UNIT 3-Technological Analysis

Wireless Sensor Structure

A WSN can generally be described as a network

of nodes that cooperatively sense and control the
environment, enabling interaction between persons
or computers and the surrounding environment .
WSNs now days usually include sensor nodes,
actuator nodes, gateways and clients.
A large number of sensor nodes deployed randomly inside of
or near the monitoring area (sensor fi eld), form networks
through self-organization.
Sensor nodes monitor the collected data to transmit along to
other sensor nodes by hopping.
During the process of transmission, monitored data may be
handled by multiple nodes to get to gateway node after multi-
hop routing, and finally reach the management node through
the internet or satellite.
It is the user who configures and manages the WSN with the
management node, publish monitoring missions and
collection of the monitored data.

As related technologies mature, the cost of

WSN equipment has dropped dramatically, and
their applications are gradually expanding from
the military areas to industrial and commercial
fields.
Meanwhile, standards for WSN technology
have been well developed, such as Zigbee®1,
1 Zigbee® is an example of a suitable product available
commercially. This information is given for the convenience
of users of this standard and does not constitute an
endorsement by IEC of this product

Figure 3-1 | Wireless sensor networks

1) Sensor nodes

The sensor node is one of the main parts of a WSN.

The hardware of a sensor node generally includes
four parts: the power and power management
 module, a sensor, a microcontroller, and a wireless
transceiver, see Figure 3-3.

The power module

offers the reliable power needed for the system.

The sensor is the bond of a WSN node which can
obtain the environmental and equipment status. A
sensor is in charge of collecting and transforming
the signals, such as light, vibration and chemical
signals, into electrical signals and then transferring
them to the microcontroller.
The microcontroller
receives the data from the sensor and processes
the data accordingly. The Wireless Transceiver
(RFmodule) then transfers the data, so that the physical
realization of communication can be achieved.
It is important that the design of the all parts of a
WSN node consider the WSN node features of tiny
size and limited power

3.2.1 Miniaturization technology of sensor based on MEMS

The miniaturization technology of WSN nodes
based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
has made remarkable progress in recent years.
The core technology of MEMS is to realize the
combination of microelectronics technology, micro-
machining technology and the packaging tech-
nology. Different levels of 2D and 3D micro-
sensitive structures can be produced based on
microelectronics and micro-machining technology,
which can be the miniature sensing elements. These
miniature sensing elements, associated power
supply and signal conditioning circuits can be inte-
grated and packaged as a miniature MEMS sensor.

At present, there are already many types of miniature

MEMS sensors in the market which can be used to
measure a variety of physical, chemical and biomass
signals, including displacement, velocity, accelera-
tion, pressure, stress, strain, sound, light, electric-
ity, magnetism, heat, pH value, etc.

ENERGY STORAGE
In the current context of the Internet of Things (IoT), the
possibility to develop smart and context
aware applications in different environments (rural, urban, and
industrial) is a reality enabled by
autonomous wireless sensors (AWS). Autonomous wireless
sensors represent the core of the Wireless
Sensor Networks (WSN). They must deliver data with high
reliability, must exhibit high energetic
performance as well as autonomy. Current technology allows
the development of a large spectrum
of sensor-based applications in various fields, from military to
bioengineering and from industry to
education. The increased complexity of the sensors’ behavior
raises new challenges regarding reliability,
availability, accuracy, energy consumption, security, and data
transfer efficiency, in an extremely
complex environment. Such complexity spawns the
development of simulation test beds that facilitate
the decision process in the hardware and software design of
the next generation AWSs. For each AWS
parameter, it is important to identify its variation range and
the cross correlation with other parameters.
The AWS architecture refers to components and their
organization, illustrating the subsystem inferences.
Thus, in the case of power sources, the storage system should
simultaneously satisfy the application
demands: Both for basic power and short-term power
variation. The informational aspect will mainly
influence the transceiver choice and the protocol with which is
endowed. In Figure 1, the main
components of the optimization process are revealed

The paper commences with a survey identifying the AWS’

main parameters, their ranges, and
effects on energy efficiency. In this sense, the following steps
are considered:
1. Definition and adoption of an appropriate structure and
topology for the WSN;
2. Decision on the parameters that must be optimized from the
energetic perspective;
3.Development of an AWS prototype in order to simulate,
using real components, several use cases
and highlight the relationship between data and energy
consumption in accordance with the
application’s requirements (e.g., spectrum and storage system
life span).
The proposed methodology for sizing and controlling of the
AWS hybrid power supply (battery
combined with super-capacitor) was developed, implemented,
and tested. A wide variety of sensors
technologies are available on the market today. The principal
research question is related to the
“hybridization” methodology of the autonomous wireless
sensors. The premises for structural and
functional hybridization of the main subsystems of the AWS
are analyzed, including the power
management strategies in order to improve the sensors’
autonomy. Two aspects were considered:
The power flow optimization between the storage elements
(battery and super-capacitor) and the
power management related to the wireless transmission and
the successive functional stages of the
micro-controller and sensor transceiver. In accordance with
the proposed architectural changes for the
AWS (i.e., their hardware and corresponding software
solutions) were implemented. Additionally, we
analyze how these changes lead to saving resources,
increasing the AWS system’ life-time, and also an
improving functionality. The AWS parameters (e.g., the field
of emission and the data exchanged) must
be correlated with the energy consumption and transceiver
type in order to provide recommendations
for sensor parameter adjustment (e.g., sensor placement,
power tuning, communication protocols, and
transceiver types or other hardware combinations).
The paper is structured as follows: in Section 2we present a
survey of transceiver technologies for
AWSs and their associated parameters, as well as the
powering methods for AWS. Section 3provides
the transceiver’s testing methodology followed in Section 4by
the AWS design and implementation.
In Section 5we discuss the open field AWS testing results
followed in Section 6by a 3D visualization
of EM fields and AWS’ power consumption. In Section 7, we
propose the hybridization of the
communication by including dual transceivers and energy
sources for improved AWS behavior.
A methodology is proposed for sizing the hybrid supply in
order to avoid accelerated-aging, by
Sensors 2019,19, 3364 3 of 31
minimizing the stress produced by instantaneous parameters,
such as fast current and voltage variation,
on battery. Section 8describes two IoT-based applications.
Improvements in transceiver performance
may occur by increasing the power density of the power
supply, i.e., reducing the equivalent series
resistance of the AWS power source, as shown herein.

The Power Management Module (PMM)

The Power Management Module (PMM) is a smart load
protection device designed to protect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by an overload condition or short circuit.
Basically, it detects a fault condition and interrupts current
flow. Unlike a one-time fuse, the PMM can be manually,
automatically or remotely reset.
It uses a solid-state highside switch that is protected from
extreme overload, output shorts to ground, thermal conditions,
and reverse connection currents.
The PMM can be configured to trip at several breaker currents
from 1 to 30 amps, and for “fast” or “slow-acting” trip
response times.
The PMM can also be used as a solid-state relay (SSR). It
contains a solid-state high-side power switch that can be
controlled by grounding or ungrounding a load control signal
input.
The PMM can act as a battery saver to prevent the discharge
of cranking batteries by automatically disconnecting the load
at a preconfigured value.
Its circuitry measures the source input voltage to the module.
Load disconnect can occur upon recognition of a low voltage
condition caused by the loss of the charging current, either
from an alternator or a line powered charger. When it senses
the loss of the charging current it disconnects the load,
preventing further battery drain.
The PMM can be configured for an immediate notification of
the loss of charging current, with or without a time delay, for
load disconnect.

RF module

An RF module (short for radio-frequency module) is a

(usually) small electronic device used to transmit and/or
receive radio signals between two devices.
In an embedded system it is often desirable to communicate
with another device wirelessly.
This wireless communication may be accomplished
through optical communication or through radio-
frequency (RF) communication.
For many applications, the medium of choice is RF since it
does not require line of sight.
RF communications incorporate a transmitter and a receiver.
They are of various types and ranges. Some can transmit up to
500 feet.
RF modules are most often used in medium and low
volume products for consumer applications such as garage
door openers, wireless alarm or monitoring
systems, industrial remote controls, smart sensor
applications, and wireless home automation systems. They
are sometimes used to replace
older infrared communication designs as they have the
advantage of not requiring line-of-sight operation.
Several carrier frequencies are commonly used in
commercially available RF modules, including those in
the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands such
as 433.92 MHz, 915 MHz, and 2400 MHz.
These frequencies are used because of national and
international regulations governing the used of radio for
communication. Short Range Devices may also use
frequencies available for unlicensed such as 315 MHz and
868 MHz.
RF modules may comply with a defined protocol for RF
communications such as Zigbee, Bluetooth Low Energy,
or Wi-Fi,.

Types of RF modules[edit]
The term RF module can be applied to many different types,
shapes and sizes of small electronic sub assembly circuit
board. It can also be applied to modules across a huge
variation of functionality and capability. RF modules typically
incorporate a printed circuit board, transmit or receive
circuit, antenna, and serial interface for communication to the
host processor.
Most standard, well known types are covered here:
 transmitter module
 receiver module

 transceiver module

 system on a chip module.

Transmitter modules[edit]
An RF transmitter module is a small PCB sub-
assembly capable of transmitting a radio wave
and modulating that wave to carry data. T
ransmitter modules are usually implemented alongside
a microcontroller which will provide data to the module
which can be transmitted.
RF transmitters are usually subject to regulatory
requirements which dictate the maximum
allowable transmitter power output, harmonics, and band edge
requirements.
Receiver modules[edit]
An RF receiver module receives the modulated RF signal,
and demodulates it. There are two types of RF receiver
modules: superheterodyne receivers and superregenerative
receivers. Superregenerative modules are usually low cost and
low power designs using a series of amplifiers to extract
modulated data from a carrier wave. Superregenerative
modules are generally imprecise as their frequency of
operation varies considerably with temperature and power
supply voltage.[citation needed]
Superheterodyne receivers have a performance advantage
over superregenerative; they offer increased accuracy and
stability over a large voltage and temperature range.

Transceiver modules[edit]
An RF transceiver module incorporates both a transmitter
and receiver. The circuit is typically designed for half-
duplex operation, although full-duplex modules are
available, typically at a higher cost due to the added
complexity.

Sensing module

Sensor module with iot

Sensors and modules (having extra electronic circuitry along
with sensor) are Electronic devices that detect and respond
to some type of input from the physical environment.

ENERGY STORAGE
Traditionally India has been an energy storage country but
this sector was always dominated by the Lead Acid series and
never got the due attention. By and large energy storage has
been generally used only for short duration backup application
or off-grid applications with Renewables. However with the
advancement in technologies and their commercialization
there are many avenues that can be explored for Energy
Storageas:-

BULK ENERGY STORAGE

Batteries are used in small electronic and electrical appliances
or as energy storage for UPS or in renewables for power
smoothing. There has been a trend of increasing renewable
generation all over the world. India is also targeting around
225 GW renewable generation by 2022. Renewables are
known to have intermittent nature. In case of solar generation,
energy is available only when sun is shining. And when wind
is blowing, in case of wind generation. There is no control on
availability of energy and it gets wasted if generated in
excess.

To gain some control over the renewable generation, battery is

used, as it stores excess energy and supplies it during absence
of energy. This has been the major application of battery until
recently. With massive investments in battery technology their
prices are falling and this has made availability of battery for
bulk energy storage possible. Bulk energy storage is
becoming feasible with batteries and it has led to number of
applicationsofstorage.

PEAK DEMAND SUPPLY

Demand is variable throughout the day and utilities are known

to keep reserve capacity to supply peak demand. The sources
which can be turned on and off quickly and most efficiently
are used for supplying peak demand. Natural gas power plant
or other fuel plant and pumped storage hydro plants are often
used for supplying peak demand. The use of natural gas and
other fuels is against the policy of renewable generation and is
not eco-friendly as well. In case of pump storage they need
suitable site to be installed, otherwise constructing them
becomes unfeasible. This issue can be solved with help of
batteries.

Batteries have become eco-friendly, thanks to their recycling

capacity and battery chemistry. Also they can be installed
very easily almost anywhere and can store energy during low
demand. Availability of batteries at economical rates has
made it possible to supply peak demand. It also improves
efficiencyofsystem.

INCREASING EFFICIENCY

So far in grid the generating companies had to supply

electricity as soon as there was demand. And also they could
not generate electricity when demand was not there otherwise
it would have to be wasted. This was because demand and
supply has to be balanced all the time as there was no bulk
storage of electricity available in grid. This caused electricity
to be generated even when it was not efficient. Since
generation had to work when load demands it irrespective of
the efficiency of generation. This scenario is about to change
with availability of advanced energy storage with Lithium
Batteries having 95% efficiency like Li-Rack Eco.

The generation will work at maximum efficiency and the

deficit in demand will be supplied by battery. If demand is
less than most efficient generation then excess energy will be
stored in battery. Thus batteries can be used for increasing
efficiency of generation. The demand for electricity is rising
and so is the generation being increased. But, the least-cost
generations are mostly away from load centers. This causes
increase in flow of power through the transmission network
during peak demand. This increases the transmission losses to
a large extent. This problem can be overcome by strategic
placement of batteries.

The batteries which are placed near load centers can store
energy during low demand and supply it at peak demand
thereby helping in reducing transmission losses. Thus
batteries can be utilized for increasing efficiency of the
system.

Delayedneedofinfrastructurechanges
As discussed above with strategic placement of batteries peak
demand of load can be reduced. Increase in peak demand put
strain on existing infrastructure of transmission grid. And it
necessitates the need for increasing the transmission capacity.
Using energy storage peak demand can be reduced and the
need for investment in transmission infrastructure can be
delayed. Energy Arbitrage is another opportunity provided by
EnergyStorage.

Energyarbitrage
Energy arbitrage is buying energy at low rate and selling is at
higher rate. Using energy storage it is possible to buy energy
at low rate and store it. And the energy can be sold when rates
are high. JouLie+ is great system which can support many
such applications at the MW scale.

FrequencyRegulation
Whenever there in mismatch in supply and demand, the
frequency of the system changes. The variation of frequency
should be kept within limits, or it will lead to collapse of the
entire system. Many black outs have been caused when
frequency was out of stability limits. The mismatch in supply
and demand may be caused by many conditions like faults in
system or failure of any component. If the energy supply is
more than demand then frequency of system increases. And if
Demand is more than frequency drops in the system. Energy
storage can perform function of frequency regulation by
maintaining the supply and demand balance. The excess
energy can be absorbed by battery when demand is less and
deficit is energy demand can be supplied by it when
generation fail to supply entire demand.

Voltagesupport
Similar to frequency regulation batteries can also provide
voltage support with help of static converters. They supply or
absorb the required reactive power thereby maintaining
specific grid volt.

Spinningreserves
Spinning reserve is the reserve which can supply power to
grid instantaneously when there is loss of generation. They are
always connected to grid.
 Since most of generators have rotating component in form of
rotor. It must be kept rotating so that generator can supply
power immediately when required. Since it takes time for
generator to supply power to its rated capacity if the rotor is
not rotating.
That is why it is called spinning reserve.
Batteries can act as spinning reserve as they can store energy
and supply it almost instantaneously like generator with
rotating rotor.

Non-spinningreserve
Non-spinning reserves are not connected to grid and have
generators with no rotating part so they take time for
delivering power. They usually supply power within minutes.
Energy storage can replace both spinning and non-spinning
reserve.

Blackstartandrampingsupport
Black start is bringing a generation plant from shutdown to a
specified power level within a specified time, without support
from transmission lines. For black start normally diesel
generator or if available hydroelectric generators are used.
Bulk energy storage can perform this function of black start.
The supplementary power needed for starting and shutdown
of baseload generation can also be taken from this bulk energy
storage.

Thus many applications are becoming feasible using energy

storage alone. Today the Role of Energy Storage is much
larger than just storing solar energy, let’s make the maximum
use of it.