KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

UNIT-II
PLC STRUCTURE

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) - Introduction - Parts of PLC - Principles of operation -

PLC sizes - PLC hardware components - I/O section - Analog I/O section - Analog I/O modules
- Digital I/O modules - CPU Processor - Memory module - Programming devices - Diagnostics
of PLCs with Computers.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that
continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom
program to control the state of output devices.
Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be greatly enhanced using
this type of control system. However, the biggest benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change
and replicate the operation or process while collecting and communicating vital information.
Another advantage of a PLC system is that it is modular. That is, you can mix and match
the types of Input and Output devices to best suit your application. The first Programmable Logic
Controllers were designed and developed by Modicon as a relay re-placer for GM and Landis.
 These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and adding additional hardware for each new
configuration of logic.
 The new system drastically increased the functionality of the controls while reducing the cabinet
space that housed the logic.
 The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969
 The first commercial successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 and was designed by
Michael Greenberg.
Introduction
PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial processes in
manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the automation system is high relative to the
total cost of the automation, and where changes to the system would be expected during its operational
life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little
electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired sequence of
operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so the cost of a packaged PLC is

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other hand, in the case of
mass-produced goods, customized control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the
components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic" solution, and where the non-recurring
engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For
example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical cam timer costing only a
few dollars in production quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of units will
be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies, input/output hardware, and necessary
testing and certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would not need to alter
the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of units are built each year, and very few
end-users alter the programming of these controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit
buses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the
development cost would be uneconomical.
Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require algorithms and
performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision
controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board
computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be chosen for very demanding
control applications where the high development and maintenance cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs"
running on desktop-type computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing programs
within a version of commercial operating systems adapted for process control needs.
Programmable controllers are widely used in motion, positioning, and/or torque control. Some
manufacturers produce motion control units to be integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving
a CNC machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a proportional, integral,
derivative (PID) controller. A PID loop could be used to control the temperature of a manufacturing
process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few analog control loops;
where processes required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would
instead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and PLC applications
has been blurred.
In recent years "safety" PLCs have started to become popular, either as standalone models or as
functionality and safety-rated hardware added to existing controller architectures (Allen-
Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

for use in safety-critical applications for which PLCs have traditionally been supplemented with hard-
wired safety relays. For example, a safety PLC might be used to control access to a robot cell
with trapped-key access, or perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a
conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a restricted regular instruction set augmented with
safety-specific instructions designed to interface with emergency stops, light screens, and so forth. The
flexibility that such systems offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these controllers.
Parts of PLC
PLCs have similar functionality as remote terminal units. An RTU, however, usually does not
support control algorithms or control loops. As hardware rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper,
RTUs, PLCs, and DCSs are increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors sell
RTUs with PLC-like features, and vice versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 61131-
3 functional block language for creating programs to run on RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all vendors
also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments.
• PLC Hardware
PLC hardware refers to the individual PLCs that operate or monitor equipment. Automation
Direct PLC, Siemens, Square D and Omron are some of the major PLC hardware providers of
PLC hardware. Some PLC hardware such as the Click series Automation Direct PLC can be
combined to create an operator interface. Other PLC devices require connective devices to
communicate with an operator interface or networking device.
• Operator Interface
Operator interfaces provide real time system reporting to shop floor personnel. A diagram of the
water flow can be shown on an operator interface and flash red for those areas lacking flow or
overheating. A pneumatic system operator interface could be programmed to flash yellow when
pressure builds up or valves cease responding to a PLC’s commands. Operator interfaces can be
used to log information from PLCs and provide trend lines or reports for review.
• Motor Controllers
Motor controllers are PLCs that control electric motors. There are PLCs for both AC and DC
motors. Motor starters control the starting time, starting voltage and voltage ramp ups of motors
to ensure a smooth start. Motor overload relays act as breakers and fuses to prevent motors from
overheating or running in overload conditions. PLCs in motor controls can also be designed to
turn off the motor when phase loss occurs. Intelligent Motor Controls adjust the motor torque in

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

response to the motor load by adjusting the voltage and current. PLCs can also act as Variable
Frequency Drives and control the AC motor via the frequency of the alternating current. When
an AC motor alternates between high and low torque applications, PLCs used in this fashion can
save significant money by lowering the utility costs.
• Software
PLC automation software is usually written in the form of a ladder program. The ladder program
is stored in a flash EEPROM memory inside the PLC. However, the PLC ladder logic
programming software itself typically runs on a PC where the ladder logic code is created by a
programmer. Operator interface software is typically Microsoft Windows based. For example,
Automation Direct PLC C-More touch panel programming software runs on any Windows OS.
CoDeSys, short for Controller Development System, is open source PLC software. TRiLOGI is a
ladder logic and BASIC based programming language, though it is limited to only a few series of
PLCs. Automation Direct’s DataWorx software and NI LabVIEW software are two of the major
providers of data logging software.
• Network Connections
PLC connection modules connect to PLC units to terminal blocks. PLC programming
cables connect the personal computer where the PLC automation software is stored to the PLC
itself. Most PLC connectors are built to the RS-232 or RS-485 standard. The PLC may be
connected to a remote terminal unit (RTU) which forwards status information from the PLC to a
work station or operator interface. Communications in PLC networks are typically Modbus and
ASCII. The latest PLCs can use Ethernet or wireless connections to provide central control units
with real time system statuses and receive updated instructions from a work station or operator
interface.
Advantages of PLC’s
There are six major advantages of using PLCs over relay systems as follows:
 Flexibility
 Ease of troubleshooting
 Space efficiency
 Low cost
 Testing
 Visual operation

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

Criteria for Selection of Suitable PLC

Flexibility: One single PLC can easily run many machines.
Ease of Troubleshooting: Back before PLCs, wired relay-type panels required time for rewiring
of panels and devices. With PLC control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as
retyping the logic. Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost effective.
Space Efficient: Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional
hardware system. The PLC performs the functions of timers, counters, sequencers, and control
relays, so these hardware devices are not required. The only field devices that are required are
those that directly interface with the system such as switches and motor starters.
Low Cost: Prices of PLCs vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is minimal compared
to the prices of the contact, coils, and timers that companies pay to match the same things. Using
PLCs also saves on installation cost and shipping.
Testing: A PLC program can be tested, evaluated, and validated in a lab prior to implementation
in the field.
Visual observation: When running a PLC program a visual operation displays on a screen or
module mounted status lamps assist in making troubleshooting a circuit quick, easy, and
relatively simple.

Principle of Operation
There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan, Program Scan, Output Scan,
and Housekeeping. These steps continually take place in a repeating loop.
1.) Input Scan
These steps are continually
 Detects the state of all input devices that
processed in a loop.
are connected to the PLC

2.) Program Scan

 Executes the user created program logic

3.) Output Scan

 Energizes or de-energize all output devices

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

that are connected to the PLC.

4.) Housekeeping

 This step includes communications with

programming terminals,
internal diagnostics, etc...

PLC Sizes
Modular and Fixed PLCs
PLCs have two main categories: modular or fixed. Both have the same basic functions. A PLC is
much like a personal computer. It consists of a central processing unit (CPU) and an input/output
(I/O) interface system. The difference between a PC and PLCs is that PLCs handle multiple
configurations and carry out control functions. All I/O systems consist of message or information
carriers - inputs - and controllable devices - outputs. Any switches, sensors or other similar
devices are physically linked to the main I/O system and all of the activity throughout the entire
system is controlled by the CPU.
This is the same regardless of whether you're using a modular or a fixed PLC. However, these
two systems are very different in application and execution.
 Fixed PLCs are typically designed to perform basic functions. They are small and consist of a power
supply and the CPU and I/O systems, which are all housed in one entity. The proper functioning of
all processes largely depends on the flawless execution of every component.

 Modular PLCs, also known as rack-mounted units, consist of bases allowing for many independent
components, such as the installation of numerous I/O modules. These are easier to repair.

Advantages of Modular PLCs

Fixed PLCs are only capable of housing so much information. This is because of the fact that all
the necessary parts are housed in one entity. Also, there isn’t a lot of room for expanding

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

information beyond the very basic functions it requires. Modular PLCs have far more memory
and has the capability to store a higher volume of information.
Greater Number of Available I/O Modules
The fixed PLC has limited I/O modules thus limiting its performance. The modular PLC has the
capacity to accomplish more complex processes making it more advantageous.
Room for Expansion
As the need to expand your operation arises, the fixed PLC will not be able to grow with the
company. Modular PLCs were designed for that purpose, to expand and customize processes for
seamless growth.
Easier to Troubleshoot, Less Downtime
Downtime costs money- no one wants a system that drains the profits. Fixed PLCs do not alert
the operator of problems. Thus, when they crash it takes considerable time to troubleshoot the
problem. However, the modular PLCs can easily troubleshoot issues, keeping some processes
operational while fixing the issue. While fixed PLCs may be less expensive, initially, the
modular PLC has greater economic security long-term.

PLC Hardware Components

The PLC is a specialist type of computer so the why and how PLC's work is needed to utilise them
correctly and to your best advantage. They are used extensively but not solely in industry, to control
machines and processes.
Being a computer, it shares common terms with the typical PC (Personal Computer) you'd have
in your home. Terms like CPU (central processing unit), RAM & ROM (random access memory
& read only memory), also software, hardware and communications (Comms).
That's about where similarities end though as unlike a PC, the PLC is designed to be used in
harsh and rugged industrial conditions. Also the PLC needs to be and is, very flexible in how it
can interface with inputs and outputs and other computers in the real world.
The components that make a modular PLC work can be divided into four core areas.
 The backplane or rack and power supply.
 The central processing unit (CPU).
 The input/output (I/O) section.

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

 The Program section.

PLCs come in so many makes and different shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in
your pocket but also the more involved controls systems can be as large as a wardrobe with
several interconnected large PLC racks. The smaller PLCs, also known as a brick type, are
typically designed with fixed I/O points as low as 6 but also up to 256. The modular PLC is
named because the backplane rack can accept many different configurations and types of I/O
modules that simply slide into the rack and plug in. Consequently a modular PLC can be custom
built with whatever configuration of I/O is best suited to the job in hand. Along with a multitude
of configurations that also means they can made as small or big as needed too.
Power Supplies to PLC
The Power supply for a Programmable Logic Controller converts the input source power into
voltages required for internal circuitry. In some cases, it also provides an isolated VDC supply to power
DC input circuits, switches and other indicators. The Power Supply of the PLC is an essential component
to running the PLC.
The function of the power supply is to provide the DC power to operate the PLC. It is supplied
by single-phase 120 or 240 VAC line power that powers the PLC system.

The Power Supply is a module located in the PLC system module rack. The DC power (voltage
and current) it provides power the other modules in the rack, such as the CPU, Co-processor
Modules, and I/O Modules.
The line power provided to the PLC system also powers the I/O Field Devices. The PLC system
is protected against PLC module or field device malfunctions. The Fuse in Figure 4 provides this
protection.

 The microprocessor codes, decodes, and computes data.

 The memory (ROM, PROM/EEPROM/UVPROM, and RAM) stores both the control program
and the data from the field devices.
 The I/O Interface adapter connects the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules and the
Peripheral Device to the CPU.

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a "ladder logic" program
written by the user. In order to use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the various
field devices it monitors and controls. It then compares the actual conditions of the field devices with
what the program instructs them to do, and updates the output devices accordingly.
1. Input switch is pressed
2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes

I/O Section
A PLC input device means anything that can give an input to the PLC, that can influence the
programs operation. These can consist of digital, analogue, switches, sensors, intelligent devices and even
Comms modules.
Electrical noise, such as spikes in the power lines or load kick-back would have serious
impact on a PLC's internal circuits since its CPU operates at very low voltages levels. This is
where the Input/Output (I/O) portion of a PLC plays a critical role. The I/O, both inputs and
outputs, protects the CPU from electrical noise. The I/O section is where status signals are
filtered to remove noise, validate voltage levels, and CPU decisions are made and put into
operation. The PLC Inputs provide their status to a storage area within the CPU and outputs are
driven from similar stored status in the CPU.
PLC digital input cards that handle discrete devices are available with anywhere from 8 to
128 inputs on a single card that slot into the rack. However any more than 16 inputs on a card
usually means having a breakout connector as it's just not possible to connect that many wires
onto the top of an input card on the PLC with built in screw terminals.
A breakout connector is merely a means of fanning out the physical connection from the
input or output card. This is achieved by using a multi-pole connector on top of the card which
connects via a data cable to another card with all the screw terminals on it. It's this card that the
discrete bit devices will connect to.
Analogue devices can also be input devices to PLCs, but due to how PLCs work, they
needs a special card to translate their infinitely variable signal (which could be voltage or

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

current) into something the CPU can understand. Analogue signals need to be, what's
called digitised before the CPU can deal with them.
This simply means converting say a 0V to 10V DC signal that you might get from load
cell or speed control potentiometer into a value. For example if 10V DC equalled a value of 4000
then 2.5V DC would equal 1000 and 5V 2000. Also the FSD for this device would then be 4000
(just testing).
Examples of analogue devices that you may come across are those like the previously
mentioned reference setting potentiometers and load cells, as well as pressure transducers, flow
meters and thermocouples for temperature readings.
Analog I/O Section
The output devices consist of digital (bit devices) and/or also analogue devices (value devices).
Bi-directional devices, by their definition talk in both directions, in other words they are simultaneously
inputs and outputs at the same time. If you look at the RS232 pinouts Tx pin and an Rx pin, which stands
for transmit and receive respectively. More basically, this translates into talk (Tx) and listen (Rx).
Perhaps this is a good place to say as a prelude to the outputs, one of the reasons how
PLCs work so well is because they are able to convert signals in both directions, in and out.
These input converting cards or modules are called A/D Converters, the 'A/D' bit stands
for Analogue and Digital, complimenting the A/D converter input cards are the output converting
cards called D/A Converters. As you can see from the name the process is reversed.
This pair of PLC modules give us the the ability to convert an analogue signal into a digitally
represented value, process it within the PLC program and then convert it back to an analogue
signal again.
An analogue output card will convert a digital value or number sent held in a memory location
by the CPU into a real world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0-10V
DC, -10V to +10V DC or 4-20mA and are used to control servo drives and positioning controls
as well as pressure regulators and level control systems. This type of system is called 'Closed
Loop' control.
The digital output card is the compliment to the digital input card and turns a (bit) device on or
off such as lights, LEDs, small motors, solenoids (electromagnets), and relays. Digital output
cards are available with 8 up to 128 output per card, but again like the input cards any more than

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS: III BSc ECS COURSE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
COURSE CODE: 16ECU501A UNIT: II(PLC Structure) BATCH-2016-2019

16 would need a connector breakout card because of the physical space needed for the wire
screw connections.
Real world devices such as pushbuttons, limit switches and sensors are connected through the input
modules in the PLC. These modules detect a change in the state of input signals and provide a stored
image to input elements in ladder logic. The input elements simulate the actions of relay contacts within
the Programmable Logic Controller. In turn, output elements are "energized," which produces desired
output signals to drive loads such as motor controllers, contactors, solenoids, and pilot lights, via the
output modules in the I/O's. As a general rule, each instruction in ladder logic requires one word of
memory. Each instruction is programmed so that series contacts are ANDed and parallel contacts are
ORed.
All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work together to bring information into the
PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send information back out to various field. Without
any of these major components, the PLC will fail to function properly.
The basic components include a power supply, central processing unit (CPU or
processor), co-processor modules, input and output modules (I/O), and a peripheral device.
Input Types: Logic
In the memory serves the same function as the addresses used for homes or apartments. For
example, Word 100 represents a specific word location in memory just like N100 Lincoln represents the
address of an apartment building. The bits in word 100 are found by referencing a given bit number, just
like the occupant of the apartment complex is found by a given apartment number. Since a bit of
information can only be a 1 or 0 (ON or OFF). How is the status of bits within a word determined? Words
that store the status of individual bits for input devices are set to 1 (ON) of 0 (OFF) depending upon the
status of the input devices that the bit location represent. Other bits are set to 1 or cleared to 0 by the
processor in response to the logic of the user program, RELAY LADDER LOGIC, or special instructions,
which in turn controls the status (ON or OFF) of other bits that represent output devices.

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