Analog Electronic Circuits (PC231EC)

UNIT-III

Oscillators & Regulators

Introduction
An oscillator ia an electronic circuit which employs a positive feedback where the source
signal and feedback signal both are in phase.
These oscillators are used to generate oscillations which can be sine or triangular or
rectangular waves.

Fig 3.1: Block diagram of positive feedack amplifier.

Avf = Vo/ Vs
Vi = Vs + Vf
Vs = Vi -Vf
Af = Vo /( Vi -Vf)
Vo/Vi
Af = 1−Vf/Vi
𝐴
Af = Vf
1− ∗Vo/Vi
Vo
Af = A/(1-Aβ)

From the above expression, keeping A constant and if β value is increased the value of A f
also increases and at some value of β the term Aβ becomes 1 which makes A f = ꭃ from this
we come to a conclusion that the oscillator generates oscillations without applying input
source signal. But initially, when oscillator circuit is switched ON the random noise voltages
which are present in the resistors appears as o/p of the amplifier and this small voltages are
given as i/p signal to the amplifier. So an oscillator does not require any source signal. But a
DC voltage VCC must be applied to the circuit.

BARK HAUSEN CONDITIONS

There are two conditions for a circuit to work as an oscillator and to generate oscillations.

1) The total phase shift around the loop i.e., from i/p of the amplifier to the o/p, and to
the o/p of the feedback, back to the i/p must be either 00 or 3600 .

2) The magnitude of product of open loop transfer gain and feedback factor must
Equal to 1 i.e., ‫׀‬Aβ‫ = ׀‬1

Wein Bridge Oscillator

1
A wein bridge oscillator consists of a two stage amplifier where theo/p of the amplifier is
applied to a feedback network which has series RC and parallel RC networks which is leag-
lag network. A two stage amplifier introduces a phase shift of 0 0 or 3600 and a feedback
network also introduce 00 phase shift due to lead-lag nature of the circuit. So, total phase shift
around the circuit is 00 which satisfies barkhausen condition to generate the oscillations.

Fig 3.2: Circuit diagram of Wein Bridge Oscillator.

Derivation of frequency of oscillations:

Fig 3.3: equivalent Circuit diagram

In order to obtained the expression for the feedback factor and oscillation frequency we have
to consider above feedback network . Vin is the actually the output voltage Vo which comes
from the amplifier output and voltage across R2 and C2 acts as feedback voltage Vf.
The feedback factor or the gain of the feedback network β is defined as:
β=Vf/Vin………………………………..1

But Vf is the voltage across the parallel combination of R2 and C2 .Let the impedance of the
arm which has R1 and C1 in series be Zs and the arm which has R2 and C2 in parallel be Zp.
Therefore

2
Vf= (Z2 )/((Z2+Z1))*Vin…………………………………………..2
And β=Z2/((Z2+Z1))……………………………………………….3
Lets obtained equations for Z2 and Z1
Z1=R1+ 1/jwC1= 1+jwR1C1)/jwC1……………………………………………..4
And
Z2=R2IIXc2=R2II 1/( jwC2) =(R2*(1/jwC2))/(R2+(1/jwC2) )
= R2/((1+jwR2C2))…………..5
Substituting equation 4and 5 in equation 3 we get
β=([R2/(1+jwR2C2)])/([1+jwR1C1/jwC1]+[R2/(1+jwR2C2)])
Substituting jw=s in above equation and solving for β we get
β= ([R2/(1+sR2C2)])/([1+sR1C1/sC1]+[R2/(1+sR2C2)])
β=sC1R2/([(1+sR1C1)(1+sR2C2) ]+sR2C1)
=sC1R2/(1+s(R1C1+R2C2)+S^2 R1R2C1C2+SR2C1)
β= sC1R2/(1+s(R1C1+R2C2+R2C1)+s^2 R1C1R2C2)…………………6
Re substitute s = jw and s^2= j^2.w^2= -w^2 into equation 6
β= jwC1R2/ (1 +jw(R1C1+R2C2+R2C1)+s-w^2 R1C1R2C2)
β = jwC1R2/((1-w^2 R1R2C1C2)+jw(R1C1+R2C2+R2C1))………………………..7
Rationalize the equation 7 to get
β = (jwC1R2[(1-w^2 R1C1R2C2)-jw(R1C1+R2C2+R2C1)])/((1-w^2 R1C1R2C2)^2+w^2
(R1C1+R2C2+R2C1)^2 )……..8
As mentioned earlier, the phase shift introduced by wein bridge circuit at the desired output
frequency should be 0^°.For that the imaginary part of equation 8 should have a zero value.
wC1R2[(1-w^2 R1C1R2C2) =0
Therefore w^2 R1C1R2C2 =1
or w^2=1/R1C1R2C2
w = 1/√(R1C1 R2C2)
And frequency f = 1/(2π√(R1C1 R2C2))…………………………..9
This is the expression for the oscillator frequency.
If we substitute R1 = R2 =R and C1 =C2= C in the expression for the oscillator frequency,
then equation 9 gets modified as follows.
Oscillator frequency f = 1/2πRC……………………..10

Problem
A wein bridge oscillator with R1 = 5kΩ, R2=4.5kΩ,C1= 0.5µf,C2=1.2µf find out the freq of
oscillations.
Sol: f = 1/(2π√(R1C1 R2C2))
f= 1/(2π√(2*10^3)(4.5*10^3)(0.510^-6)(1.2*10^-6)
f= 0.068kHz

RC Phase Shift Oscillator

A phase shift oscillator has a single amplifier where output is connected to a feedback
network which consists of 3 sections of RC networks connected in a ladder type with each
section producing 600 phase shift. So ,all the 3 sections of the network produces 180 0 phase
shift and the output of this feedback is applied to the input of the amplifier. As the amplifier
produces 1800 phase shift and feedback n/w also producing 1800 .the total phase shift around
the loop is 3600 which satisfies barkhausen condition to generate oscillations.

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 Fig.3.4 RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Derivation of Frequency of oscillations:

Fig. 3.5: Equivalent of RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Since hie||Rc , hie is small so neglect it, then circuit will be

Fig. 3.6: modified Equivalent of RC Phase Shift Oscillator

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 Fig. 3.7 :Thevenin Equivalent of RC Phase Shift Oscillator.
Applying KVL to loop1
-hfe IbRc = I1Rc + I1 /sc + (I1 – I2) R
-hfe IbRc = I1 (Rc + 1/sc +R) - I2R --------- (1)
Applying KVL to loop 2
0 = -I1R + I2 (2R+1/sc) – I3R ---------(2)
Applying KVL to loop 3
0 = I3 (2R+1/sc) – I2R -----------------(3)
In the Matrix Form, we get
1
(1 + 𝑘 )𝑅 + −𝑅 0
𝑠𝑐 I1 −hfe IbRc
1
−𝑅 2𝑅 + 𝑠𝑐 −𝑅 𝐼2 = 0
1 𝐼3 0
0 −𝑅 2𝑅 + 𝑠𝑐

|D| = [(1+k)R+1/sc][(2R+1/sc)2 – R2] + R[-R(2R+1/sc)-0]

[𝑠𝑅𝐶(𝑘+1)][2𝑠𝑅𝐶+1][2𝑠𝑅𝐶+1] 𝑅^2(2𝑠𝑅𝐶+1) 𝑅^2(𝑘+1)(𝑠𝑅𝐶+1)

= - -
𝑠^3𝑐^3 𝑠𝐶 𝑠𝐶
st
Expanding 1 term we get
(4k 𝑠 3 𝑅3 𝑐 3 + 4k 𝑠 2 𝑅2 𝑐 2 + 4 𝑠 3 𝑅3 𝑐 3 + 8 𝑠 2 𝑅2 𝑐 2 + 4sRC + ksRC +sRC +1)/ 𝑠 3 𝑐 3
------------(4)
Expanding 2nd and 3rd terms we get
𝑅2 (2𝑠𝑅𝐶+1) 𝑅2 ((𝑘+1)𝑠𝑅𝐶+1)
= -[ ]–[ ]
𝑠𝐶 𝑠𝐶
−3𝑠𝑅3 𝐶−2𝑅2 −𝑅3 𝑠𝐶𝑘
= ------------(5)
𝑠𝐶
Adding (4) & (5) we get
(4k 𝑠 3 𝑅3 𝑐 3 + 4k 𝑠 2 𝑅2 𝑐 2 + 4 𝑠 3 𝑅3 𝑐 3 + 8 𝑠 2 𝑅2 𝑐 2 + 4sRC + ksRC +sRC +1)/ 𝑠 3 𝑐 3 +
−3𝑠𝑅 3 𝐶−2𝑅2 −𝑅3 𝑠𝐶𝑘
𝑠𝐶
(3𝑘+1)𝑠 3𝑅 3 𝐶 3 +(4𝑘+6)𝑠 2𝑅 2 𝐶 2 +𝑠𝑅𝐶(5+𝑘)+1
|D| = 𝑠 3𝐶 3

Expression for D3 we get as

1
( 1 + 𝑘 )𝑅 + −𝑅 −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑐
𝑠𝑐
1
−𝑅 2𝑅 + 0
𝑠𝑐
0 −𝑅 0
D3 = −ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅2

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Then I3 = | D3 |/|D|
(−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅2 )𝑠 3𝐶 3
I3 = (3𝑘+1)𝑠 𝑅 𝐶 3 +(4𝑘+6)𝑠 2𝑅 2 𝐶 2 +𝑠𝑅𝐶(5+𝑘)+1
3 3

I3 is the o/p current of the feedback circuit

Ib is the i/p current of amplifier
Ic is the i/p current of the feedback circuit.
Ic = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏
From circuit
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝐼
β = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝐼3
𝑐
𝐼3
β=ℎ
𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏
from the circuit
𝐼𝑐 ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏
A = = = ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼3 𝐼3
Then Aβ = =
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
Substitute 𝐼3 in Aβ we get
(ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅 2 )𝑠 3𝐶 3
Aβ = [(3𝑘+1)𝑠 3𝑅3 𝐶 3 +(4𝑘+6)𝑠 2 𝑅2 𝐶 2 +𝑠𝑅𝐶(5+𝑘)]𝐼𝑏
Put s=jw, s2 = -w2 , s3 = -jw3
𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝑐 𝑅2 𝑤 3 𝐶 3
Aβ = (−4𝑘𝑤 2𝑅2 𝐶 2 −6𝑤 2 𝑅2 𝐶 2 +1)−𝑗𝑤(3𝑘𝑤 2𝑅 2 𝐶 2 +𝑤 3 𝑅3 𝐶 3 −5𝑅𝐶−𝑘𝑅𝐶)
Now Rationalize an put imaginary part =0
−𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝑐 𝑅4 𝑤 5 𝐶 5 4𝑘 − 6𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝑐 𝑅4 𝑤 5 𝐶 5 + 𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝑐 𝑅2 𝑤 3 𝐶 3 = 0
-jℎ𝑓𝑒 [𝑅𝑐 𝑅4 𝑤 5 𝐶 5 4𝑘 + 6𝑅𝑐 𝑅4 𝑤 5 𝐶 5 - 𝑅𝑐 𝑅2 𝑤 3 𝐶 3 = 0
1
𝑤2 = 𝑅2 𝐶 2 (4𝑘+6)
1
f = 2𝛱𝑅𝐶√(4𝑘+6)

This is Equation for frequency of oscillation of RC Phase Shift Oscillator.

LC Oscillators
Consider a charged capacitor placed across a inductor which has a electrostatic energy. After
sometime the capacitor discharges in clockwise direction and generates flow of current which
magnetizes the inductor. So, electrostatic energy is converted into magnetic energy and when
there is maximum magnetic energy the electrostatic energy is 0. After some time the
magnetic energy collapses by generating current which charges the capacitor in opposite
polarity. Under maximum electrostatic energy there is no magnetic energy. This process is
repeated and generates oscillations.

Fig.3.8: LC Tank Circuit

Hartley Oscillator
A Hartley oscillator consists of single stage amplifier with R1,R2,Rc,Re forming a biasing
network, with Ce as bypass capacitor the output of this amplifier is applied to a LC circuit
which has 2 inductors L1,L2 and a capacitor C. The output of this feedback LC circuit is
6
applied back to the input of an amplifier. As the amplifier produces 180 phase shift the
feedback network also introduces 180 phase shift. So the total phase shift around the loop is
360 which satisfies Barkhaisen condition to generate the oscillations.

Fig.3.9: Hartley oscillator

Derivation of frequency of oscillations :

The equivalent circuit of Hartley oscillator contains h parameter model and LC circuit.

Fig. 3.10: Equivalent of Hartley oscillator

Converting to thevenin equivalent

Fig. 3.11: Thevenin Equivalent of Hartley oscillator

𝐼∗𝑋𝐿1
Ib = 𝑋𝐿1 +ℎ𝑖𝑒

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 −𝑉𝑜
I = [𝑋𝐿2 +𝑋𝐶 ]+ [𝑋𝐿1 ||ℎ𝑖𝑒 ]
𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐶 = sL2+1/sC
𝑠𝐿 ℎ
𝑋𝐿1 ||ℎ𝑖𝑒 = ℎ 1+𝑠𝐿𝑖𝑒
𝑖𝑒 1
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑠𝐿2
Then I = 1 𝑠𝐿1ℎ𝑖𝑒 -------(1)
[𝑠𝐿2 + ]+[ ]
𝑠𝐶 ℎ𝑖𝑒 +𝑠𝐿1
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑠𝐿2 [𝑠𝐶(ℎ𝑖𝑒 +𝑠𝐿1 ]
I = 2
(𝑠 𝐿2 𝑐+1)(ℎ𝑖𝑒 +𝑠𝐿1 )+(𝑠𝐿1 ℎ𝑖𝑒 )(𝑠𝐶)
Substitute I in Ib we get
𝐼∗𝑠𝐿
Ib = 𝑠𝐿 +ℎ1
1 𝑖𝑒
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑠𝐿2 [𝑠𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒 +𝑠 2𝐶𝐿1 ]∗𝑠𝐿1
Ib = [(𝑠 𝐿2 𝐶+1)(ℎ𝑖𝑒 +𝑠𝐿1 )+(𝑠 2𝐿1 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒 )](𝑠𝐿1 +ℎ𝑖𝑒 )
2
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑠 3𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
1 = 𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐿2 𝐶+𝑠 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶+ℎ𝑖𝑒 +𝑠𝐿1 +𝑠 2𝐿1 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒
2 3

Put s=jw, s2 = -w2 , s3 = -jw3 and separating real and imaginary we get
𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 3𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶[ℎ𝑖𝑒 −𝑤 2 ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐶(𝐿1 +𝐿2 )]−𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 3 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶(𝑗𝑤𝐿2 (1−𝑤 2 𝐿2 𝐶))
1 = [ℎ𝑖𝑒 −𝑤 2ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐶(𝐿1 +𝐿2 )]2
Consider numerator we get
𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 3 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 5 𝐶 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 ℎ𝑖𝑒 [𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ] + [ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 3 𝐿21 𝐿2 𝐶] − [ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 3 𝐿21 𝐿22 𝐶 2 ]
Put Imaginary part =0
𝑗ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑤 3 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒 [1 − 𝑤 2 𝐶 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )] = 0
[1 − 𝑤 2 𝐶 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )] = 0
1
𝑤2 =
𝐶(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )
𝟏
f = 𝟐𝜫√𝑪(𝑳 +𝑳 )
𝟏 𝟐

This is the frequency of oscillation of Hartley oscillator.

Colpitts Oscillator:

A Colpitts oscillator consists of single stage amplifier with R1,R2,Rc,Re forming a biasing
network, with Ce as bypass capacitor the output of this amplifier is applied to a LC circuit
which has 2 capacitors C1,C2 and a inductor L. The output of this feedback LC circuit is
applied back to the input of an amplifier. As the amplifier produces 180 phase shift the
feedback network also introduces 180 phase shift. So the total phase shift around the loop is
360 which satisfy Barkhausen condition to generate the oscillations.

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 Fig.3.12:Colpitts oscillator

Derivation of frequency of oscillations :

Fig. 3.13: Equivalent of Colpitts oscillator

Fig. 3.14: Equivalent of Colpitts oscillator

1 𝐼∗𝑋𝐶1
Vo = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑗𝑤𝐶 𝐼𝑏 = ℎ
2 𝑖𝑒 +𝑋𝑐1
−𝑉0 1
I = [𝑋𝐶2 +𝑋𝐿 ]+[𝑋𝐶1 ||ℎ𝑖𝑒 ]
𝑋𝐶1 ||ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑠𝐶2
ℎ𝑖𝑒
𝑋𝐶1 ||ℎ𝑖𝑒 =
1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑠𝐶1
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏
𝑠𝐶2
I = 1 ℎ𝑖𝑒
[𝑠𝐿+ ]+[ ]
𝑠𝐶2 1+ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑠𝐶1

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Substitute I in Ib
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏
𝑠𝐶2
∗ 𝑋𝐶1
1 ℎ𝑖𝑒
[𝑠𝐿 + ]
𝑠𝐶2 + [1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑠𝐶1 ]
𝐼𝑏 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒 + 𝑋𝑐1
By solving this we get
−ℎ𝑓𝑒
1 = 𝑠 3𝐿𝐶 𝐶 ℎ +𝑠 2𝐿𝐶 +ℎ
1 2 𝑖𝑒 2𝑠𝐶 +ℎ 𝑠𝐶 +1
𝑖𝑒 1 𝑖𝑒 2
Put s=jw, s2 = -w2 , s3 = -jw3 and separating real and imaginary we get
−ℎ𝑓𝑒
1 = 𝐶
(1−𝑤 2 𝐿𝐶2 )+𝑗𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐶1 [−𝑤 2 𝐶2 𝐿+1+ 2 ]
𝐶1
Put imaginary part = 0 we get
𝐶2
𝑗𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝐶1 [−𝑤 2 𝐶2 𝐿 + 1 + = 0
𝐶1
𝐶 1 + 𝐶2
𝑤2 =
𝐿𝐶1 𝐶2
1 𝐶 +𝐶
f = √1 2
2𝛱 𝐿𝐶1 𝐶2
𝟏 𝟏
f = √𝑳𝑪
𝟐𝜫 𝒆𝒒
This is the equation of frequency of oscillation of Colpitts Oscillator.
Problems
1) A Hartley oscillator has LC circuit with L1=10mH, L2=25mH,C=100pF. Find out freq of
oscillations.
Sol: Given L1=10mH, L2=25mH,C=100pF
𝟏
f = 𝟐𝜫√𝑪(𝑳 +𝑳 )
𝟏 𝟐
1
f= 2𝛱√(100𝑥10−12 )[(10𝑥10−3 )+(25𝑥10−3)]
f = 85.11KHz

Frequency Stability of an Oscillator

For an oscillator, the freq of oscillations must be constant. The measure of ability of an
oscillator to maintain the desired frequency as precisely as possible for long time is called
“Frequency Stability of an Oscillator”
The following are the factors which affects the stability of an oscillator.
1) Due to changes in temperature the values of a component of a tank circuit (LC Circuit)
gets affected. So changes in the values of an inductor and capacitor due to change in temp is
the main cause of deviation in the frequency.
2) Due to changes in temp, the parameters of a active devices like BJT, FET gets affected.
3) The variation in power supply is another factor affecting the frequency.
4) The changes in the atmosphere conditions, aging and unstable transistor parameters affect
the frequency
5) The capacitive affect in the transistor and stray capacitances effects the capacitances of
tank circuits and hence the frequency.

Crystal Oscillator :
A crystal is an element which is made from substances like quartz, Rochelle salt and
tourmaline. It works on the principle of “Piezoelectric Effect” i.e. under the influence of
mechanical pressure the voltage gets generated across the opposite faces of the crystal.
Conversely, when the AC voltage is applied to the crystal it vibrates causes mechanical
vibrations in the crystal shape.

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Every crystal has its own resonant frequency.
The crystal has a greater stability in holding the constant freq. hence they are preferred when
greater stability is required. So they are used in watches, communication transmitter and
receivers.

Fig.3.15: Symbolic representation of Crystal & Equivalent circuit of Crystal

One resonant condition occurs when the reactances of series RLC circuit are equal.
i.e. XL = XC
1
2ΠfL = 2𝛱𝑓𝐶
1
fs =
2𝛱√𝐿𝐶
The other resonant condition occurs when the reactance of series RLC circuit equal to
reactance of mounting capacitor(CM). So the resonant frequency is
1
fp = 2𝛱√𝐿𝐶 Ceq = C.Cm/(C+Cm)
𝑒𝑞

Fig.3.16: Crystal Oscillator

Crystal Oscillator works like an inductor in colpitts oscillator. A Colpitts oscillator is

modified by replacing the inductor by a crystal element, where it works like an inductor and
generates oscillations of fixed frequencies.

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Transistorized Regulators :
A voltage regulator circuits are electronic circuits which give constant DC output voltage,
irrespective of variations in input voltage or load current.
In Transistorized Regulators, a transistor acts as a control element which s a heart of voltage
regulator.
There are two types of Transistorized Regulators, they are
1) Series Voltage Regulator
2) Shunt Voltage Regulator

Series Voltage Regulator

In series voltage regulator, the transistor is the series controlled element where emitter current
IE = load current IL. So the regulator is called as “Series Regulator”
From Circuit Vo = IL RL
The voltage across zener diode VZ acts as a reference voltage which is operated in reverse
bias, so it works in breakdown region.
From the output loop VZ = VBE + Vo
Vo = VZ - VBE
Applying KVL around the loop, we get
Vi = VCE + Vo
If RL is increased, Vo is decreased from the expression Vo = VZ - VBE
As VZ is constant VBE increases to decrerase Vo and transistor conducts more so IE increases.
If IE increases, IL also increrases because IE = IL and then Vo increases. The o/p voltage
maintains a constant value.
If RL is decreased, Vo is increases from the expression Vo = VZ - VBE
As VZ is constant VBE decreases to increrase Vo and transistor doesnot conducts so IE
decreases. If IE decreases, IL also decrerases because IE = IL and then Vo decreases. The o/p
voltage maintains a constant value.

Fig.3.17: Series Voltage Regulator

Shunt Voltage Regulator :

In shunt voltage regulator, the transistor is the shint controlled element where emitter current
IE ≠ load current IL. So the regulator is called as “Series Regulator”
The output voltage Vo is the voltage across VZ and VBE
i.e. Vo = VZ + VBE also Vo = IL RL
If RL decreases then Vo decreases from expression Vo = VZ + VBE
Then VBE decreases then IC decreases then total current flows through RL then IL decreases
then Vo increases and hence output remains constant.
If RL increases then Vo increases from expression Vo = VZ + VBE

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Then VBE increases then IC increases then total current flows through RL then IL increases
then Vo decreases and hence output remains constant.

QUESTION BANK

 Short answer questions.

UNIT-3
1) Compare LC & RC Oscillators
2) Derive relation between series and parallel resonant frequency of crystal
3) What are limitations of zener voltage regulator
4) State & explain barkhausen conditions
5) What are the constituent parts of an oscillator
6) In rc phase shift oscillator r=6K Ω,c=1500PF,RC=18KΩ find frequency of oscillation
and condition for oscillations.
7) What are the factors which effect frequency stability of an oscillator?
8) Write short note on LC oscillator and RC oscillator.
9) Colpitts oscillator C1=.16µF, L=15.8mH, frequency of oscillation is 10 KHz,
calculate C2.
10) Write short note on transistorized shunt regulator.
11) Write short note on transistorized series regulator.
12) Write short note on crystal oscillator.
13) L1=5mH, L2=10mH, C=10nF, calculate f0 of a Hartley oscillator.

 Long answer questions.

UNIT-3
1) For RC phase shift FET osc. Explain its operation & derive expression for freq of osc.
2) Draw neat colpittsosc& explain its operation .derive its freq of operation & condition
for osc.
3) Write short notes on i) transistor series regulator, ii) stability of RF amplifier
4) What is piezoelectric effect? Explain the working of crystal osc. What are the
limitations of zener regulator
5) Draw neat hartleyosc& explain its operation .derive its freq of operation & condition
for osc.
6) Draw neat wein bridge& explain its operation .derive its freq of operation & condition
for osc.
7) Prove that in class-A power amplifier if distortion is 10% power gain to load increases
by 1%
8) Describe the operation of class B transformer less complementary symmetry
amplifier.
9) Draw neat Hartley osc& explain its operation .derive its freq of operation & condition
for osc.
10) What factors decide amplitude and frequency stability of a oscillator.
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11) Show that minimum forward gain should be 44.54 for providing sustained oscillations
in RC phase shift oscillator.

UNIT-I - ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

UNIT-I
1. 1. Compare LC & RC oscillations
2. Draw relation between series & parallel resonant freq. of crystal.
3. State & explain barkhausen conditions.
4. Comment why RC oscillators cannot be used at radio freq.
5. What factors decide the freq stability of an oscillator.
6. A Colpitts oscillator C1=0.16µf, L=15.8mH & its freq of osc is 10khz, find value of
C2.
7. Derive expression for freq of osc& condition of osc for RC phase shift BJT osc.
8. Draw a neat colpittsosc. Circuit & explain its principle of operation. Derive its freq of
operation & condition for oscillations.
9. Draw a neat RC phase shift oscillator Circuit & explain its principle of operation.
Derive its freq of operation & condition for oscillations.
10. Draw a neat wein bridge oscillator. Circuit & explain its principle of operation.
Derive its freq of operation.

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