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Effect of Liquid to Binder Ratio and Curing Temperature on the Engineering

Properties of the Geopolymer Concrete

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DOI: 10.1007/s12633-021-00985-w

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-021-00985-w

ORIGINAL PAPER

Effect of Liquid to Binder Ratio and Curing Temperature

on the Engineering Properties of the Geopolymer Concrete
Manvendra Verma 1 & Nirendra Dev

Received: 20 October 2020 / Accepted: 25 January 2021

# Springer Nature B.V. 2021

Abstract
Geopolymer concrete(GPC) is a perfect alternative to conventional cement concrete. This experimental investigation examines
the physical properties, chemical properties, mechanical properties, non-destructive test, and microstructural analysis of the
various geopolymer concrete samples, varying the liquid-to-binder(LBR) ratio from 0.40 to 0.70, and curing temperature from
60 °C to 120 °C. After the experimental investigation, the workability increases with the increment of the liquid-to-binder ratio in
the design mix, but the mix specimen density decreases with the same. In the mechanical properties, the compressive strength
optimum at the ratio of 0.60 of liquid-to-binder ratio, and the poisson’s ratio increases with the increment of liquid to binder ratio
from .14 to .18 consecutively. All the mixes mechanical properties got the optimum point at the ratio of 0.60 of LBR in both
ambient and oven curing conditions. The curing temperature directly increases the gain strength rate at early ages, but it reduces
beyond the 100 °C temperature. The drying shrinkage increases with the increment of curing temperature, similarly the modulus
of elasticity increase with the increment of curing temperature, but it reduces beyond the 100 °C curing temperature. The thermal
stability of the GPC specimens is higher and shows the weight remained up to 92% of the original at the 850 °C temperature.

Keywords Geopolymer concrete . Liquid-to-binder ratio . Curing condition . Compressive strength . Modulus of elasticity .
Curing temperature

1 Introduction
GPC is a sustainable concrete because it uses industrial solid
wastes like fly ash and slag as a binding material in the mix
designs. It indirectly reduced the carbon footprints by reduc-
ing cement in concrete and became the alternative to conven-
tional concrete [1, 2]. Geopolymer is an inorganic chemical
bond between the alumina and silica and is formed after the
geopolymerisation reaction. The geopolymerisation reactions
occur in the highly alkaline condition, and the pozzolanic
materials are activated through the reaction’s alkaline condi-
tion. The pozzolanic materials are rich in silica, and alumina
content would be used in the GPC as binding material [3]. The
* Manvendra Verma
mv075415@gmail.com
Nirendra Dev
nirendradev@dce.ac.in
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
Delhi, India
GPC mix design with the class-f fly ash has an excellent ca-
pability to replace OPC in construction industries [4]. The fly
ash-based GPC has a higher solid-to-liquid ratio than the
metakaolin GPC due to its porous spherical structure with a
higher fineness [5]. Sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate
solution are used as the alkaline liquid in the GPC mixes,
and it activates the industrial solid wastes (fly ash, GGBFS)
to work as a binding material in the GPC mix designs [6, 7].
The increment of alkaline solution concentration in the fresh
mix decreases the workability, and the mix’s workability in-
creases with the addition of water or superplasticiser [8, 9].
The SNF-based superplasticiser got the optimum point at 1%
of dosage in the GPC without affecting their strength [10] The
addition of the GGBFS in the flyash-based GPC increases the
strength of the mix specimens and strengthens the GPC spec-
imens in the ambient temperature in the laboratory and field
[11–14]. The geopolymer mortar shows higher drying
shrinkage than the OPC mortar due to the higher
mesopore volume [15]. The water absorption of the
geopolymer mortar is lower compared to the OPC mor-
tar. The higher flyash amount in the geopolymer mix
reduces the drying shrinkage compared to the slag

content [14]. The flow of mortar decreases with the fine
aggregate-to-binder ratio increment in the mix [16].
The NaOH is the only activator in the GPC that provides
excellent mechanical properties compared to the OPC con-
crete [17]. The Na2SiO3 addition in the mix enhanced the
early strength(7–28 days) of the geopolymer system [18].
Fig. 1 Conceptual model of
geopolymerisation reaction [30]
Silicon
The NaOH higher concentration in the mix increases concrete
strength, but it reduces the fresh mix’s workability [19–25].
The GGBFS content in the GPC mix forms the CSH bond if
the NaOH concentration is low or less alkalinity [26, 27]. The
PCE-based superplasticiser is used for the production of self-
compacting concrete rather than SNF-based superplasticiser
Silicon

Table 1 Composition of Flyash And GGBFS

Characteristics SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 MgO SO3 LOI

Flyash (%) 45.8 21.4 13.7 12.6 1.3 1.9 .1

GGBFS (%) 34.52 20.66 32.43 .57 10.09 .77 .3

[28]. The curing temperature plays a vital role in

geopolymerisation reaction occurs for strength enhancement
[29]. Figure 1 describes the concept of geopolymerisation re-
action in the different phases. The first phase shows the dis-
solution of water with alkali material and hydroxides to form
an alumino-silicate bond, and after that, the chemical reduces
the water from the reaction and forms the end products [30].
The GGBFS addition in the mix reduces the workability,
setting time, and hardening when the other content remained
the same in the mix design. The GPC mix compressive
strength increases with the GGBFS content increment at var-
ious ages up to 180 days. The strength development of the Fig. 3 SEM image of flyash
GGBFS blended fly ash-based GPC is cured at ambient tem-
perature shows a similar pattern to the water-cured OPC con- 2 Materials and Tests Setup
crete [31] when m-sand has replaced the natural sand and
gives significant results with better performance of the mix 2.1 Materials
samples [32]. The presence of alkali metal plays a vital role
in the geopolymerisation reaction rate [33]. The GPC mix 2.1.1 Binders
samples made by the sodium-based activator stabled up to
500 °C [34]. The GPC strength increases with the curing tem- Flyash is collected from the NTPC, Dadri, Gautam Buddha
perature up to 90 °C [17, 35]. Higher temperature curing in- Nagar, Uttar Pradesh. The flyash is found in the class-c as per
creases the early strength of the GPC specimens [36]. The gain the ASTM C618–33512 [42]. Table 1 describes the mineral
of strength is slow for 40 °C curing temperature compared to component with their percentage present in the flyash and
higher curing temperature [37]. The FLGC reinforced by the GGBFS sample. The GGBFS is collected from the Bhilai
propylene fibers has excellent thermomechanical properties Steel Plant, Durg, Chhattisgarh in India [43]. Figure 2 de-
and highly durable [38–40]. The polypropylene fiber rein- scribes the XRD graphs of flyash and GGBFS, which define
forced metakaolin-based GPC is highly stable against the el- the crystalline mineral component intensity present in the
evated temperature, freezing-thawing, and wetting drying samples. Figures 3 and 4 show the flyash and GGBFS SEM
[41]. images at the 2-μm resolution, which effortlessly defines the
particle size’s shape. Flyash looks like a porous sphere,

Fig. 2 XRD Pattern of Flyash and

GGBFS
 Silicon

Fig. 7 Picture of coarse aggregates

2.1.3 Alkaline Solution

NaOH and Na2SiO3 solution (water glass) was purchased

Fig. 4 SEM image of GGBFS from the Central Drug House (P) Ltd. in New Delhi-110,002
(India). These are used as an alkaline activator in the mix
whereas GGBFS has an uneven shape or flaky structure of the design, whereas, NaOH presents in the form of flakes and
particles. Na2SiO3 presents in the form of thick cloudy liquid. NaOH
contains a minimum purity level of 96.0%, and Na2SiO3 con-
tains the minimum assay of Na2O titrimetric is 10.0%, and
2.1.2 Aggregates SiO2, gravimetric is 25.5–28.5% in the sample. Figures 8
and 9 show NaOH and Na2SiO3 solution sample pictures used
Stone-dust or m-sand is used as a fine aggregate in the mix in the experimental laboratory analysis.
designs of GPC. Figures 6 and 7 show the pictures of the
stone-dust and coarse aggregate, respectively. The various
tests were conducted on the stone-dust sample to check the
2.2 Mixing, Casting, and Curing
quality of the materials in the laboratory. The m-sand was a
The mix design of the GPC could be made by the multi-
well-graded medium sand type of Zone-II with the specific
variate adaptive regression spline model [53, 54]. The raw
gravity, bulk density, silt content, and water absorptions are
materials mix in the pan mixture for five minutes initially
2.62, 1610 kg/m3, 6%, and 1.21% respectively [44–52].
mix the aggregates with flyash and GGBFS and pour the
Locally crushed coarse aggregate was used in the GPC mix
alkaline solution with additive water [55]. Figure 10 shows
with the 10 mm and 20 mm msa. Figure 5 describes the well-
the picture of the fresh mix in pan mixture. The fresh mix
graded gradation curve of stone-dust and coarse aggregate
used in the experimental analysis.

Fig. 6 Picture of stone-dust or m-sand Fig. 5 Gradation curve of stone-dust and coarse aggregate
Silicon
Fig. 8 Sodium hydroxide sample picture used in the experimental work
of the GPC cast in the cubes, cylinders, and prism shape
molds. The sample molds open after 3 days and cured in
the two conditions: 1) keep in the oven for 24 h at 60 °C,
and 2) keep in the ambient area. The alkaline solution of
NaOH and Na2SiO3 was made 24 h before the mixing of
the GPC. The GPC mix designs vary the liquid-to-binder
ratio in the mix from 0.40 to 0.70 and check the concrete’s
mechanical properties. Table 2 describes the different mix
design content present in the GPC mixes, and around 750
samples cast in the laboratory to experimental analysis.
2.3 Tests Setup
2.3.1 Physical Properties
Slump test and compaction factor used for the workability of
the fresh geopolymer concrete mix in which the slump appa-
ratus is conical in shape or size of top diameter, bottom diam-
eter, and height are 100 mm, 200 mm, and 300 mm respec-
tively. In contrast, the compaction factor apparatus contains
two conical buckets in a vertical alignment and puts a cylinder
Fig. 9 Sodium silicate sample picture used in experimental work
Fig. 10 Picture of pan mixture during concrete mixing
below conical buckets. These are the physical properties tests
of geopolymer concrete mix [56, 57].
2.3.2 Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of the GPC mix samples are tested by
the density and drying shrinkage. The weight of cubes sam-
ples tests the density of the mix design before the 28 days
destructive test [58], and the length change of the specimens
calculates the drying shrinkage after harden in the length com-
parator instrument [59].
2.3.3 Mechanical Properties
The mix design’s mechanical properties included the compres-
sive strength, splitting tensile, flexural strength, poisson’s ratio,
and modulus of elasticity. The GPC mix designs cube samples
of size 150 mm*150 mm*150 mm are used to examine the
specimens compressive strength. The samples tests under axial
loading in Universal Testing Machine at 5.2kN/s rate of loading
[60]. The cylindrical samples of the size diameter and height are
150 mm, and 300 mm, respectively are tested to splitting tensile
strength. Transverse loads are applying the cylinder to examine
the splitting tensile strength of the GPC cylinder specimen in
the Universal testing machine [61]. The beam sample’s size
width, height, and length are 100 mm, 100 mm, and 500 mm,
respectively, for testing the GPC mix design’s flexural strength.
The two-point load or flexural tensile test was applied to the
beam specimen to examine the GPC mix specimen’s flexural
strength at the flexural testing machine [62]. The cylindrical
samples are of size diameter of 150 mm and length of
300 mm to test the modulus of elasticity and poisons ratio of
the GPC mix design. The axial load is applying to the cylinder
to examine the vertical and horizontal strain of the GPC cylin-
der specimen in the universal testing machine for calculating
the modulus of elasticity and poisons ratio [63].

Fig. 11 Graph between the
Slump value and compaction
factor with the liquid-to-binder
ratio
2.3.4 Non-Destructive Tests
The non-destructive tests check the strength or quality of
the specimens without destruction. It includes the re-
bound test and UPV test. The rebound test is based on
the check of surface hardness by the apparatus, and these
tests are conducted on the cube samples at 7 days,
14 days, 28 days, 42 days, and 56 days after the casting.
It was conducted on both types of sample cube and cyl-
inder to test the mix sample’s strength [64, 65]. The
UPV test is based on the ultrasonic pulse wave velocity
passes through the sample. The UPV is higher shows the
better strength and quality of the GPC specimen. The test
apparatus has two transducers, an electrical pulse gener-
ator, an amplifier, and an electronic timing device. The
ultrasonic pulse wave transmitting through the sample by
the transducers and electronic timing machine shows the
time passage [66, 67].
Fig. 12 Graph between density and Liquid-to-binder ratio
Silicon
2.3.5 Microstructural Analysis
The XRD analysis and thermogravimetric analysis do the mi-
crostructural analysis of the GPC samples. The XRD analysis
shows the mineral oxides intensity presents in the sample of the
GPC [68]. The TGA analysis shows the thermal stability of the
sample material up to the 850 °C temperature. It works to
weight the sample at the various temperature stages consecu-
tively, whereas the temperature increases with 10 °C/min [69].
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Effect of Liquid-to-Binder Ratio
3.1.1 Slump and Compaction Factor
In the experimental investigation, workability examines by the
slump test and compaction factor in the laboratory. The slump
Fig. 13 Graph between drying shrinkage and liquid-to-binder ratio
Silicon
Fig. 14 Compressive strength of
(a) ambient-cured GPC (b) oven-
cured GPC
value increases with the increment of water content in the mix
design, so the slump value increases consecutively with the
increase of liquid-to-binder ratio in mixes of GPC. Similarly,
the compaction factor value also increases with the increment
of the liquid-to-binder ratio. Figure 11 describes the effect of
the liquid-to-binder ratio on both slump value and compaction
factor on the fresh mix of GPC. The workability of GPC
increases with the increment of the alkaline solution/flyash
ratio [70].
3.1.2 Density and Drying Shrinkage
The density and drying shrinkage of the concrete mix
design shows the chemical properties of the GPC. The
chemical reaction decides the density or unit weight and
Fig. 15 Splitting tensile strength
of (a) ambient-cured GPC (b)
oven-cured GPC
drying shrinkage of the GPC mix design. The density of
ambient-cured GPC mix design specimens is higher com-
pared to oven-cured specimens of the same mix designs.
The density of GPC mix specimens decreases with the
increment of the liquid-to-binder ratio. Figure 12 de-
scribes the variation of density with the variation of the
liquid-to-binder ratio of both curing conditions. The dry-
ing shrinkage is created after the concrete’s hardening
due to the water’s evaporation from the matrix. The dry-
ing shrinkage increases with the increment of the liquid-
to-binder ratio in the GPC mix designs. The oven-cured
GPC specimens show higher drying shrinkages than the
ambient-cured specimens of the same mix designs.
Figure 13 describes the behavior of drying shrinkage
with the liquid-to-binder ratio in the design mix of GPC.

Fig. 16 Flexural Tensile Strength
of (a) ambient-cured (b) oven-
cured GPC
3.1.3 Compressive Strength
In the GPC mix design, the liquid-to-binder ratio plays a vital
role in mechanical and durability properties. In the experimen-
tal investigation analysis, the liquid-to-binder ratio varies from
0.40 to 0.70 in the GGBFS flyash-based GPC. The compres-
sive strength increases with the ratio’s increment but beyond
the 0.60 liquid-to-binder ratio decreases randomly in the mix
samples. The oven-cured specimens got higher strength than
the ambient-cured specimens of the same design mixes, but in
both the curing condition, 0.60 liquid-to-binder ratios got the
optimum compressive strength. Figure 14 describes the graph
of compressive strength of different mixes of both curing con-
ditions, in which; a) shows the ambient-cured GPC speci-
mens, and b) shows the oven-cured GPC specimens. The
compressive strength of specimens got around 85–90% and
Fig. 17 Graph between Modulus of elasticity and liquid-to-binder ratio
Silicon
95–98% in ambient-cured and oven-cured conditions,
respectively.
3.1.4 Splitting Tensile and Flexural Strength
The splitting tensile measured by the statically load, applying
the cylindrical sample along the UTM lateral dimension is an
indirect tensile strength. The splitting tensile shows a similar
strength compared to the mixed compressive strength in both
curing conditions. The oven-cured specimens got higher
strength compared to the ambient-cured specimens of the
same design mixes. The optimum splitting tensile got at the
0.60 liquid-to-binder ratios in both curing conditions among
all design mixes. Figure 15 describes the graph of splitting
tensile of different design mixes in both curing conditions,
in which a) shows the ambient-cured splitting tensile; and b)
shows the oven-cured splitting tensile of the different GPC
mix designs.
The flexural strength is used to examine the bending
strength or property of the concrete. The flexural strength of
GPC also has the same pattern as compressive strength, and it
is around 12–18% of the compressive strength in all design
mixes of GPC. The oven-cured specimens got higher flexural
strength than ambient-cured for the same mix designs, and the
mix design with 0.60 liquid-to-binder ratios got the optimum
point of the strength. Figure 16 describes the flexural strength
of the different mix designs of both curing conditions, where-
as a) shows the ambient-cured strength, and b) shows the
oven-cured strength of the GPC specimens.
3.1.5 Poisson’s Ratio and Modulus of Elasticity
The Poisson’s ratio and modulus of elasticity of the mix de-
sign measured by the testing on the cylinder specimens of size
Silicon
Fig. 18 Rebound strength of (a)
ambient-cured (b) oven-cured
GPC
length and diameter are 300 mm and 150 mm, respectively.
The static load applies to the specimens along the vertical
direction and measures the horizontal and vertical deformation
for Poisson’s ratio calculation. The modulus of elasticity of
the mix design is calculated by the repetition load applying the
cylindrical specimen of one-third crushing load statically and
measures the elastic modulus by the secant modulus method.
Figure 17 describes the graph of modulus of elasticity of both
curing conditions at the different liquid-to-binder ratios in the
mix designs.
3.1.6 Non-Destructive Test (Rebound Test and UPV Test)
The non-destructive test is used to check the strength or
quality of the concrete specimen without destruction. It
Fig. 19 Graph between the UPV
and liquid-to-binder ratio (a)
ambient-cured (b) oven-cured
GPC
includes the rebound hammer test and UPV test. The
rebound strength shows the similar compressive strength
of the concrete specimens with a precision of 20% as
per the IS code. It is based on the specimen’s surface
hardness gives the specimen strength, whereas the UPV
test is used to find the strength or quality by measuring
the time passage of the ultrasonic pulse wave. The time
would be increasing with the reduction of quality or
strength of the specimens. The crack develops inside
the specimen also checked by the UPV test. Figure 18
describes the graph of rebound strength of different
mixes of both cured samples, whereas a) shows the
ambient-cured specimens rebound strength, and b)
shows the oven-cured specimens rebound strength of
the GPC. Figure 19 describes the UPV of the different

Fig. 20 Graph among the density,
drying shrinkage, and curing
temperature
mixes in both cured samples, whereas a) shows the
ambient-cured specimens, and b) shows the oven-cured
specimens of the GPC. The graph shows a similar pat-
tern of the UPV to the rebound strength in both cured
conditions. The optimum point of non-destructive
strength got at the 0.60 liquid-to-binder ratios in the
GPC mix design.
3.2 Effect of Curing Temperature
The curing temperature varies from 60 °C to 120 °C in
the optimum GPC mix design. The chemical and me-
chanical properties of the GPC specimens would change
with the variation of curing temperature. In the experi-
mental analysis, to check the effect of curing tempera-
ture on the GPC mix design specimens.
Fig. 21 Compressive strength of different temperature-cured GPC
specimens
Silicon
3.2.1 Density and Drying Shrinkage
The density of the GPC mix specimens decreases with
the increment of curing temperature. The drying shrink-
age increases with the increment of curing temperature
continuously from 60 °C to 120 °C. Figure 20 shows
the graph of density and drying shrinkage variation with
the curing temperature. The maximum drying shrinkage
of GPC is 603 micro-strains at the 120 °C curing
temperature.
3.2.2 Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of the GPC mix design increases
with the increment of curing temperature, but it reduces be-
yond the 100 °C curing temperature. Figure 21 describes the
variation of compressive strength with the different curing
temperatures. It shows the GPC specimens cured at 100 °C
Fig. 22 Splitting tensile of different temperature-cured GPC specimens
Silicon
Fig. 23 Flexural strength of different temperature-cured GPC specimens
got the maximum strength among all other curing tempera-
tures. The maximum strength is 38.2 MPa at 28 days test,
which is cured at 100 °C.
3.2.3 Splitting Tensile
The splitting tensile strength shows the concrete’s indi-
rect tensile, which is tested on the cylindrical specimens.
The splitting tensile shows a similar pattern of strength
compared to the compressive strength. The GPC speci-
mens cured at 100 °C got the maximum strength among
all other curing temperatures. The GPC specimens got
the optimum point at 100 °C curing temperature, and
the maximum splitting tensile is 5.3 MPa at 28 days test.
Figure 22 shows the graph of splitting tensile of different
temperature cured GPC specimens. The splitting tensile
increases with the increment of temperature, but it re-
duces beyond the 100 °C curing temperature.
Fig. 24 Modulus of elasticity variations with the curing temperature
Fig. 25 Rebound strength variations with the curing temperature of GPC
3.2.4 Flexural Strength
The flexural strength of the concrete shows the bending tensile
strength of the specimens. The flexural strength shows a sim-
ilar pattern to the compressive strength, and it got 15%–20%
of the compressive of the GPC mix design. The GPC speci-
mens got the optimum point of strength at 100 °C curing
temperature. Figure 23 shows the graph of flexural strength
of GPC mix at the different curing temperatures. The maxi-
mum flexural strength is 5.8 MPa at 28 days which is cured at
100 °C temperature.
3.2.5 Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is an essential me-
chanical property of the mix design. It is calculated and tested
on the cylindrical specimens as per the IS code. The modulus
of elasticity directly depends on the compressive strength of
the concrete. Figure 24 shows the variation of modulus of
Fig. 26 UPV variation with the curing temperature of GPC

Fig. 27 XRD analysis graph of the GPC sample
elasticity with the curing temperature of the specimens. It
increases with the increment of the curing temperature, but it
reduces beyond the 100 °C curing temperature. The maximum
modulus of elasticity is 24.5GPa at 28 days after the casting
which is cured at 100 °C temperature.
3.2.6 Rebound Strength
The rebound hammer test is one of the non-destructive tests
used for the strength check of the hard material’s objectives.
The rebound strength is based on the surface hardness of the
objectives. It strikes on the surface of the specimens and gives
the strength value without destruction of the specimens.
Figure 25 shows the graph of the rebound strength of the
GPC mix designs at various curing temperatures. It increases
with the increment of curing temperature, but it reduces be-
yond the 100 °C curing temperature. It shows the 5–10%
Fig. 28 TGA-DTG Graph of the
GPC
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higher strength to the compressive strength of the mix speci-
mens. The maximum rebound strength is 40 MPa at 28 days
test which is cured at 100 °C temperature.
3.2.7 UPV Test
The UPV test is also one of the non-destructive tests for
concrete specimens. It is based on the time passage read-
ing of ultrasonic pulse waves through the objectives. The
time passage of the ultrasonic pulse wave increases with
the reduction of the objective strength or hardness. The
UPV test easily checks the insides of the crack of the
objective. The test was conducted on any size of the spec-
imens. It is very useful in the real field of life for quality
assessment of the structure. Figure 26 shows the graph of
UPV variations with the curing temperatures. The UPV
increases with the increment of curing temperature, but
it reduces beyond the 100 °C curing temperature. The
maximum UPV is 4.56 km/s at 28 days which is cured
at 100 °C temperature.
3.3 Microstructural Analysis
3.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction
XRD is used to analyze the crystalline mineral oxides present
in the materials. XRD shows the intensity of the oxides pres-
ent in the samples described in the graphical forms. Figure 27
shows the XRD graph of the oven-cured at 100 °C of the GPC
specimen. It clearly shows the peak of alumina-silicate oxides
in the graph.
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Table 2 Mix Proportion

Mix Liquid/Binder Fly ash (kg/ GGBFS Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate NaOH Solution Sodium Silicate Extra water
Design Ratio m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)

M1 0.4 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 0

M2 0.45 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 20.25
M3 0.50 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 40.5
M4 0.55 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 60.75
M5 0.60 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 81
M6 0.65 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 101.25
M7 0.70 303.75 101.25 1269 683 81.0 (13 M) 81.0 121.5

3.3.2 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis is used for the thermal sta-
bility of the material. The temperature increases with
10 °C/min in the machine and checks the material’s
weight with the various temperatures. Figure 28 shows
the TGA and DTG graph of the GPC sample cured at
100 °C in the oven. It shows that the GPC sample
retained up to 92% weight after the 850 °C. Initially,
the weight loses around 4% up to the 200 °C and loses
the weight of another 4% up to the 850 °C. Initially,
the sample loses water hygroscopic water from the sam-
ple, and after, it loses the capillary water with the tem-
perature. The DTG graph shows that the rate of water
loss with temperature increment. The rate of derivative
weight is initially high up to the 100 °C temperature.
4 Conclusion
which the rebound test shows the 5–10% higher strength
to the compressive strength.
& The GPC design mix’s mechanical strength increases with
the curing temperature increment, but it reduces beyond
the 100 °C curing temperature. The higher curing temper-
ature increases the rate of gain strength of the GPC
samples.
& The GPC specimen density decreases continuously
with the increment curing temperature, whereas the
drying shrinkage increases with curing temperature
increment. The non-destructive test shows similar re-
sults to the compressive strength of the GPC
specimens.
& The thermal stability of the GPC sample is higher
up to the 850 °C temperature. It retained the weight
of around 92% of the original at the 850 °C tem-
perature. The XRD analysis shows the mineral ox-
ide’s clear intensity in the GPC sample, which is
cured at the 100 °C temperature.

The result concludes as per the experimental analysis of the
GPC samples in various phases. It includes the physical prop-
erties test, chemical properties test; mechanical properties test,
non-destructive test, and microstructural analysis are as
follows:
& The compressive strength, splitting tensile and flexural
strength got the optimum point at the 0.60 liquid-to-
binder ratios in the GPC mix design. The strength in-
creases with the increment of the liquid-to-binder ratio,
but it reduces randomly beyond the 0.60 ratios. The work-
ability of the GPC fresh mixes increases with the incre-
ment of liquid-to-binder ratio, whereas the density de-
creases consecutively with the increment of ratio.
& The drying shrinkage of the GPC mix specimens increases
with the increment of liquid-to binder ratio, whereas the
modulus of elasticity increases with the increment of ratio,
but it reduces beyond the 0.60 ratios. The non-destructive
test result shows similar results to the destructive test in
Acknowledgments This work is supported by the Civil Engineering
Department, Delhi Technological University. Moreover, Sandeep
Mishra’s help for XRD analysis and Ankesh Kumar and Jawed Alam
for another work related to the central instrumentation facility of the
Delhi Technological University.
Funding Statement This study was funded by the Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India.
Author Contribution All authors have participated in (a) conception and
design, or analysis and interpretation of the data; (b) drafting the article or
revising it critically for valuable intellectual content; and (c) approval of
the final version.
Data Availability The available data had been used and discussed in the
manuscript.
Declarations This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is un-
der review at, another journal or other publishing venue.
Consent to Participate As a corresponding author or on behalf of all
authors of the research paper, I consent to participate.

Consent to Publication All author of the research paper is consent to the 15.
publication.
Conflict of Interest There are no conflicts of interest or competing in- 16.
terests in this article.
Abbreviation GPC, Geopolymer Concrete; GGBFS, Ground 17.
Granulated Blast Furnace Slag; NaOH, Sodium hydroxide; Na2SiO3,
Sodium silicate; XRD, X-ray diffraction; SEM, Scanning electronic mi-
croscope; EDS, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; OPC, Ordinary 18.
Portland cement; PCE, Poly-carboxylate ester; SNF, Sulphonated naph-
thalene formaldehyde; CSH, Calcium silicate hydrate; UPV, Ultrasonic
pulse velocity; ASTM, American standard testing materials; TGA, 19.
Thermogravimetric analysis; LBR, Liquid-to-binder ratio; FLGC,
Flyash-based lightweight geopolymer concrete
20.
21.
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