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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Topics:
➢ Introduction to Complex functions
➢ Neighbourhood of a point
➢ Limit, Continuity, Differentiability
➢ Analytic functions
➢ C-R Equations
➢ Harmonic Function, orthogonal system
➢ Milne Thompson’s Method
➢ Line integral
➢ Cauchy’s integral theorem
➢ Cauchy’s integral formula and its generalization
➢ Series of complex terms: Taylors, Laurent’s
➢ Singularities, residues and poles
➢ Cauchy’s residue theorem
➢ Application problems.

Why Engineers require Complex analysis?

Complex analysis is used in many areas of Engineering including
➢ Circuit theory (Impedance, Transfer function, etc.,)
➢ Electromagnetism (Time harmonic fields)
➢ Electrostatics (Solution to the Laplace equation)
➢ Fundamental to Signal processing and Communications
Applications:
➢ In digital cameras and cellphone complex numbers are used in processing the
signals inside the device.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

➢ To make stress analysis in structures such as bridges and buildings complex

numbers and complex functions are used.
➢ Mathematics behind medical images such as scanning, X-Ray etc. is complex
analysis.
➢ Complex analysis is necessary to understand how the fluid flows around the
object and this understanding is required in design of cars and airplane wings
etc.
➢ Complex analysis is used to transform complicated regions to simpler regions.

Definition:
Complex number is a number consisting of a Real and Imaginary part. It can be
written in the form
𝒁= ⏟
𝒙 +𝒊 ⏟
𝒚
𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈

̅ = 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒚
The CONJUGATE of a complex number is 𝒁
Complex plane or Argand plane:
A complex number can be plotted on a plane with two perpendicular coordinate
axes
➢ The horizontal x-axis, called the real axis
➢ The vertical y-axis, called the imaginary axis

y
P
z = x + iy
x-y plane is known as the
complex plane
x
The complex plane
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Modulus and argument of z:

Geometrically, |z| is the distance of the point z from the origin while θ is the
directed angle from the positive x- axis to OP in the above figure.
The Modulus or absolute value of 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
and θ is called the argument of z, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ).
𝑥

x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ
The polar form of a complex number can be rewritten as
Z = x+iy = r(cosθ+i sinθ)=𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .

Neighbourhood:
A neighbourhood of a point 𝑍0 in the complex plane is the set of all points Z such
that |𝑍 − 𝑍0 | < 𝛿, where δ is a small positive real number.
Here δ is called radius of this neighbourhood.
Geometry: If 𝑍0 =𝑥0 +𝑖𝑦0 then
|𝑍 − 𝑍0 | = |(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) − (𝑥0 +𝑖𝑦0 )|

= √(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 = 𝛿
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 = 𝛿 2 Represents a circle with centre (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and radius δ.
Hence geometrically a neighbourhood of a point 𝑍0 is the set of all points inside a
disc having 𝑍0 as the centre and δ as the radius.
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Function of a complex variable:

If x and y are real variables, then Z = x + iy is called a complex variable. If,
corresponding to each value of a complex variable Z = x + iy in a given region R,
there corresponds a unique value of another complex variable w = u + iv, then w is
called a function of a complex variable Z and is denoted by w = f(z) = u + iv.
Ex: 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
hence 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖 2𝑥𝑦
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Here u and v are the real and imaginary parts of w and are functions of real
variables x and y.
Graphical representation of a complex function:
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖 2𝑥𝑦
If z=3+2i then w = 5+12i

y w = 𝑧2 v
. (5,12)

. (3,2)

0 u
0 x
Z- plane
w - plane

Limit of a Complex Function:

A function w = f(z) is said to tend to limit l as z approaches a point z0 , if for every
, we can find a +ve real number  such that |f(z) – l|<  for |z - z0|< . i.e. for every

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

𝑧 ≠ z0 in the -disc(dotted) z-plane, f(z) has a value lying in the  disc of w-plane
and is written as
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0

Note: In real calculus x approaches 𝑥0 only along the real line, here z approaches
𝑧0 from any direction in z-plane.
Continuity (real valued function):
Let f(x) be a function such that f: R R, We call f(x) continuous at x0 iff:
✓ F is defined in a neighborhood of x0 i.e., 𝑓(𝑥0 ) exists.
✓ The limit exists
✓ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0

Geometrical meaning of continuous function:

A function is continuous if we draw the graph, there is no break in the curve.
For example: f(x)=3x.

Continuity (complex valued function):

Let f(z) be a function such that f: C → C. We call f(z) continuous at z0 iff:
✓ f is defined in a neighborhood of z0 i.e., f(z0) exists.
✓ The limit exists

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

✓ lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 )

𝑧→𝑧0

Geometrical interpretation of continuous function

Continuity Discontinuity

Derivative of f(z):
Let f(x) be a real-valued function defined in a neighborhood of x0. Then the
derivative of f(x) at x0 is given by
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Let f(z) be a complex-valued function defined in a neighborhood of z0. Then the
derivative of f(z) at z0 is given by
𝑓(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
OR
𝑑𝑤 𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0 )
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑍) = lim (with z = 𝑧0 + 𝛥𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

Provided this limit exists. The limit 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)is known as the derivative of f(z) at z0.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

The above limit should be unique along every path from z to z0.
𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
Ex.: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = find 𝑓 ′ (𝑧).
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0 )
w.k.T 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑓(𝑧) − 0
= lim
𝑧→0 𝑧 − 0

𝑥𝑦(𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥)
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
= lim
𝑧→0 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑥2 +𝑦2
I Path: lim =0,
𝑥→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
𝑥𝑦(𝑦−𝑖𝑥)
𝑥2 +𝑦2
II path: lim = 0,
𝑦→0 𝑥+𝑖𝑦

III path: y = mx
𝑥(𝑚𝑥)(𝑚𝑥 − 𝑖𝑥)
= lim
𝑥→0 (𝑥 2 + (𝑚𝑥)2 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑚𝑥)
𝑦→0

𝑥 3 (𝑚)(𝑚 − 𝑖)
= lim 3
𝑥→0 𝑥 (1 + (𝑚)2 )(1 + 𝑖𝑚)
𝑦→0

⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is not unique, as 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) takes different values for different m.

Therefore f(z) is not differentiable at origin.
Definition of Analytic function:
𝑑𝑤
A function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z=𝑧0 , if = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) =
𝑑𝑧
𝑓(𝑧+𝛿𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧)
lim exists and is unique at 𝑧0 and in the neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧

Analytic function is also called a regular function or a holomorphic function.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

A function which is analytic everywhere in the complex plane, is known as an

entire function.
Ex: 1) polynomials in z, sinz, cosz, 𝑒 𝑧 etc.
2) If we know it is analytic then directly we can differentiate.
Ex: f(z)= 𝑧 𝑛 then 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑛𝑧 𝑛−1 .
Cauchy Riemann equation (C-R equations):
Statement (Cartesian form):
The necessary condition that f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y) is said to be analytic in a region D
is that the first order partial derivatives of u and v w.r.t x and y must exists and satisfy
the equations 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 .
Polar form:
The necessary condition that f(z)=u(r,θ)+iv(r, θ) is said to be analytic in a region D
is that the first order partial derivatives of u and v w.r.t r and θ must exists and
satisfy the equations
𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 and 𝑟𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢𝜃 .
NOTE:
1) A function which is analytic everywhere in the complex plane known as entire
function.
2) If f(z) is analytic in a domain D, then u and v satisfy C-R equations but not vice
versa.
3) C-R equations are necessary conditions for a function to be analytic but not the
sufficient conditions.
4) If u and v have continuous first order partial derivatives and satisfies C-R
equations, then f(z) is said to be analytic.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

5) C-R equations are not satisfied at a point z0 implies 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) does not exist and
hence f(z) is not analytic.
Ex.1: Express in the form of u+iv and verify C-R equations for 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 3.
Solution: w.k.t 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 3
𝑤 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 + 2(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 3
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 3, 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦
differentiate p.w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’
𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 2, 𝑣𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = −2𝑦, 𝑣𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2
Therefore 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 . w is analytic function.
Ex.2: Find the value of a such that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝜃 is analytic.
Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃, 𝑣 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝜃
Since f(z) is analytic 𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 and 𝑟𝑢𝜃 = −𝑣𝑟
differentiate p.w.r.t ‘r’ and ‘θ’
𝑢𝑟 = 2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃, 𝑣𝑟 = 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝜃
𝑢𝜃 = −2𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃, 𝑣𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝜃
Comparing 𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 we get a=2
Ex.3: Verify whether f(z) is analytic, 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 + 2𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑦).
Solution:
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 + 2𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 + 2𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑦)
Comparing real and imaginary parts
𝑢 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 , 𝑣 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑢𝑥 = 2(𝑥 − 𝑦), 𝑣𝑥 = 2
𝑢𝑦 = −2(𝑥 − 𝑦), 𝑣𝑦 = 2
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Here 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 ≠ −𝑢𝑦
C-R equations are not satisfied, therefore f(z) is not analytic
Ex.4: Test the analyticity of the function w = sinz.
Solution: w = sinz
u+iv = sin(x+iy)
= sinx cosiy + cosx siniy
= sinx coshy +i cosx sinhy
Comparing real and imaginary parts
u= sinx coshy , v= cosx sinhy
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦, 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦, 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦
Therefore 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 . Hence sinz is analytic.

Ex.5: Show that the function defined by 𝑓(𝑧) = √|𝑥𝑦| is not analytic at origin,
although C-R equations are satisfied.
𝑓(𝑧+∆𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧)
Solution: w.k.t. 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧

√(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)(𝑦 + ∆𝑦) − √𝑥𝑦

= lim
∆𝑥+𝑖∆𝑦→0 ∆𝑥 + 𝑖∆𝑦
Let ∆𝑧 →0 along the real axis, ∆𝑦 = 0
√(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦∆𝑥) − √𝑥𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Which does not exists
𝑢 = √|𝑥𝑦|, 𝑣 = 0
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 0, ∀𝑥, hence C-R Equations are satisfied at the origin.
At the origin 𝑢𝑥 = 0, 𝑢𝑦 = 0.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Consequences of C-R equations:

i) Harmonic Function:
Cartesian form:
if f(z) is analytic function then C-R equations are
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 ---------(1) , 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 ------(2)
differentiate (1) w.r.t ‘x’ and (2) w.r.t ‘y’
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥𝑦 -----(3), 𝑣𝑥𝑦 = −𝑢𝑦𝑦 -----(4)
Adding (3) and (4) 𝑢𝑥𝑥 +𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0
Similarly 𝑣𝑥𝑥 +𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
This implies u and v satisfy Laplace equation and are know as harmonic function.
Note: Harmonic functions are analytic but the converse need not be true.
Ex.: (1) 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , v = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 .
Polar form:
1 1
➢ If 𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0 then u is said to be harmonic.
𝑟 𝑟2
1 1
➢ If 𝑣𝑟𝑟 + 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃𝜃 = 0 then v is said to be harmonic.
𝑟 𝑟2

Note: Harmonic functions play an important role in applied mathematics. For

example the temperature T(x,y) in thin plates lying in the xy-plane are harmonic. The
practical importance of complex analysis in engineering mathematics results from
the fact that both the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfy
Laplace’s equation which is the most important equation in physics, electrostatics,
fluid flow, heat conduction and so on.
ii) Orthogonal System:
Consider an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 then 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐1 ---(1) and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑐2 --- (2) represents orthogonal systems

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

differentiate (1) p.w.r.t ‘x’

𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 −𝜕𝑢⁄𝜕𝑥
+ = 0 ⟹ 𝑦1 = = 𝑚1
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢⁄𝜕𝑦
differentiate (2) p.w.r.t ‘x’
𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑦 −𝜕𝑣⁄𝜕𝑥
+ = 0 ⟹ 𝑦2 = = 𝑚2
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑣⁄𝜕𝑦
𝑣𝑦 −𝑣𝑥
𝑚1 x 𝑚2 = . = −1.
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦

Note: The real and imaginary part of an analytic function forms an orthogonal
system but the converse need not be true.
𝑥2
Ex.1: 𝑢 = , 𝑣 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 .
𝑦

Solution: differentiate p.w.r.t ‘x’

2𝑥 −1
+ 𝑥 2 ( 2 ) 𝑦1 = 0, 2𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦2 = 0
𝑦 𝑦

2𝑥 𝑦 2 2𝑦 −𝑥
𝑦1 = (𝑥 2 ) = = 𝑚1 , 𝑦2 = = 𝑚2
𝑦 𝑥 2𝑦

𝑚1 x 𝑚2 = −1
2𝑥
𝑢𝑥 = ≠ 𝑣𝑦 = 4𝑦 therefore u and v are not analytic.
𝑦
−𝑦
Ex.2: prove that 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = are harmonic but u+iv is not regular
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

function.
Solution: u and v are said to be harmonic function if and only if u and v satisfy
Laplace equations.
For u:
differentiate p.w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ two times
𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑢𝑦 = −2𝑦
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 2, 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −2

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0
Therefore u is harmonic
For v:
differentiate p.w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ two times
2𝑥𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑥2
𝑣𝑥 = 2 , 𝑣𝑦 = 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )2 (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )2
2𝑦(𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 ) 2𝑦(3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
𝑣𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑣𝑦𝑦 =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )3
𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0
Therefore v is harmonic
But 𝑢𝑥 ≠ 𝑣𝑦 therefore u+iv is not analytic.
Ex.3: prove that 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 is harmonic and its harmonic conjugate also
find the corresponding analytic function.
Solution: Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
differentiate p.w.r.t ‘x’ and ‘y’ two times
𝑢𝑥 = 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 , 𝑢𝑦 = 6𝑥𝑦
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = −6𝑥, 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑥
𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0
Therefore u is harmonic
By using C-R equations 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦
𝑣𝑦 = 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 ---(1), 𝑣𝑥 = −6𝑥𝑦---(2)
Integrate (1) w.r.t y keeping x as constant
We get 𝑣 = 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑓(𝑥)---(3)
Integrate (2) w.r.t x keeping y as constant
We get 𝑣 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦(𝑦)---(4)

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By comparing (3) and (4)

We get 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑔(𝑦) = 2𝑦 + 𝑦 3
Therefore 𝑣 = 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 3
𝑓(𝑧) = (2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖(2𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 )

2
𝑧4
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − ) + 𝑐
4

Construction of analytic function:

Milne Thompson’s Method: This method is used to find the analytic function,
when the real part or imaginary part is given
Cartesian form:
Step 1: For a given ‘u’ find 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 and for given v find 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦
Step 2: Consider 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
For given u : 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 implies 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦
For given v: 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 implies 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
Step 3: put x=z and y=0, to get 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)in terms of z.
Step 4: Integrate with respect to z to get f(z).
Polar form:
Step 1: For a given u find 𝑢𝑟 , 𝑢𝜃 and for given v find 𝑣𝑟 , 𝑣𝜃
Step 2: Consider 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 )
1 1
For given u : 𝑣𝑟 = − 𝑢𝜃 implies 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (𝑢𝑟 −𝑖 𝑢𝜃 )
𝑟 𝑟
1 1
For given v: 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 implies 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ( 𝑣𝜃 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 )
𝑟 𝑟

Step 3: put r = z and θ =0, to get 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)in terms of z.

Step 4: Integrate with respect to z to get f(z).

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Unique expression method:

Step 1: given u then find 𝑢𝑥 and 𝑢𝑦
Step 2: use C-R equations 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 .
Step 3: integrate 𝑣𝑦 w.r.t. y keeping x as constant and 𝑣𝑥 w.r.t. x keeping y as
constant.
Step 4: compare the above obtained expressions to get a unique expression for v.
Ex.1: Construct the analytic function whose imaginary part is
𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦) .
Solution: we have 𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)
C-R equation are 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑢𝑦 , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
Replace 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0 in 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
We get 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑧 (𝑧 − 1)
Integrate w.r.t z,
We get 𝑓(𝑧) = −𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝑐.
Ex.2: Construct the analytic function whose imaginary part is
𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2 .
Solution: we have 𝑣 = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2
𝑣𝑟 = 2r𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣𝜃 = −2𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
C-R equation are 𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 , 𝑟𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢𝜃
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ( 𝑣𝜃 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 )
𝑟

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Replace 𝑟 = 𝑧, 𝜃 = 0 in 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
We get 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑖(2𝑧 − 1)
Integrate w.r.t z,
We get 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑖(𝑧 2 − 𝑧) + 𝑐.
𝑘2 𝑘2
Ex.3: Show that 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑟 ≠ 0 is a regular
𝑟 𝑟

function of Z. Also find 𝑓 ′ (𝑧).

𝑘2 𝑘2
Solution: we have 𝑢 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑣 = (𝑟 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑟

𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑢𝑟 = (1 − 2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑣𝑟 = (1 + 2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑢𝜃 = − (𝑟 + ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑣𝜃 = (𝑟 − ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑟𝑢𝑟 = (𝑟 − ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑟𝑣𝑟 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
C-R equation 𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 , 𝑟𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢𝜃 are satisfied. Thus f(z) is analytic
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 )
Replace 𝑟 = 𝑧, 𝜃 = 0 in 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
𝑘2
We get 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 1 − ( 2 )
𝑧
1
Ex.4: Show that 𝑢 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑟 ≠ 0 is harmonic.
𝑟
1
Solution: let 𝑢 = (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟
1 1
𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0 ---------(1)
𝑟 𝑟2

𝑘2 2
𝑢𝑟 = (1 − 2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑢𝑟𝑟 = ( 3 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑟

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𝑘2 1
𝑢𝜃 = − (𝑟 + ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = − (𝑟 + ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
LHS of equation (1) becomes zero
Thus the given u is harmonic.
Ex.5: Determine the analytic function whose real part is 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃.
Solution: let 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝑢𝑟 = 2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃, 𝑢𝜃 = −2𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
The C-R equations are 𝑟𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 , 𝑟𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢𝜃
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 )
𝑖
= 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (𝑢𝑟 − 𝑢𝜃 )
𝑟
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 (2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑖2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)
= 2𝑟𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 = 2𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Replace r=z and 𝜃=0

∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = ∫ 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 𝑐
Ex.6: If the potential function is log √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , find the flux function and the
complex potential function.
Solution: If 𝜙 and 𝜓 are potential function and flux function respectively then the
complex potential function w is given by
𝑤(𝑧) = 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦)---(1)
1
Where 𝜙 = log √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = log( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
2
𝑥 𝑦
𝜙𝑥 = ---(2), 𝜙𝑦 = ---(3)
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝑑𝑤
= 𝜙𝑥 + i𝜓𝑥
𝑑𝑧
The C-R equations are 𝜙𝑥 = 𝜓𝑦 , 𝜙𝑦 = −𝜓𝑥
𝑑𝑤
= 𝜙𝑥 − i𝜙𝑦
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑤 𝑥 𝑦
= 2 − i
𝑑𝑧 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Replace x=z and 𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑤 𝑧 1
= 2=
𝑑𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Integrate both sides
We get 𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 + 𝑐 is the required complex potential function
Therefore 𝑤 = log(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵 where c=A+iB
1 𝑦
𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 = log( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵
2 𝑥
𝑦
𝜓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝐵 is the required flux function.
𝑥

Ex.7: Obtain analytic function as a function of z given

𝑢 − 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
Solution: Let 𝑢 − 𝑣 = (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 )
Differentiate p.w.r.t x and y
𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑥 = (3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 )---(1)
𝑢𝑦 − 𝑣𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 )---(2)
Using C-R equations (2) becomes
−𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢𝑥 = (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 )---(3)
Adding (1) and (3) we get
−2𝑣𝑥 = (6𝑥 2 − 6𝑦 2 )

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

𝑣𝑥 = 3(𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 )
Subtracting (1) and (3) we get
2𝑢𝑥 = 12𝑥𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑦
We know that 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖3(𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 )
Replace x=z, y=0 we get 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = −3𝑖𝑧 2
Integrate we get 𝑓(𝑧) = −𝑖𝑧 3 + 𝑐.

Why complex integration?

➢ Existence of higher order derivatives?
➢ Properties of analytic functions of higher order
➢ In finding Laplace Transform, Fourier Transforms and Z-Transforms in
applications.
➢ Digital filters are designed by looking the locations of zeroes
and poles in the complex plane.
Method of Complex Integration was first introduced by B. Riemann.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Complex Line Integral

Consider a continuous function f(z) of the complex variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 defined at
all points of a curve C extending from a to b. Divide the curve C into N parts. Let
𝛼𝑘 be any point on the arc of the curve and let ∆𝑧𝑘 = 𝑧𝑘 − 𝑧𝑘−1 where 𝑘 =
1, 2, 3, … 𝑁. Then lim ∑𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑓(𝛼𝑘 )∆𝑧𝑘 where max |∆𝑧𝑘 | → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑁 → ∞ is defined
𝑛→∞

as the complex line integral along the path C.

It is denoted by ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧.
y

 N b = zN
C z N −1

3 n zn
 2 z2 z3
 1 z1
a = z0
x

Properties of Complex line integral.

1. ∫𝐶 𝑘𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑘 ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, 𝑘 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

2. ∫𝐶 [𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧)]𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

3. ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧,

1 2

where 𝐶 is the union of the smooth curve 𝐶1 and 𝐶2

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

4. ∫−𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = − ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, where –C denotes the curve having the opposite
orientation of C.
2+𝑖
Ex.1: Evaluate ∫0 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧 along (i) the line 𝑦 = 𝑥/2 ii) the real axis to 2 and
vertically to 2+i.
Solution:
i) Along OA: 𝑥 = 2𝑦.
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 = (2 + 𝑖)𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = (2 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑦
𝑧̅ = (2 − 𝑖)𝑦
𝑦 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 1.
2+𝑖 1
∫0 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧=∫0 (2 − 𝑖)2 𝑦 2 (2 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑦.
1
1 𝑦3 5
= 5(2 − 𝑖) ∫0 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 5(2 − 𝑖) [ ] = (2 − 𝑖).
3 3 0

A
(2,1)

x=2

O B x
(0,0) (2,0)
2+𝑖
ii) Let ∫0 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑂𝐵 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐵𝐴 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧……………….(a)
Along OB: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 2.
Along BA: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧̅ = 2 − 𝑖𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦 and

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

𝑦 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 1.
2+𝑖 2 1
2 2
∫ 𝑧̅ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ (2 − 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0

After integration we get

2+𝑖
14 + 11𝑖
∫ 𝑧̅ 2 𝑑𝑧 =
0 3
Ex.2: Given the flow (𝑧) = cos
̅̅̅̅̅̅𝑧 , compute the circulation and net flux across C,
where C is the square with vertices 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 𝑖, 𝑧 = −1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = −𝑖.
Solution:
̅̅̅̅̅̅𝑑𝑧 = ∫ cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 and then take the real and imaginary
We must compute ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝐶

parts of the integral to find the circulation and net flux, respectively.
The function cos 𝑧 is analytic everywhere, and
̅̅̅̅̅̅𝑑𝑧 = ∫ cos 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 by Cauchy’s theorem.
so ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝐶

Thus the circulation and net flux are both zero.

Ex.3: Given the flow 𝑓(𝑧) = (1 + 𝑖)𝑧, compute the circulation around, and the net
flux across, the circle 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1.
Solution:

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
̅̅̅̅̅̅ = (1 − 𝑖)𝑧̅ , 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Here 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋
∫ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (1 − 𝑖) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐶 0
2𝜋
= (1 + 𝑖) ∫ 1 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋(1 + 𝑖).
0

The circulation around C is 2π, which is the real part of the complex line integral.
The net flux across C is 2π, which is the imaginary part of the complex line
integral.

2+𝑖
Ex.4: Evaluate ∫0 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 along i) the line 𝑦 = 𝑥/2, ii) the real axis to 2 and then
vertically to 2 + 𝑖.
Solution:
𝑥
i) Given path is the line 𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2𝑦
2

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
Here, 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑑𝑦; 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
2+𝑖 1
2 {[(2𝑦)2 − 𝑦 2 ] + 2𝑖(2𝑦)𝑦} [2𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦]
∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫
0 𝑦=0
1
= (2 + 𝑖) ∫ (3𝑦 2 + 4𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦
0
1
1
= + 𝑖)(3 + 4𝑖) ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = (2 + 11𝑖)
(2
0 3

A (2,1)

2+𝑖
ii) ∫0 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑂𝐴 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
Along OB:
𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑦 = 0; 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 2
𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Along BA:
𝑥 = 2, 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = (2 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑖 𝑑𝑦
2+𝑖 2 1
2 2
∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ (2 + 𝑖𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
1
= (2 + 11𝑖)
3

OA= OB+BA

y
24 Department of ECE, PESU
A (2,1)
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

2+𝑖
Ex.5: Evaluate ∫1−𝑖 (2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑧 along the two paths i) 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1,
𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 − 1. ii) the straight line joining (1 − 𝑖)& (2 + 𝑖).
Solution: Given: 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡 2 − 1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑦 = 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 2.
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 + 1 = 1 ⇒ 𝑡 = 0.
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 2, 𝑡 + 1 = 2 ⇒ 𝑡 = 1.
Also 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦.
Let I be the given integral.
1
𝐼 = ∫ {2(𝑡 + 1) + 𝑖(2𝑡 2 − 1) + 1}{𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖4𝑡 𝑑𝑡}
𝑡=0
1 25𝑖
= ∫0 (2𝑡 + 2𝑖𝑡 2 + 3 − 𝑖)(1 + 4𝑖𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 4 + .
3

ii) Equation of the straight line joining (1, −1)& (2,1) is given by
𝑦 + 1 1 − (−1) 𝑦 + 1
= ⇒ =2
𝑥−1 2−1 𝑥−1
⇒ 𝑦 + 1 = 2𝑥 − 2
⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
∴ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝑥
2
𝐼 = ∫ {2𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 − 3) + 1}{𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖. 2𝑑𝑥}
𝑥=1

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
2
= (1 − 3𝑖) ∫1 {−2𝑥 + (1 + 2𝑖)}𝑑𝑥 = 4(1 + 2𝑖).

B (2, 1)

x
A (1, -1)

Cauchy’s theorem

Statement: If f(z) is analytic in a simply connected domain R, then ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0

for any simple closed curve C lying entirely within R.
Proof:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Then∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∫ (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦) − − − − − (𝑖)

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

We have Green’s theorem in the plane stating that if M(x,y) and N(x,y) are two
real valued functions having continuous first order partial derivatives in a region R
bounded by the curve C then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅

Applying this theorem to the two line integrals in the RHS of (i) we get

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ (− − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅

Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic, we have Cauchy-Riemann equations:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= ; =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Hence we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝑅

This proves Cauchy’s theorem.

Simply Connected Region
i) A “simply-connected” region means that there are no “holes” in the region.
(Any closed path can be shrunk down to zero size).
ii) A domain which is not simply connected is said to be multiply connected
region.

z0

Consequences of Cauchy’s theorem

➢ If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a region R and if P and Q are any two points in it,
𝑄
then∫𝑃 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is independent of the path joining P and Q.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

R − a simply - connected region

y

C2

C1

➢ If 𝐶1, 𝐶2 are two simple closed curves such that 𝐶2 lies entirely within 𝐶1 and if
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑖s analytic on 𝐶1, 𝐶2 and in the region bounded by 𝐶1, 𝐶2 (known as

annular region), then∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧.

1 2

y
R − a multiply - connected region

C2 C1

➢ If 𝐶 is a simple closed curve enclosing non overlapping simple closed

curves 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … 𝐶𝑛 and if f(𝑧) is analytic in the annular region between C and
these curves, then

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + … . + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧.

1 2 𝑛

The function f is analytic inside this

region.

C4

C1

C2
C3

Ex.1: Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 over the boundary of the
triangle with the vertices (0, 0), (1,0) and (0,1).
Solution:

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑂

Along OA:
𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥; 𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑦−0 1−0 𝑦
Along AB: = ⇒ = −1
𝑥−1 0−1 𝑥−1

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑑𝑥) ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = (1 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑥; 𝑥: 1 𝑡𝑜 0
Along BO:
𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦; 𝑦: 1 𝑡𝑜 0.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
1 0 0
2 2
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [𝑥 + 𝑖(−𝑥 + 1)] (1 − 𝑖)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑖𝑦)2 𝑖𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑥=0 𝑥=1 𝑦=1

1 𝑖 1 𝑖
= − − + =0
3 3 3 3
Hence the Cauchy’s theorem is verified.

B (0,1)

(0,0) O A (1,0) x

Ex.2: Evaluate ∫𝐶 |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 where C is the square having vertices (0,0),(1,0),(1,1) and
(0,1) and check whether Cauchy’s theorem is verified, justify your answer.
Solution:
Here, |𝑧|2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ |𝑧|2 1𝑑𝑧 + ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ |𝑧|2 𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝑂
1 1 0 0
= ∫𝑥=0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑦=0 1 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + ∫𝑥=1(𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑦=1 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
1 4𝑖 4 𝑖
= + − − = −1 + 𝑖.
3 3 3 3

Here 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is not analytic, so Cauchy’s theorem is not satisfied for this
function.

y
30 Department of ECE, PESU y=1
C B

x=0 x=1
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Ex.3: Verify Cauchy’s theorem for 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 from 2 along |𝑧| = 2, 𝑦 ≥ 0,

to -2.
Solution:
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 is analytic.
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 6𝑧 5 − 12𝑧 3 is continuous.

By Cauchy’s theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 = 0

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐴

Along AB:
2
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 )𝑑𝑧
𝐴𝐵 𝑧=−2
2
𝑧 7 3𝑧 5
=[ − ]
7 5 −2
4 3
= 26 [ − ]-------------(1)
7 5

Along BA:
𝑧 = 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (26 𝑒 6𝑖𝜃 − 3. 24 𝑒 4𝑖𝜃 )2𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐵𝐴 𝜃=0

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
4 3
= 26 [− + ]-------------(2)
7 5

Adding (1) and (2), we get ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0. y

Hence the Cauchy’s theorem is verified.

A B
(−2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x

Cauchy’s integral formula

Significance: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is known to be analytic on the simple closed curve
C, then the values of the function and all its derivatives can be found at any point of
C.
Also an analytic function possesses derivatives of all orders and these are themselves
all analytic.
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point
1 𝑓(𝑧)
within C, then 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧.
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑎
y
Proof:
r
a
Since ‘a’ is point within C, we shall enclose it by

a circle C1 with 𝑧 = 𝑎 as centre and r as rdius such

that C1 lies entirely within C.

0 x

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝑓(𝑧)
The function is analytic inside and on the boundary of the annular region
𝑧−𝑎

between C and C1.

As a consequence of Cauchy’s theorem,

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ---------(i)
𝑧−𝑎 1 𝑧−𝑎

The equation of C1 ( circle with centre ‘a’ and radius r) can be written in the form

|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟.

𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Also 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
Using these results in RHS of (i), we have
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0 𝑟𝑒
𝐶

2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0
𝐶

This is true for any 𝑟 > 0 however small.

Hence as 𝑟 → 0 we get,
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 ∫ 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑧−𝑎 𝜃=0
𝐶

1 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝐶

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Generalized Cauchy’s integral formula

Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ′𝑎′ is a
point within C, then
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
Proof:
We have Cauchy’s integral formula,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 ----------(i)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑎

Applying Leibnitz rule for differentiation under the integral sign, we have
1 𝜕 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) { } 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝜕𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) {(−1)(𝑧 − 𝑎)−2 (−1)}𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶
1! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 -------------(ii)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)2

Applying Leibnitz rule once again for (ii) we have

2! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)3
Continuing like this, after differentiating 𝑛 times we obtain
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧.
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1

𝑒 −𝑧
Ex.1: Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧| = 3.
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑧 is analytic function within and on|𝑧| = 3.
Here, |𝑧| = 3 is a circle with centre (0,0) and radius 3 units.
𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 are the points lies within |𝑧| = 3.
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Consider = + +
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2 𝑧−1 𝑧−2 (𝑧−2)2

Solving by partial fractions, we have 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −1, 𝐶 = 1

1 1 −1 1
∴ = + +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)2 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2 (𝑧 − 2)2
𝑒 −𝑧 −𝑧
1 −1 1
∴∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑒 [ + + ] 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝐶 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2 (𝑧 − 2)2
= 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(1) − 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(2) + 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 ′ (1) By Cauchy’s integral formula.
2𝜋𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑒 −1 − 𝑒 −2 − 𝑒 −2 = (𝑒 − 2).
𝑒2

0 x
Z=1 Z=2

𝑧 2 −3𝑧+4
Ex.2: Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 where C is a) |𝑧| = 1 and b) |𝑧| = 3.
𝑧−2

Solution:
Here, let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 4 is analytic within and on |𝑧| = 1 and |𝑧| = 3 as it is
a polynomial.
a) |𝑧| = 1 is a circle with centre at origin and radius is 1 unit.
The point 𝑧 = 2 lies outside C.
∴ By Cauchy’s theorem, we have

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+4
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑧−2

b) |𝑧| = 3 is a circle with centre at origin and radius is 3 units.

The point 𝑧 = 2 lies inside C.
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 4
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(2)
𝐶 𝑧 − 2
As 𝑓(2) = 22 − 3(2) + 4 = 2, we have
𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 4
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 (2) = 4𝜋𝑖.
𝐶 𝑧 − 2
𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Ex.3: Evaluate ∫𝐶 where C is the circle given by |𝑧| = 2.
(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧 2 −9)

Solution:
1 1
=
(𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 9) (𝑧 + 𝑖)(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 − 3)
The points 𝑧 = 3, −3 lie outside C.
The points 𝑧 = 𝑖, −𝑖 lie inside C.
𝑧
Let 𝑔(𝑧) = .
𝑧 2 −9
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑔(𝑧)
Then ∫𝐶 = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 2 +1)(𝑧 2 −9) (𝑧 2 +1)
1 𝐴 𝐵
Consider = + .
(𝑧 2 +1) 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
1 1
By partial fractions, we have 𝐴 = − ,𝐵 = .
2𝑖 2𝑖

By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have

𝑔(𝑧) 1 1
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = − [2𝜋𝑖 𝑔(−𝑖)] + [2𝜋𝑖 𝑔(𝑖)] = −𝜋𝑖/5.
(𝑧 2 +1) 2𝑖 2𝑖

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Taylor’s series:
Statement: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with Centre at ‘a’ (C :|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟).
then for all z inside C,

z 2 11 zn
f ( z ) = f (0) + zf (0) + f (0) +  +
1
f (n)
(0) + 
2! n!
Particular Case: Maclaurin’s series:
Statement: If a = 0 in the Taylor’s series then we obtain the Maclaurin's series for
𝑓(𝑧)
( z − a) 2 11 ( z − a) n ( n )
f ( z ) = f (a) + ( z − a) f (a) +
1
f (a) +  + f (a) + 
2! n!
𝑧+1
Ex.1: Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = as a Taylor’s series about 𝑧 = 2.
(𝑧−3)(𝑧−4)

Solution: Consider
𝑧+1 𝐴 𝐵
𝑓(𝑧) = = +
(𝑧 − 3)(𝑧 − 4) 𝑧 − 3 𝑧 − 4
Using partial fractions, we have 𝐴 = −4, 𝐵 = 5.
−4 5
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = +
(𝑧 − 2) − 1 (𝑧 − 2) − 2
−4 5
= +
−1[1 − (𝑧 − 2)] 𝑧−2
−2 [1 − (
2 )]

−1
5 𝑧 − 2 −1
= 4[1 − (𝑧 − 2)] − [1 − ( )]
2 2
5 2
𝑧−2 𝑧−2 2
= 4[1 + (𝑧 − 2) + (𝑧 − 2) + ⋯ ] − [1 + ( )+( ) + ⋯]
2 2 2
𝑧 2 −1
Ex.2: Find the Taylor’s series to represent the function 𝑖𝑛 |𝑧| < 2.
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝑧 2 −1
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = .
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)

The points 𝑧 = −2 , 𝑧 = −3 are outside |𝑧| < 2.

∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in |𝑧| < 2.
𝑧 2 −1 −5𝑧−7
=1+ .----------- (1)
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) 𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6

By partial fractions, we have

−5𝑧−7 𝐴 𝐵
= + -----------(2)
𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6 𝑧+2 𝑧+3

Solving, we have 𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = −8.

−5𝑧−7 3 −8
∴ (2)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 = + .
𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6 𝑧+2 𝑧+3

𝑧2 − 1 3 −8
∴ (1)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 =1+ +
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 3) 𝑧+2 𝑧+3
𝑧 𝑧 2
|𝑧| < 2 ⇒ | | < 1 & | | < < 1.
2 3 3
The Taylor’s series is
3 8
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + 𝑧 − 𝑧
2(1 + ) 3(1 + )
2 3
3 8
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + 𝑧 − 𝑧
2(1 + ) 3(1 + )
2 3
By using the result,
(1 + 𝑧)−1 = 1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯, we have
3 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3 8 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + [1 − + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ ] − [1 − + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ ]
2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
1 5𝑧 17𝑧 2
=− + + +⋯
6 36 216
This is a Maclaurin’s series.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

Laurent’s series:
Statement: If f(z) is analytic inside and on the boundary of the annular region R
bounded by two concentric circles 𝐶1 ,𝐶2 with centre ‘a’ and radii 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 (𝑟1 > 𝑟2 )
Then for every z in R
∞ ∞

𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ∑ 𝑎−𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑛=1
1 𝑓(𝑤)
Where 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤;
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 1 (𝑤−𝑎)𝑛+1

1 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑎−𝑛 = ∫ 𝑑w
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 2 (𝑤−𝑎)−𝑛+1

Note: Taylor’s expansion of f(z) contain only positive powers of (z-a) whereas
Laurent’s expansion of f(z) contain both positive and negative powers of (z-a).

Procedure for finding the Laurent series:

1. The given function f(z) which is usually an algebraic function of the form
𝜑(𝑧)/𝜓(𝑧) is resolved into partial fractions.
2. Each of the resulting term is put in the form (1 ± 𝑥)−1 , (1 ± 𝑥)−2 , … so as to
satisfy the validity condition where 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑧).
3. We use suitable binomial expansion and simplify the like terms which results in
the desired Laurent series comprising terms with positive and negative powers
of z.

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In general when |𝑥| < 1, the binomial expansion is given by

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3!
In particular the following expansions are to be remembered:
1. (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯
2. (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯
3. (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + ⋯
4. (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯
𝑒 2𝑧
Ex.1: Find the Laurent’s series for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = about𝑧 = 1.
(𝑧−1)3

Solution:
1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = [𝑒 2𝑧+2−2 ] = [𝑒 2 . 𝑒 2(𝑧−1) ]
(𝑧−1)3 (𝑧−1)3

𝑒2 [2(𝑧 − 1)]2 [2(𝑧 − 1)]3

= [1 + 2(𝑧 − 1) + + + ⋯]
(𝑧 − 1)3 2! 3!
1 2 2 4
= 𝑒2 [ + + + + ⋯]
(𝑧 − 1)3 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 − 1) 3
7𝑧−2
Ex.2: Find the Laurent’s expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)𝑧(𝑧−2) in the region 1<

|𝑧 + 1| < 3.
Solution: Let 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑢.
7(𝑢 − 1) − 2
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝑢(𝑢 − 1)(𝑢 − 1 − 2)
7𝑢 − 9
= (splitting into partial fractions)
𝑢(𝑢 − 1)(𝑢 − 3)
3 1 2
=− + +
𝑢 𝑢−1 𝑢−3

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
3 1 2
=− + −
𝑢 𝑢 (1 − 1) 3(1 − 𝑢)
𝑢 3
3 1 1 −1 2 𝑢 −1
= − + (1 − ) − (1 − )
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3
1
Since1 < 𝑢 < 3 𝑜𝑟 < 1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢/3 < 1, expanding by Binomial theorem,
𝑢

3 1 1 1 2 𝑢 𝑢2
𝑓(𝑧) = − + (1 + + 2 + ⋯ ) − (1 + + 2 + ⋯ )
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3 3
2 1 1 2 𝑢 𝑢2
= − + 2 + 3 + ⋯ − (1 + + 2 + ⋯ )
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 3 3 3
Since 𝑢 = 𝑧 + 1, we have
2 1 1 2 𝑧 + 1 (𝑧 + 1)2
𝑓(𝑧) = − + + + ⋯ − (1 + + + ⋯)
𝑧 + 1 (𝑧 + 1)2 (𝑧 + 1)3 3 3 32
This is the Laurent’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) in the region 1< |𝑧 + 1| < 3.

Singularity:
Definition:
A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 where𝑓(𝑧) fails to be analytic is called a singularity or a singular
point of 𝑓(𝑧).
Examples:
𝑧
1. If 𝑓(𝑧) = then 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at 𝑧 = 2 which is called the singular
𝑧−2

point of 𝑓(𝑧).
𝑧2
2. If 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) then the points, 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = −1, 𝑧 = 2 are all called

singular points of 𝑓(𝑧).

Pole of order m:

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis

If 𝑓(𝑧)is expanded as a Laurent series about the point 𝑧 = 𝑎 in the form 𝑓(𝑧) =
∑∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑎−𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
−𝑛
Then the first term is called the analytic
part of 𝑓(𝑧) and the second term is called the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧).
If the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧)consists of only a finite number of terms, say 𝑚, then
we say that 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order 𝑚.
In particular a pole of order 1 (𝑚 = 1) is called a simple pole.
Classification of Singularities
➢ A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called an isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) if there exists a
neighbourhood of the point 𝑎 which encloses no other singularities of 𝑓(𝑧).
➢ If the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 contain infinite number of terms then
𝑧 = 𝑎 is called an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Example:
1
➢ In 𝑓(𝑧) = sin ( ) , z = −1 is an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
𝑧+1

➢ If the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧) is completely absent then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a

removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Example:
1−cos 𝑧
➢ In 𝑓(𝑧) = , 𝑧 = 0 is a removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
𝑧2

Residues:
1
The coefficient of that is 𝑎−1 in the expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) is called the residue of
𝑧−𝑎

𝑓(𝑧) at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Example:
cos 𝑧
If 𝑓(𝑧) = , then 𝑓(𝑧) can be expanded as
𝑧5
1 1 1 11 𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = − + − +⋯
𝑧 5 2! 𝑧 3 4! 𝑧 6!

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
1 1 1
The residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at the pole 𝑧 = 0 is the coefficient of which being = .
𝑧 4! 24

Formula for the residue at the pole

If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order 𝑚 of the function 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is denoted by 𝑅[𝑚, 𝑎]
and is given by
1 𝑑 𝑚−1
𝑅[𝑚, 𝑎] = lim {(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)}.
(𝑚 − 1)! 𝑧→𝑎 𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1
In particular if 𝑚 = 1 (simple pole), we have
𝑎−1 = 𝑅[1, 𝑎] = lim(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧).
𝑧→𝑎

Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Statement:
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on the boundary of a simple closed curve C except for
a finite number of poles 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 , then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) over C is equal to
2𝜋𝑖 times the sum of the residues at the poles inside C.
Proof:
Let us surround each of the singular points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 by a small circle such
that it encloses no other singular point. Then these circles 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … , 𝐶𝑛 together with
C, form a multiply connected region in which 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic.
Applying the consequence of Cauchy’s theorem, we have

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑓(𝑧1 ) + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑓(𝑧2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑓(𝑧𝑛 )

= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 ], where 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , … , 𝑅𝑛 are the residues at the poles
𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑛 respectively.

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝑧2
Ex.1: Find the poles and its residues of the function (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2.

Solution:
Here 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 1.
and 𝑧 = 2 is a pole of order 2.
𝑧2
Residue at 𝑧 = 1 is lim(𝑧 − 1)𝑓(𝑧) = lim(𝑧 − 1) (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2 = 1
𝑧→1 𝑧→1
𝑑
Residue at 𝑧 = 2 is lim [(𝑧 − 2)2 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 2
𝑧2
= lim (𝑧
[ − 2) ]
𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)2
𝑑 𝑧2
= lim [ ]
𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 1)

(𝑧 − 1)2𝑧 − 𝑧 2
= lim [ ]=0
𝑧→2 (𝑧 − 1)2
𝑧 𝑒𝑧
Ex.2: If C is the circle |𝑧| = 2, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 using residue theorem.
(𝑧 2 −1)

Solution:
𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑧 𝑒𝑧
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = =
(𝑧 2 −1) (𝑧−1)(𝑧+1)

𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = −1 are simple poles of 𝑓(𝑧).

Both the poles lie inside the given circle |𝑧| = 2.
𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑒
Residue at 𝑧 = 1 = lim(𝑧 − 1)𝑓(𝑧) = lim(𝑧 − 1) =
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 (𝑧−1)(𝑧+1) 2

𝑧 𝑒𝑧 1
Residue at 𝑧 = −1= lim (𝑧 + 1)𝑓(𝑧) = lim (𝑧 + 1) =
𝑧→−1 𝑧→−1 (𝑧−1)(𝑧+1) 2𝑒

𝑧 𝑒𝑧
By Residue theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖{𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠}
(𝑧 2 −1)
𝑒 1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 [ + ] = 𝜋𝑖 [𝑒 + ].
2 2𝑒 𝑒

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝑧2
Ex.3: Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧+1)2 (𝑧 2 +4)
𝑑𝑧 using residue theorem where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 2𝑖| = 2.
𝑧2
Solution: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)2
(𝑧 2 +4)

Here 𝑧 = −1 is a pole of order 2.

And 𝑧 = 2𝑖, 𝑧 = −2𝑖 are poles of order 1.
𝑧 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = −2𝑖 lie outside the circle 𝐶: |𝑧 − 2𝑖| = 2.
Hence, we need to find the residue at the other pole 𝐶: 𝑧 = 2𝑖.
Residue at 𝑧 = 2𝑖 is lim (𝑧 − 2𝑖)𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→2𝑖

𝑧2
= lim (𝑧 − 2𝑖)
𝑧→2𝑖 (𝑧 + 1)2 (𝑧 2 + 4)
𝑧2
= lim (𝑧 − 2𝑖)
𝑧→2𝑖 (𝑧 + 1)2 (𝑧 + 2𝑖)(𝑧 − 2𝑖)
𝑧2
= lim
𝑧→2𝑖 (𝑧 + 1)2 (𝑧 + 2𝑖)

(2𝑖)2 𝑖
= =
(2𝑖 + 1)2 (2𝑖 + 2𝑖) (2𝑖 + 1)2
By residue theorem, we have

𝑧2
∫ 2 (𝑧 2 + 4)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2𝑖.
𝐶 (𝑧 + 1)
𝑖 −2𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑖. =
(2𝑖 + 1)2 (2𝑖 + 1)2

Ex.4: Evaluate ∫𝐶 tan 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 using residue theorem where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2.

Solution:
sin 𝑧
Here, 𝑓(𝑧) = tan 𝑧 =
cos 𝑧

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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
The poles are given by cos 𝑧 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧 = ± , ± ,± ,…
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Of these poles, 𝑧 = & − only are within the given circle.
2 2
𝜋 sin 𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 ( ) = lim𝜋 = −1
2 𝑧→ 𝑑 (cos 𝑧)
2
𝑑𝑧
𝜋 sin 𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 ( ) = lim𝜋 = −1
2 𝑧→− 𝑑 (cos 𝑧)
2
𝑑𝑧
Hence by residue theorem,
𝜋 𝜋
∫ tan 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 ( ) + 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 (− )]
𝐶 2 2

= 2𝜋𝑖(−1 − 1) = −4𝜋𝑖.

𝑧
tan
2
Ex.5: Evaluate∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 , where C is the boundary of the square whose sides
(𝑧−1−𝑖)2

are the lines 𝑥 = ±2, 𝑦 = ±2.

𝑧
tan
2
Solution: 𝑓(𝑧) =
(𝑧−1−𝑖)2

The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by

(𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖)2 = 0.
⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is a pole of order 2.
𝐶 is the square formed by 𝑥 = ±2, 𝑦 = ±2 .
𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 lies inside C.
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(1 + 𝑖) = lim [(𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖)2 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→1+𝑖 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 𝑧
= lim [tan ]
𝑧→1+𝑖 𝑑𝑧 2
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Unit-I: Complex Analysis
1 1+𝑖
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( )
2 2
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
𝑧
tan
∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(1 + 𝑖)
2
𝐶 (𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖)
1 1+𝑖 1+𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( ) = 𝜋𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( ).
2 2 2

47 Department of ECE, PESU