Module 2 ECOSYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT
➢ The word “Environment” has been derived from French word “ Environner” which means “to
encircle” or “to surround”, whereas “nature” word is derived Latin word “Natura” which refers to
characteristics of plants, animals and other creatures.
➢ Environment is total sum of all conditions which affect evolution and development of life on
earth’s surface where organisms live including abiotic (soil, water , air etc…) and biotic (plants,
animal, microorganisms etc… )
SEGMENTS OF ENIVIRONMENT
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere is the part of environment.
❖ ATMOSPHERE
▪ Atmosphere is nothing, but the air envelope surrounded the earth. Most of atmosphere is
located close to the earth’s surface where it is most dense.
▪ The atmosphere is divided into a series of concentric shells of sphere, due to the variations
in temperature and pressure at various altitude.
1. TOPOSPHERE:
• It is the lower portion of atmosphere extending upto about 12 km and form 90% of
gases in the atmosphere.
• In this layer generally temperature decreases with increasing height upto tropopause.
There is approximately 6.38⁰C drop in temperature per KM of height. This decrease in
temperature is called as lapse rate.
2. STRATOSPHERE
• It extends upto 50Km
• There is little mixing of gases between the troposphere and stratosphere.
• A thin layer of OZONE is present in the stratosphere at the height of 15-30 Km which
prevents the harmful effects of Ultraviolet rays to reach the lower atmosphere.
• Stratopause is transition layer between stratosphere and mesosphere.
3. MESOSPHERE
• It is situated above the stratosphere and extends up to an altitude of 80 KM and shows and
shows a decrease of temperature with increase in height.
•The end of the mesosphere is called mesopause.
4. THERMOSPHERE
• It is a layer of earth’s atmosphere which is situated directly above the mesosphere and below
the exosphere.
•It extends upto 700 KM.
•The density of air at this height is very low.
• The thermosphere includes another layer called the IONOSPHERE, merging with it in its
upper portion. This region consists of ionized particles, which are the charged molecules.
5. EXOSPHERE
• The layer beyond thermosphere is known as exosphere.
❖ LITHOSPHERE
▪ It is the solid rocky crust covering entire earth. This crust is inorganic and is composed of
minerals.
▪ It covers the entire surface of the earth.
❖ HYDROSPHERE
▪ The Hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the surface of the earth. This
includes the ocean, river, lakes and even moisture in air.
▪ 97% of earth’s water is in the oceans and remaining 3% is fresh water. The 3/4 of fresh
water is solid and exists in ice sheet.

ECOSYSTEM
➢ An ecosystem is a complex set of relationship among the living resources, habitats,
residents of an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, microorganisms, water, soil
people etc…
➢ The term ‘ecosystem was frist coined by A.G. Tansely.
➢ The concept of ecosystem was initially given by E. P. Odum who is widely considered as
“ Father of ecosystem”.
COMPONENTS OF ATMOSPHERE
Ecosystem is made up of two components i.e., biotic and abiotic components. These
components are interlinked in such a way that change in any one will affect the other.
❖ ABIOTIC
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts of the world. These consists
of soil, water, air, light energy etc. These also involve a large number of chemicals like
oxygen, nitrogen etc. and physical process including volcanoes, earthquakes, floods,
climate and weather condition. Some of the important abiotic factors are:
▪ Energy- Energy from sun is essential for maintainance of life.
▪ Rainfall- Water is essential for all living beings. It helps to regulate body
temperature.
▪ Temperature- It is a critical factor of the environment which grately influences
survival of organisms. Temperature of the air and water affect animals, plants and
humans in ecosystems.
▪ Atmosphere- The earth’s atmosphere is responsible for creating conditions suitable
for the existence of a healthy biosphere on this planet.
▪ Chemical Elements- Chemical elements act within the environment to impact what
type of organisms can grow or thrive in the area. The chemical composition, including
acidity level, has a large impact on the plants in an area.
▪ Wind- This is especially evident with wind. The wind speed and direction affects the
temperature and humidity of an area.
▪ Latitude and Altitude- It has strong influence on temperature of an area, resulting in
change of climates such as polar, tropical and temperature.
❖BIOTIC
Biotic components include living organisms comprising plants animals and microbes.
A. Primarary Producers / Autorophes (Self Nourishing) –
• They are primary producers and basically green plants (including certain bacteria and
algae) come under this category.
• The make their food themselves through photosynthesis mechanism.
B. Consumers / Hetrotrophs (Other Nourishing) –
• These are incapable of producing their own food.
• They depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both.
•The consumers are broadly classified in two broa categories
a) Macro consumers- They are further divided into different categories
(i) Herbivores (Primary Consumers) - The consumers or organisms that feed on
autotrophs e.g. Deer, Cow, Rabbit etc…
(ii) Carnivores (Secondry Consumers) – They are further divided into:

First Order Second Order Third Order

Frog Snake Eagle
Rat Cat Lion / Tiger
(iii) Omnivores – They are depend on both autotrophs and heterotrophs e.g. Humans
b) Micro organisms / Saprophytes (Decomposers) –
Micro consumers are popularly known as decomposers or detrius. They breakdown
complex compound of dead remnants of flaura and fauna. T hey also decomposes tissues of
plants and animals into micro nutrients.
They obtain energy and nutrient by decomposing dead organic substances (detrius) of
plants and animals e.g. Bacteria, Fungi, Termites etc…
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
There are essentially two types of Ecosystem:
NATURAL ECOSYSTEM
A natural ecosystem is an ecosystem that is found naturally in the environment. It is further
divided as-
▪ Terrestrial Ecosystem are those that are found on the lands. They cover approximately
30% of earth surface. Examples are Includes forest, dessert, and Grasslands etc...
▪ Aquatic Ecosystem are those that are found in water bodies. They cover approximately
70% of the earth surface. Example are Lakes, River, Ponds etc…
ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM
These are man-made ecosystems. These ecosystem are constructed and maintained by
human beings. It is further divided as-
▪ Terrestrial Ecosystem are those that are found on the lands. It includes crop fields and
farms, Zoo, Garden.
▪ Aquatic Ecosystem are those that are found in water bodies. It includes artificial ponds,
Aquarium, Reservoirs.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different
organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a
different trophic level, and their order, which is based on who eats whom, represents the
flow of energy.
10% Law (Lindeman’s Law)
▪ According to Raymond Lindeman in an ecosystem when energy is transferred from one
trophical level to another, then 90% energy is used in maintenance of metabolic processes
and only 10% energy is transferred one trophic level to another.
There are three types of Ecological pyramids
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS-
▪This shows the number of organisms in each trophic level without any consideration for
their size.
▪ The number usually decreases as you go towards the apex of pyramid.

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
▪ This indicates the total mass of organisms at each trophic level. Usually, this type
of pyramid is largest at the bottom and gets smaller going up, but exceptions do
exist.
▪ The mass is measured in terms of gram.
PYRAMID OF ENERGY
▪ The pyramid of productivity looks at the total amount of energy present at each
trophic level.
▪There is always loss of energy going up in trophic levels.
FOOD CHAIN
It is defined as the unidirectional transfer of food energy from the producer to consumer
through a series of organism (herbivores to carnivores to omnivores to decomposers) with
repeated eating and being eaten process.
FOOD WEB
It is a graphical description of feeding relationship among species in an ecological
community i.e. who eats whom.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological
community over time. The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or
even millions of years after a mass extinction. It is also known as Biotic Succession
There are following types of Ecological Succession-
▪ Primary Succession- It refers to development sequence of vegetation in those area
where there were no vegetation and animal earlier.
▪ Secondary Succession- It refers to development sequence of vegetation in those
area which had vegetation cover earlier, but now have been rendered bare due to
destruction of vegetation(partially or compeletely) by natural factors or human
interventions.
▪ Autogenic Succession- It refers that change which arises within community itself
and responsible for succession.
▪ Allogenic Succession- If succession occurs due to external factors which is outside
of community.
▪ Xerosere Succession- If Succession takes place in area where there is scarcity of
H₂O.
▪ Hydrosere Succession- Succession which takes place in those areas where H ₂O is
abundant like Lakes, Ponds..
CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEM
▪ Ecosystem comprises many biogeochemical cycles functioning as a part of the
system.
▪ Biogeochemical cycle means the movement of chemical elements or molecule
between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem.
▪ Some of the biogeochemical cycles are:
(i) Water Cycle
(ii) Carbon Cycle
(iii) Nitrogen Cycle
❖ WATER CYCLE
The water cycle is a phenomenon where water moves through the three phases
(gas, liquid and solid) over the four spheres (atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere) and completes a full cycle. It is also known as
hydrologic cycle.
▪ Evaporation- It is a process where water at the surface turns into water
vapours. Water absorbs heat energy from the sun and turns into vapours.
Through evaporation, water moves from hydrosphere to atmosphere.
▪ Condensation-As water vaporizes into water vapour, it rises up in the
atmosphere. At high altitudes the water vapours changes into very tiny
particles of ice /water droplets because the temperature at high altitudes is
low. These particles come close together and form clouds and fogs in the sky.
▪ Sublimation- Apart from evaporation, sublimation also contributes to water vapours in
the air. It is a process where ice directly converts into water vapours without converting
into liquid water. This phenomenon accelerates when the temperature is low or pressure
is high.
▪ Precipitation-This is when water (in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet) falls from
clouds in the sky, due to wind or temperature change..
▪ Transpiration- It is a process similar to evaporation where liquid water is turned into
water vapour by the plants. The roots of the plants absorb the water and push it toward
leaves where it is used for photosynthesis. The extra water is moved out of leaves
through stomata (very tiny openings on leaves) as water vapour. Thus water enters the
biosphere and exits into gaseous phase.
▪ Runoff- It is the process where water runs over the surface of earth. When the snow
melts into water it also leads to runoff.
▪ Infiltration- It is a process in which the water seeps down and increases the level of
ground water table. It is called pure water and is drinkable
❖ CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle is a series of events that involves the cyclic movement and transformation
of carbon between living organisms and the environment.
All in all, biological and geological processes are important in maintaining the carbon
balance in the planet. The carbon cycle is divided into the following steps:
1. Entry of Carbon into the Atmosphere-The entry of carbon (in the form of carbon
dioxide) in the atmosphere marks the start of the carbon cycle. Before this, carbon dioxide
goes through the process of respiration (process by which organisms release energy from
their food) and combustion (process of burning). Such processes both involve the releasing
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
2. Carbon Dioxide Absorption By Producers- The next step is the entry of the carbon
dioxide in the photosynthetic process. Photosynthetic organisms like plants and algae (called
as producers) transform carbon dioxide into sugars for energy use and for their own
reproduction.
3. Passing of the Carbon Compounds in the Food Chain- Following the above step is the
entry of the carbon compounds from the plants (producers) themselves to the food chain.
When animals consume (hence consume) these plants, the carbon compounds are received
by them.
4. Return of the Carbon To the Atmosphere- The next step is the return of the carbon to
the atmosphere due to the decomposers (bacteria and fungi) eating the dead bodies of
animals. This is because the process of decomposition gives off carbon dioxide as a by-
product.
❖ NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen is both the most abundant element in the atmosphere and, as a building block
of proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA, a crucially important component of all
biological life. The nitrogen cycle is a complex biogeochemical cycle in which nitrogen
is converted from its inert atmospheric molecular form (N2) into a form that is useful
in biological processes.
The Nitrogen cycle contains following steps:
▪ Nitrogen Fixation(N₂ to NH₃/ NH₄+ or NO₃⁻) –
• Nitrogen fixation is the process by which gaseous nitrogen (N₂) is converted to
ammonia (NH₃ or NH₄ +) via biological fixation or nitrate (NO₃ -) through high-energy
physical processes. N₂ is extremely stable and a great deal of energy is required to
break the bonds that join the two N atoms. N₂ can be converted directly into NO₃⁻
through processes that exert a tremendous amount of heat, pressure, and energy. Such
processes include combustion, volcanic action, lightning discharges, and industrial
means. However, a greater amount of biologically available nitrogen is naturally
generated via the biological conversion of N₂ to NH ₃ / NH ₄ +.
• A small group of bacteria and cyanobacteria are capable using the enzyme nitrogenase
to break the bonds among the molecular nitrogen and combine it with hydrogen.
The most important soil dwelling bacteria, Rhizobium, live in oxygen-free zones in
nodules on the roots of legumes and some other woody plants. Aquatic filamentous
cyanobacteria utilize oxygen-excluding cells called heterocyst
▪Nitrogen Assimilation
It is the process by which plants and animals incorporate the NO3- and ammonia formed
through nitrogen fixation and nitrification. Plants take up these forms of nitrogen through
their roots, and incorporate them into plant proteins and nucleic acids. Animals are then
able to utilize nitrogen from the plant tissues.
▪ Ammonification
When plants and animals die, or when animals emit wastes, the nitrogen in the organic
matter reenters the soil where it is broken down by other microorganisms, known as
decomposers. This decomposition produces ammonia which is then available for other
biological processes.
▪Nitrification
Nitrification is a two-step process in which NH₃/ NH₄⁺ is converted to NO₃⁻. First, the soil
bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert NH₃ to NO ₂⁻, and then another soil
bacterium, Nitrobacter, oxidizes NO₂⁻ to NO₃⁻. These bacteria gain energy through these
conversions, both of which require oxygen to occur.
▪ Denitrification
Nitrogen makes its way back into the atmosphere through a process called denitrification,
in which nitrate (NO3-) is converted back to gaseous nitrogen (N2). Denitrification occurs
primarily in wet soils where the water makes it difficult for microorganisms to get oxygen.
Under these conditions, certain organisms known as denitrifiying bacteria (Thiobacillus,
Pseudomonas) will process nitrate to gain oxygen, leaving free nitrogen gas as a
byproduct.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
The four major Ecosystem to study are-
1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Desert Ecosystem
4. Aquatic Ecosystem
❖ GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
▪ Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and
other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called transitional landscape
because grassland ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in
the area where there is not enough for a forest and too much of a desert.
▪ The annual rainfall ranges between 25-75 cm and is usually seasonal.
▪ Summer drought and winter blizzards can be severe, with periodic fire devastations
in these biomes.
▪ The dominant plant species are short and tall grasses and other flowering plants,
many of which are perennial with extensively developed roots.
▪ The highest abundance and the greatest diversity of large mammals are found in
these ecosystem.
▪ The soil of these grasslands often have a deep organic layer.
TYPES OF GRASSLAND
There are mainly two types of grassland
▪ Tropical Grassland
• Tropical Grasslands are the ones which receive 50 cm to 130 cm rain.
• They have both rainy and dry days. As a result, they are warm all year round.
Moreover, tropical grasslands are also called Savannas.
• These grasslands contain shrubs and small trees that are dry in nature.
• The tropical grassland is a home for elephants, giraffes, lions, cheetahs, zebras, and
other spectacular species..
▪ Temperate Grassland
• Temperate grasslands receive rainfall of the range 25 cm and 75 cm. Furthermore, the
climate in the temperate grasslands makes it both dormant and growing.
•These grasslands suffer extreme climates. In the cold season, the temperature can reach
up Flooded Grasslands to 0 degrees Fahrenheit. While in the summer season it reaches
up to 90 degrees in some areas.
• The precipitation in these grasslands is mostly in the form of dew and snow.
•For instance, some vegetation that grows here are, cacti, sagebrush, perennial grasses,
buffalo grass clovers, and wild indigos, etc.
▪ Montane Grasslands
•Montane means ‘ high altitude’ therefore these are the grasslands that are high altitude
shrub lands. These are called high altitude because they are above the tree line level of
the ground.
▪Flooded Grasslands
• The flooded grasslands are having water all year-round. Furthermore, these grasslands
contain numerous vegetation that grows in water.
• Various water birds migrate to these areas while some are residents of it. Most Noteworthy
the Everglades is the world’s largest flooded grasslands.
• It features various types of birds, fish, mammals, reptiles, seed-bearing plants, amphibians,
and butterflies, etc.
▪ Desert Grasslands
•The desert grasslands are the type of grasslands that separates the true desert of the
lowlands and the montane grasslands.
• These grasslands receive very low precipitation. As a result, these are the hottest and the
driest grasslands.
•For instance reptiles like the prairie rattlesnake, western diamondback, gopher snake is
present here. Furthermore, birds like Horned lark, Larkbunting, Meadowlarks, scaled quail
are present here.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grass lands biomes are important to maintain the crop of many domesticated and wild
herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra etc.
which provides food, milk, wool and transportation to man.
Hence, we can say that the Grassland Ecosystem is a mixture of grass, clover and other
leguminous species, dicotyledonous, herbs and shrubs which contribute to a high degree of
the preservation.
COMPONENTS OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
The components of the Grassland Ecosystem are discussed below:
▪ Abiotic Components- These are non-living thing components consist of carbon,
hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous etc.
▪ Biotic Components- These are living components and its sub-components are
discussed below-
(I) Producers: The primary producers of food are the grasses such as Aristida,
Cynodon, Digitaria, Desmodium, Setaria etc. If herbs and shrubs are present, they
also contribute to the primary production of food.
(II) Consumers: The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.
(a) Primary consumers: These feed directly from the grasses (grazing) and include
herbivores such as Cows, Buffaloes, Goats, Rabbits, Mouse etc. and also insects,
termites, centipede, millipedes etc.
(b) Secondary consumers: These consumers are the carnivorous animals such as snakes,
lizard, jackal, foxes, frogs etc. which feed on the primary consumers.
(c) Tertiary consumers: Hawk, Eagles and vultures constitute the tertiary consumer in
the grassland ecosystem which preys upon the secondary and primary consumer.
(III) Decomposers: The organic matter of the grassland is decomposed by the microbes
like actinomycetes, fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penincillium, and
Cladosporium), aerobic and anaerobic soil bacteria etc. They release the minerals
back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
▪ Desert, any large, extremely dry area of land with sparse vegetation. It is one of
Earth’s major types of ecosystems, supporting a community of distinctive plants and
animals specially adapted to the harsh environment.
▪ The annual precipitation is very less i.e. less than 50cm per year.
▪The desert are characterized by extremely hot days and cold nights.
▪ Soils of these deserts often have abundant nutrient but little or no organic matter and
need only water to become very productive.
▪ Desert are characterized by scanty flora and fauna. Only those organisms which have
specialized structural, physiological and behavioral adaptations to withstand the
extremes of temperature and aridity can survive there.
▪ The dominant plant species include cacti. Acacias, euphorbias, and secculent and
hardy grasses.
▪ There are relatively very few large mammals in deserts, which include cats, rabbits,
foxes and jackals.
▪ Hot and Dry Desert
•. There are multiple hot and dry deserts all over the world; four in North
America (Chihuahuan, Sonoran, Mojave and Great Basin), and various others
located throughout the world.
• Summers are unbearably hot; temperatures are warm throughout the rest of the
year.
There is little to no rainfall during the summer months in a hot and dry desert
climate.
• Winters come and there is very little precipitation at all, but that is usually when
it occurs.
• Average temperature during the day is 23 degrees Celsius; it can get as hot as
49 degrees Celsius.
• Plant life is rare in hot and dry deserts; mostly small trees and shrubs.
• Animals of all types live throughout the region (insects, mammals, arachnids,
birds, reptiles).
•Soil is very rocky, coarse, and/or filled with gravel. Because of this, water
drains incredibly well and won’t stick around below the surface.
▪ Semiarid Desert
• Semiarid deserts are those that we think of in the north western part of the
United States. There are others located throughout North America, Northern
Europe, and Northern Asia. The major types of semiarid desert include the
sagebrush of Utah, Montana and Great Basin.
• Summer temperatures average about 23 degrees Celsius, but it never gets
warmer than 38 degrees Celsius (much cooler than hot and dry deserts). In the
evening, the temperatures are cool, at around 10° C.
•There is little to no rainfall during the summer months, with spots of
precipitation during the winter. The annual rainfall ranges from 2-4 cm annually.
• Soil is shallow, sandy, and fine, especially when compared with the hot and dry
deserts that we discussed above.
•Plants in semiarid areas often taste badly and have spikes or hairs that make
them difficult to touch or even go near. This is to prevent animals and people
from going near them and causing them to lose their grip (their roots are too
shallow to have a solid grip).
•Mammals, small birds, reptiles, and insects reside in the area. Animals are both
diurnal and nocturnal, and use the shade of the plants to be able to function
during the daylight hours.
▪ Coastal Desert
• Coastal deserts are one of the most unique deserts that you will find when
you’re looking. These deserts can be found in cools to warm areas such as the
Nearctic and Neotropical realm. They aren’t very common; the most well
known is the Atacama, which is located in South America.
•Summers are warm, with temperatures rarely going above 20 degrees
Celsius. The mean temperature in summers ranges from 13-24° C. Winters are
cool, with temperatures between -3 and 6 degrees Celsius; on occasion, it will
dip down to -4 or -5 (C).
•Coastal deserts get more rain than their semiarid and hot and dry cousins;
they can get up to 12 or more centimeters every single year.
Like semi-arid deserts, the coastal desert ends up being incredibly fine.
• The plant life in coastal deserts thrives a bit more due to the amount of rain
that the areas get. Their roots go deeper as to ensure that they get all of the
water that comes when it rains
• Raptors, reptiles, insects, and mammals are all common in coastal deserts
due to the more desirable conditions. Like the semiarid deserts, there are
diurnal and nocturnal animals that reside there.
▪Cold Desert
•Cold deserts are also incredibly unique when compared to all of the other types of deserts
that we’ve looked at here. They occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the Nearctic realm.
•The mean temperature in summers ranges from 21 to 26 ° C and mean winter temperature
is between -2 to 4° C.
•The cold deserts are known to receive snow during the winter and high overall rainfall
throughout the winter that averages out to 15 – 26 cm a year. Here are a few quick facts to
give you a better idea as to what cold deserts are like.
• Snowfall is immense, especially when compared with the other types of deserts which get
next to no rainfall.
• Plants are not common in the cold desert, but the ones that are there are spiny deciduous
plants, along with some mosses and fungi.
•Animals that reside in the cold desert are mostly mammals, due to the fact that the winters
get cold. Other animals would likely die if they tried to live there. Many of these mammals
are burrowers who live underground and hibernate for at least part of the winter months.
COMPONENTS OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM
The components of the Desert Ecosystem are discussed below:
▪ Abiotic Components- The abiotic component mainly includes the nutrient present
in soil and the aerial environment. The characteristic feature of the abiotic
component is lack of organic matter in the soil and scarcity of water.
▪ Biotic Components- The various biotic components, representing the three
functional or metabolic groups are-
(I) Producers: In a desert, the producers are mainly shrubs or bushes, some grasses
and a few trees. The dominant plant species include secculents and hardy grasses
(II) Consumers: These includes animals such as insects and reptiles which are
capable of living under xeric conditions. Besides them, some nocturnal rodents,
birds and some mammalian vertebrates like camel.
(III) Decomposers: Due to poor vegetation, the amount of dead organic matter is very
less. As a result, the decomposers are some bacteria and fungi, most of which are
thermophilic.
▪ FOREST ECOSYSTEM
A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system which comprises of soil, trees, insects,
animals, birds, and man as its interacting units. A forest is a large and complex ecosystem
and hence has greater species diversity.
TYPES OF FORESTS
According to their distance from the equator, we can broadly divide the types of forests into
the following:
A. The Tropical Forests-
• The Tropical forests mainly exist around the equator in places like South America,
Africa, Amazon region, and Southeast Asia. They have the maximum species diversity
per area in the world.
• Here, it rains a lot throughout the year but the temperature remains stable around 27°C
or 60° F. Generally, these forests have two seasons, namely rainy and dry.
• The temperature, rainfall and twelve hours of daylight stimulate the growth of up to 100
different species of trees. Some of them are Broadleaf trees, mosses, ferns, palms, and
orchids.
• These trees grow very densely and block most of the light from penetrating into it. One
can also find animals such as snakes, frogs, lizards, monkeys, anacondas, jaguars, and
small mammals in these forests.
• Due to nutrient leaching, the soil of these forests lacks maximum essential nutrients
which in turn make it useless for agriculture only after a few years of use. Thus, the
topsoil gets depleted soon.
The sub-categories of forests under Tropical Forests are:
1. Evergreen forests: As the name suggests these forests have rains throughout the year
and thus, have no dry season.
2. Seasonal forests: In these forests, the vegetation is evergreen but these experience a
short dry season. Broadleaf evergreen trees, deciduous trees, and thorn trees are
usually found here.
3. Dry forests: These forests have a long dry season in which the trees lose leaves.
4. Montane forests: These are also known as cloud forests as there occurs most
precipitation from mist or fog that rises and mostly conifers are found here.
5. Tropical and subtropical coniferous: In these forests, the climate is dry and warm
with conifers adapting to variable weather conditions.
6. Sub-tropical: These are found mostly in north and south of tropical forests. Here, the
trees are adapted to resist summer drought.
B. The Temperate Forests
• We can find temperate forests in North America, northeastern Asia, and Europe. In
these forests, there are four seasons. Generally, the temperature here ranges from -30
to 30°C .
• Also, these forests receive rainfall of around 75-150cm. Usually, one can find only 3-
4 species of trees on an average per square km.
• Deciduous or leaf shedding trees form a large proportion of trees. Coniferous trees
such as pines and firs also grow here. Some of the common trees are oak, beech, elm,
maple, birch, willow, and hickory.
• Some of the commonly found animals are rabbits, birds, squirrels, deer, wolves, foxes, and
bears. Both, the plants and the animals are adaptive to the cold winters and warm summer
weather. The soil of these forests is fertile due to the combination of decaying fallen leaves
and the moderate temperatures.
The sub-categories of forests under Temperate Forests are:
1. Moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved forests: These forests have mild wet winters
and dry summers.
2. Dry conifer forests: They exist at higher elevations and have little rainfall.
3. Mediterranean forests: These are usually located in the south of temperate regions around
the coast and have almost all evergreen trees.
4. Temperate broad-leaved rainforest: These forests have mild, frost-free winters and
experience lots of rain throughout the year. These are thus evergreen forests.
C. The Boreal or Taiga Forest
• Usually, we can find them between 50 to 60 degrees of latitude in the sub-Arctic zone
which comprises of Siberia, Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. These have two seasons
namely, a short, moist and mildly-warm summer and a long, cold and dry winter.
• The temperature here ranges from -40 to 20°C. One can find evergreen conifers here with
needle leaves that are capable to stand the cold, such as pine, fir, and spruce trees.
• Some of the animals that live here are deer, wolverines, caribou, bats, small mammals,
birds, moose, bears, lynx, wolf, etc. that can bear long and cold winters. These animals
usually have thick fur or other insulation.
• However, the soil has a very thin layer and is poor in nutrients and acidic. Also, the
canopy here does not allow the sunlight to penetrate into the ground and thus there is very
little growth of the understory.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Forests is a type of terrestrial ecosystem. The various components of a forest ecosystem are
as follows:
Abiotic Component- These include basic inorganic and organic compounds present in the
soil and atmosphere. In addition, dead organic debris is also found littered in forests. Further,
the natural light conditions are different in forests due to complex stratification in the
vegetation.
Biotic Component- The various biotic components, representatives from the three
functional groups, of a forest ecosystem are:
(I) Producers: In a forest, the producers are mainly trees that show much species diversity
and greater degree of stratification. The trees are of different kinds depending upon the
type of forest developed in that climate. Besides various species of trees, there are also
present shrubs and ground vegetation.
(II) Consumers: The consumers in a forest ecosystem are of three levels.
(a) Primary consumers: These feed directly on producers. These includes smaller animals
such as ants, beetles, bugs, spiders, squirrels, mongooses and larger animals such as
elephants, deer, giraffes.
(b) Secondary consumers: These consumers are the carnivores which feed on the primary
consumers. These includes birds, lizards, frogs, snakes, foxes etc…
(c) Tertiary consumers: These are secondary carnivores such as Lion,Tigers.
(III) Decomposers: These includes wide variety of saprotropic micro-organisms like
Bacteria (such as Bacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonus), Fungi (such as Aspergillus,
Ganoderma, Fusarium) and antinomycetes (such as Streptomyces). They attract the
dead or decay bodies of organisms.
▪ AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
The aquatic ecosystem includes freshwater habitats such as lakes, ponds, rivers, oceans and
streams, wetlands, swamp, etc. Whereas marine habitats include oceans, intertidal zone, reefs,
seabed and so on. Furthermore, the aquatic ecosystem is the habitat for water-dependent
species like animals, plants, and microbes.
Different types of aquatic systems are:
1. Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem
They cover only a small portion of earth nearly 0.8 per cent. Freshwater involves lakes,
ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands, swamp, bog and temporary pools. Freshwater habitats
are classified into lotic and lentic habitats.
• Lotic Ecosystems-They mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a
unidirectional way including the rivers and streams. These environments harbor numerous
species of insects such as beetles, mayflies, stoneflies and several species of fishes including
trout, eel, minnow, etc. Apart from these aquatic species, these ecosystems also include
various mammals such as beavers, river dolphins and others.
• Lentic Ecosystems-They include all standing water habitats. Lakes and ponds are the main
examples of Lentic Ecosystem. The word lentic mainly refers to stationary or relatively still
water. These ecosystems are home to algae, crabs, shrimps, amphibians such as frogs and
salamanders, for both rooted and floating-leaved plants and reptiles including alligators and
other water snakes are also found here.
• Wetlands-Wetlands are marshy areas and are sometimes covered in water which has a wide
diversity of plants and animals. Swamps, marshes, bogs, black spruce and water lilies are
some examples in the plant species found in the wetlands. The animal life of this ecosystem
consists of dragonflies and damselflies, birds such as Green Heron and fishes such as
Northern Pike.
2. Marine Aquatic Ecosystem
Marine ecosystem covers the largest surface area of the earth. Two third of earth is covered
by water and they constitute of oceans, seas, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, estuaries,
hydrothermal vents and rock pools. Each life form is unique and native to its habitat. This is
because they have adaptations according to their habitat. In the case of aquatic animals, they
can’t survive outside of water. Exceptional cases are still there which shows another example
of adaptations (e.g. mudskippers). The marine ecosystem is more concentrated with salts
which make it difficult for freshwater organisms to live in. Also, marine animals cannot
survive in freshwater. Their body is adapted to live in saltwater; if they are placed in less salty
water, their body will swell (osmosis).
• Ocean Ecosystems- Our planet earth is gifted with the five major oceans, namely Pacific,
Indian, Arctic, and the Atlantic Ocean. Among all these five oceans, the Pacific and the
Atlantic are the largest and deepest ocean. These oceans serve as a home to more than five
lakh aquatic species. Few creatures of these ecosystems include shellfish, shark, tube worms,
crab small and large ocean fishes, turtles, crustaceans, blue whale, reptiles, marine mammals,
seabirds, plankton, corals and other ocean plants.
• Coastal Systems- They are the open systems of land and water which are joined together
to form the coastal ecosystems. The coastal ecosystems have a different structure, and
diversity. A wide variety of species of aquatic plants and algae are found at the bottom of
the coastal ecosystem. The fauna is diverse and it mainly consists of crabs, fish, insects,
lobsters snails, shrimp, etc.