channel, in
which the major and permanent concrete works are constructed; (B) with diversion of
the river from the parent river channel and its conveyance through channels, tunnels
or pipelines; or (C) combined, when part of the permanent major works are
constructed without diverting the water, while another part with diversion of the
water. By means of the combined method of diversion of construction water, the
main permanent structures of the hydraulic scheme are constructed according to a
certain construction sequence, i.e. some of them without diversion of the river, while
others with diversion of the river, or else one and the same structure is constructed

1
at certain periods with river diversion, while without river diversion at other periods.
In some cases, it is rational to widen the river channel by clearing one of the banks,
and this has been employed with abundant watercourses, with lowland rivers, or
Semi-plains Rivers.

2.4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE STRUCTURESWITH RIVER

DIVERSION FROMTHE RIVER CHANNEL
The method of construction of structures by means of diversion of the river from the
river channel is usually employed with narrow river channels, as well as with steep
banks during the construction of hydraulic schemes with a medium and with a high-
pressure head. This method is very often used in practice. In the first place, the
water conveyance structure is constructed; it serves for diversion of the construction
water. This structure may be a tunnel (Fig. 2.34), channel, or pipeline. Then, the river
channel is dammed by means of a cofferdam, as a rule at lower discharges.

A diversion tunnel is most often used as a water conveyance structure. The diameter
of the tunnel and the height of the cofferdam, are determined by means of an
economical and technical analysis, with provided passage to the construction waters,
whose probability of occurrence is once in 5–25 years. For the period of recurrence it
is usually taken to be 3–5 times longer than the period that has been anticipated for
the construction of the structures that are being protected. The economical and
technical analysis is conducted in such a way that for several values of the diameter
of the tunnel we calculate the required height of the cofferdam, which increases, with
the reduction of the diameter. For the appropriate diameters, we then calculate the
cost of the diversion tunnel as well as the cofferdam. The summary values yield a
curve of the joint cost for the two structures, from which one can read out the
optimum value for the diameter of the tunnel, Figure 2.35. This value can undergo
certain corrections if a cofferdam of a determined height cannot be executed
sufficiently fast. The minimum diameter of the tunnel can be 2 m, while the maximum
one 15 m. In a case of need, we can anticipate two diversion tunnels. The distance
between the toes of the embankment dam and the cofferdam should be at least 10–
20m.

At the downstream side, the foundation pit is protected against the diverted water by
means of a smaller auxiliary dam. The cofferdams and the auxiliary dams are
frequently designed in such a way that, following the construction of the hydraulic
scheme, they remain within the dam’s body. The diversion tunnel, in many cases, is
rearranged as a permanent structure; it then serves as a conveyance structure for
overflowing waters or as a bottom outlet. One should take into consideration that the
diversion tunnel and the cofferdams are constructed at the commencement of the
construction of the hydraulic scheme, i.e. when the construction site is not yet
equipped, worked out, and developed to a maximum, so that the working activities
on the execution of these structures as permanent structures, usually have a higher

2
unit cost than they would if they were constructed later on, together with the other
major permanent structures.

Figure 2.34 Protection of the construction pit with auxiliary dams and diversion of
waters by means of a diversion tunnel.

Figure 2.35 Diagram for determining the diameter of the diversion tunnel.

Figure 2.36 Entrance portal of a diversion tunnel.

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The entrance portal of the tunnel is formed in excavation, for instance as shown in
Figure 2.36. The inclination of the slopes of the rock depends on its quality and it can
be very steep – up to 1:10. If the slope is very high, it can be moderated by means of
berms at each measure 5–10m. The space in front of the tunnel is widened, while
the bottom (1) and sides (2) are concreted. Slots (3) are left in the sidewalls for an
overhaul gate. At the entrance, the tunnel is concreted to a greater height (4), while
the part between concrete and rock is filled with soil material. The exit portal, that is
to say, the terminal part of the diversion tunnel, is designed in a way similar to the
case of the intake tunnel of a shaft spillway structure.

The diversion of waters by means of channels or pipelines, which are placed in the
river channel next to the riverbanks, may be achieved only with smaller quantities of
construction waters.

In the cases of small dams, a customary practice is for the evacuator of the waters in
the course of construction to use the pipeline of the bottom outlet, which is used at
the beginning of the construction of the dam, along with a temporary shaped-up
entrance part and terminal part. At the completion of construction, we perform its
final shaping-up into a bottom outlet, with the finishing of the entrance (inlet) and the
exit (outlet) structure and placement of gates and other hydromechanical equipment.
We evacuate the waters in the course of construction of most small dams in many
countries in this way.

2.4.2 Types of cofferdams

In selecting the type and dimensions of the cofferdams, as well as the form of the
construction (foundation) pit, it is necessary to take into consideration the following
elements: (1) the distance from the coffer dam to the foundation of the structure,
should not be smaller than 10 m; (2) the form in plan of the construction pit should be
such as to make possible easy access and descent into it, as well as a good
connection with the roadways that are used in the course of construction; (3) the
shape and dimensions of the construction pit should ensure safe installation of
cranes and of other construction plants and equipment.

Figure 2.37 presents several types of cofferdams, which are most frequently used for
the protection of the dam construction pit. When it is a question of an embankment
cofferdam (a, b) made of water-impermeable material, it is rational that the water-
impermeable element be utilized in the form of an impervious facing, as is shown in
the drawings, since the facing is constructed upon the completed dam’s body,
irrespective of it. The construction of a core would slow down the construction and
can be justified only if such a coffer dam were to be incorporated into the body of the
main dam. In that way, it would become a permanent structure.

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Figure 2.37 Cross-sections of cofferdams (after Grishin et al., 1979). (a) Rockfill
cofferdam with earthen facing; (b) sand cofferdam; (c) cylindrical oval cofferdam
made of steel sheet piling; (d) segmental oval cofferdam made of steel sheet piling;
(e) cofferdam with a wide wooden grille; (f) cofferdam with a narrow wooden grille.
(1) Earthen water-impermeable part; (2) rockfill; (3) sand; (4) wooden timber piling

Also, homogeneous earthfill cofferdams of poorly permeable material are often

constructed, especially when it is a question of a hydraulic scheme with a smaller
dam. Concrete cofferdams are constructed less frequently. They are mainly found in
cases of hydraulic schemes with an arch dam, especially in the form of a small,
simple arch dam. Steel sheet piling (c, d) is used in countries with a developed steel
production, while the employment of wood (e, f) is limited to dam sites that are
located in regions that are rich in this natural raw material.

Recently an internal geomembrane also possible to install as impervious core at the

construction sites of hydraulic schemes.