applied

sciences
Article
Behavior of Longitudinal Plate-to-Rectangular
Hollow Structural Section K-Connections Subjected
to Cyclic Loading
Tae-Hyun Yoon 1 , Tae-Sung Eom 1, *, Chul-Goo Kim 2 and Su-Min Kang 3
1 Department of Architecture, Dankook University, Gyeonggi-do 16890, Korea; altpage94@gmail.com
2 Department of Architectural Engineering, Ulsan University, Ulsan 44610, Korea; kimcg@ulsan.ac.kr
3 School of Architecture, Soongsil University, Seoul 06978, Korea; kangsm@ssu.ac.kr
* Correspondence: tseom@dankook.ac.kr




Received: 14 May 2020; Accepted: 25 May 2020; Published: 29 May 2020


Abstract: This study investigated the behavior of longitudinal plate-to-rectangular hollow section
(RHS) K-connections to which concrete-filled composite branch members were jointed. At the
connections, longitudinal plates with or without chord face stiffener were welded to the RHS chord
member and the branch members were connected to the longitudinal plates by bolting (slip-critical
connection). Cyclic tests were performed for three longitudinal plate-to-RHS K-connection specimens.
The tests showed that the connection behavior was dominated by the plastification of the thin chord
face and by the slip and hole-bearing resistance of the bolted joint. Chord face plastification was
prevented or delayed by using the stiffened longitudinal plate. The strengths of the plate-to-RHS
K-connections with or without the chord face stiffener, depending on the governing limit states,
were estimated in accordance with current design codes, and the results were compared with the
test results.

Keywords: hollow structural section; rectangular hollow section; plate connection; K-connection;
chord face plastification; cyclic loading

1. Introduction
The use of rectangular hollow structural section (RHS) trusses, as shown in Figure 1a, is increasing
as an economical roof structure for long-span building structures such as factories and warehouses.
In such RHS trusses, medium-size sections of 150 mm–300 mm in size are used as top and bottom chord
members, and small-size sections of approximately 100 mm in size are used as diagonal and vertical
branch members. Particularly for diagonal members that are subjected to large compression force,
RHS members with greater buckling resistance may be advantageous. Furthermore, by filling concrete
inside the hollow steel section, the resistance of RHS trusses can be enhanced (see Figure 1). For example,
concrete-filled composite members have higher elastic buckling strength (Pe ) and compressive resistance
(Pno ), as the filled concrete provides additional resistance. Thus, the compressive strength including
length effects (i.e., Pn = Pno ·0.658Pno /Pe ) can be greatly increased [1,2].

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793; doi:10.3390/app10113793 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

 and their members because the branch members are connected to the plate by bolting without field
welding. However, the thin RHS wall of the chord member is weak to out-of-plane deformation, and
consequently, the strength of the truss connection can decrease (see Figure 1b). This means, unless
the Sci.
Appl. connecting chord face is not appropriately stiffened, the excellent compression resistance of
2020, 10, 3793 2 ofthe
19
composite branch member cannot be fully exploited.

RHS chord member K-joint Deformation

Gusset of chord face
plate
Concrete
Embedded
reinforcing
bar Longitudinal
plate

Composite branch RHS chord member

Shop welding of truss connection (concrete-filled)

(a) Rectangular hollow structural section (RHS) roof truss (b) Longitudinal plate-to-RHS K-connection

FigureFigure 1. Rectangular
1. Rectangular hollowhollow structural
structural sectionsection truss
truss for for long-span
long-span building
building structures:
structures: (a)
(a) Rectangular
Rectangular
hollow hollow
structural structural
section (RHS) section (RHS)
roof truss; (b) roof truss; (b) plate-to-RHS
Longitudinal Longitudinal K-connection.
plate-to-RHS K-connection.

In the diagonal
Unlike past, many andstudies
verticalhave been
branch conducted
members thattoare investigate the behavior and
made of concrete-filled design sections,
composite method
of plate-to-RHS
top and bottom chord connections
members [5–10]. Kosteski,
are often madePacker,
of hollow andsteel
Puthli [5] investigated
sections to make thethe strength
roof of the
truss lighter.
plate-to-RHS
At the connection connections
where the with chord
filled face stiffener
composite branch bymembers
finite element analysis
are joined with(see
theFigure
hollow 2b). The
chord
stiffened truss connections showed ductile behavior, and the strength increased as the deformation
members, the thin RHS walls of the branch and chord members need to be directly welded to each
of theorchord
other, face increased.
alternatively, The connection
longitudinal strengths
plate connection determined
(i.e., plate-to-RHS according to the see
connection, bo rule”
“3%Figure 1b)were
can
inused
be good[2–4].
agreement with the theoretical
The plate-to-RHS connection strengths
may be by more chord face plastification.
convenient to assembleThe and3% bo rule
erect means
the trusses
thattheir
and the connection
members because strengththe is determined
branch members as thearestrength
connectedwhentothe theout-of-plane deformation
plate by bolting withoutoffield
the
connecting
welding. chord face
However, thereaches
thin RHS 3%wall
of the ofwidth of the
the chord chord face
member (bo). Cao,
is weak Packer, anddeformation,
to out-of-plane Kosteski [6]
developed
and a design
consequently, theguideline
strength for unstiffened
of the plate-to-RHS
truss connection connections
can decrease (see (see Figure
Figure 1b). 2a)
This based on
means,
experimental
unless and analytical
the connecting chord face investigations. They considered
is not appropriately stiffened, the chord face plastification
excellent and branch
compression resistance of
yielding
the as governing
composite branch member design cannot
limit states andexploited.
be fully suggested using the strength resistance factor of 1.0
based In on
thethe investigation
past, many studies result
have that,
beendueconducted
to hardening behavior, the
to investigate theactual strength
behavior and was
designsufficiently
method
oflarger than the connections
plate-to-RHS theoretical strength.
[5–10]. Kosteski
Kosteski,and Packer
Packer, and[7]Puthli
studied [5] the behavior of
investigated thethe “through
strength of
plate”-to-RHS
the plate-to-RHS connections,
connections in with
whichchordthe longitudinal
face stiffener plate
by was
finiteextended
elementup to the opposite
analysis (see Figure wall2b).
of
the connecting chord face. The truss connections stiffened by the through
The stiffened truss connections showed ductile behavior, and the strength increased as the deformation plate showed deformation-
ofcontrolled
the chordor ductile
face behavior,
increased. and the teststrengths
The connection strength determined
was larger than the theoretical
according to the “3% strength
bo rule”bywere
chord
in
face agreement
good plastificationwith(strength resistance
the theoretical factor by
strengths = 1.0).
chord Kosteski and Packer The
face plastification. [8] investigated
3% bo rule meansthe behavior
that the
of longitudinal
connection strength plate-to-RHS
is determined connections
as the strengthstiffened
when by the chord face stiffener
out-of-plane deformation (see ofFigure 2b). The
the connecting
minimum
chord thickness
face reaches 3% ofofthethe
chord
width face
ofstiffener
the chord was proposed
face to satisfy
(bo ). Cao, Packer, theandlimit states of[6]strength
Kosteski developedand
aserviceability.
design guideline In addition, the strength
for unstiffened of the stiffened
plate-to-RHS connectionsconnections was estimated
(see Figure 2a) basedbased on the yield
on experimental
linesanalytical
and on the chord face occurring
investigations. They along the perimeter
considered chord of facetheplastification
stiffener. Cao, andPacker,
branchand Yang [9]
yielding as
investigated
governing the limit
design effects of compressive
states and suggested andusing
tensile
the loads
strengthapplied to the
resistance chord
factor member
of 1.0 based on the
on the
connection strength.
investigation result that,Thedueresults showed that
to hardening compressive
behavior, loadsstrength
the actual significantly reduced thelarger
was sufficiently chordthan
face
plastification strength, while tensile loads had little effect.
the theoretical strength. Kosteski and Packer [7] studied the behavior of the “through plate”-to-RHS
connections, in which the longitudinal plate was extended up to the opposite wall of the connecting
N N lp
chord face. The truss connections lp
stiffened
b by the through plate showed deformation-controlled
or ductile behavior, andt the testV strength h was larger than
tp
the V
theoretical strength by chord face
p Chord (RHS)
plastification (strength resistance factor = 1.0). Kosteski and Packer [8] investigated the behavior of
hs
longitudinal plate-to-RHS
t
connections stiffened by chordbface stiffener
Longitudinal (see Figure 2b). The minimum
plate s
thickness of the chord face stiffener was proposed to satisfy the limitChord face
states
stiffener ts
of strength and serviceability.
Chord (RHS)
In addition, the strength of the stiffened connections was estimated based on the yield lines on the
chord face occurring along (a) the
Unstiffened
perimeter of the stiffener. Cao, (b) Stiffened
Packer, and Yang [9] investigated the
effects of compressive and tensile loads applied to the chord member on the connection strength.
Figure 2. Details of longitudinal plate­to­ rectangular hollow section (RHS) connections: (a)
The results showed that compressive loads significantly reduced the chord face plastification strength,
Unstiffened; (b) Stiffened.
while tensile loads had little effect.
 minimum thickness of the chord face stiffener was proposed to satisfy the limit states of strength and
serviceability. In addition, the strength of the stiffened connections was estimated based on the yield
lines on the chord face occurring along the perimeter of the stiffener. Cao, Packer, and Yang [9]
investigated the effects of compressive and tensile loads applied to the chord member on the
connection
Appl. Sci. 2020, strength.
10, 3793 The results showed that compressive loads significantly reduced the chord face
3 of 19

plastification strength, while tensile loads had little effect.

N N lp
lp b

tp V h tp V
Chord (RHS)

hs
Longitudinal
t plate bs
Chord face
stiffener ts
Chord (RHS)

(a) Unstiffened (b) Stiffened

FigureFigure 2. Details
2. Details of longitudinal
of longitudinal plate­to­
plate to rectangular
rectangular hollow (RHS)
hollow section sectionconnections:
(RHS) connections: (a)
(a) Unstiffened;
(b) Stiffened. Unstiffened; (b) Stiffened.

At the plate-to-RHS connection with chord face stiffener (see Figure 2b), the stiffener can reduce
deformation of the chord face and can increase strength and stiffness by distributing the force of the
longitudinal plate directly to the side wall of the chord member. According to the previous studies by
Packer, Cao, Kosteski, etc. [5–9], the strength of such stiffened connection increases as the thickness
and width of the stiffener (i.e., ts and bs , respectively) become larger. In addition, the connection
strength agrees well with the chord face plastification strength based on the yield line theory. However,
the previous studies have focused mainly on T- or Y-connections, and thus, available test data on the
behavior of the K-connections which are common in roof trusses with slope are rare.
This study investigated the behavior of RHS truss K-connections with chord face stiffener.
Cyclic loading tests of three truss connections where one hollow chord member and two composite
branch members were jointed were performed, and the stiffening effects and governing limit states
depending on the chord face stiffener were investigated. The theoretical strengths of the K-connections
with and without the chord face stiffener were compared with the test strengths, and the applicability
of current design codes was discussed.

2. Theoretical Strength of Plate-to-RHS Connections

Figure 2 shows the plate-to-RHS connections with or without chord face stiffener. According to
the CIDECT Design Guide 3 [4], the governing design limit state of the unstiffened and stiffened
connections is chord face plastification; however, the distribution of yield lines on the chord face differs
as follows [8]. For the connection without stiffener (see Figure 2a), yield lines occur at the center
of the chord face nearby the longitudinal plate; on the other hand, for the connection with stiffener
(see Figure 2b), yield lines on the chord face develop mainly along the perimeter of the chord face
stiffener. Thus, the difference in the distribution of yield lines on the chord face needs to be accounted
for in estimating the connection strength. Note that, according to AISC 360-10 [2] and CIDECT design
guide 3, the plate-to-RHS truss connections should satisfy structural limits on material properties
(e.g., Fy and Fu /Fy ) and geometrical parameters (e.g., h/b, h/t, b/t, lp /b, etc.). The limits of applicability
are presented in Table 1.
Figure 3 shows the longitudinal plate-to-RHS K-connection investigated in this study. At the
connection, concrete-filled composite branch members are joined with the longitudinal plate by
bolting. Thus, when designing the truss connection, in addition to the wall plastification of the chord
member, failure modes that may occur at the bolted joint of the branch members (i.e., bolt shear yield,
hole bearing, connection slip, gross area yield, net area rupture, block shear rupture, etc.) need to be
accounted for.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 4 of 19

Table 1. Limits of applicability for plate-to-RHS truss connections.

Design code AISC 360-10 CIDECT Design Guide 3

Yield strength Fy ≤ 360 MPa Fy ≤ 460 MPa 3)
Chord member Yield ratio Fy /Fu ≤ 0.8 Fy /Fu ≤ 0.8 4)
Width-to-thickness ratio b/t ≤ 40 1) b/ t ≤ 40 and h/t ≤ 40 5)
Height-to-width ratio - 0.5 ≤ h/b ≤ 2.0
Yield strength Fyp ≤ Fu (t/tp ) 2) Fyp ≤ Fy
Longitudinal plate
Length - 1 ≤ ηp (=lp /b) ≤ 4
1) 2)
This is given in Table K1.2A in AISC 360-10. This is given in Equation K1-3 in AISC 360-10 to prevent punching
shear failure under plate shear load. 3) For 355 MPa ≤ Fy ≤ 460 MPa, joint strength shall be reduced to 90%. 4) For Fy
/Fu > 0.8, Fy shall be taken as 0.8Fu . 5) For compression, only class 1 and 2 sections are allowed.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

VCP
t
θ
ts

bs Lc1
Agv
An
or Anv Lc 2
tg Ant
tp Ag d
Lc =
min {Lc1 , Lc 2 }
com
ten
PCP PCP

(a) Longitudinal plate-to-RHSS K-connection (b) Failure modes in bolted joint of branch member

FigureFigure 3. Longitudinal
3. Longitudinal plate-to-RHS
plate-to-RHS K-connection
K-connection withjoint
with bolted bolted joint of
of chord chord members:
members: (a)
(a) Longitudinal
Longitudinal
plate-to-RHS plate-to-RHS
K-connection; K-connection;
(b) Failure (b)bolted
modes in Failure modes
joint in bolted
of branch joint of branch member.
member.

2.1. Connection Without Stiffener

2.1. Connection Without Stiffener
The governing limit state of plate-to-RHS connections without stiffener is chord face plastification.
The governing limit state of plate-to-RHS connections without stiffener is chord face
According to AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3, the chord face plastification strength (NCP ) of
plastification. According to AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3, the chord face plastification
plate-to-RHS T- or Y-connections can be computed as follows (see Figure 2a).
strength (NCP) of plate-to-RHS T- or Y-connections can be computed as follows (see Figure 2a).
For AISC 360-10 (T- or Y-connections),
For AISC 360-10 (T- or Y-connections),
 r 
2
FFyt t 2  
2l2pl t tp  
NCPN =  p++ 44 11−−p QQ f 

= (1)
CP 1 − tp /b   b f   (1)
y 
1 − t p / b  b b b 

For
ForCIDECT
CIDECTDesign
Design Guide
Guide 33 (T-
(T- or
or Y-connections),
Y-connections),

 
 r 
 2l
2 2 2
pl t t p 
N=  + −  (2)
p p 
NCP =
CP
FFy t t
y 
 + 44 11 − QQ
 f f (2)
b b

 b b 

whereFFyy =
where = steel
steel yield
yieldstrength
strengthofofthethechord
chordmember;
member; b and
b and = wall
t = twall width and and
width thickness of theofchord
thickness the
member; lp and tpp = length
chord member; l and t =
p and thickness of the longitudinal plate; and Qf = chord member
length and thickness of the longitudinal plate; and Q f = stress function.
chord member
The Q
stress f functions
function. Thedepending on the
Qf functions type of on
depending truss
theconnections
type of trussare presented are
connections in Table 2. Note
presented that the
in Table 2.
connection
Note that thestrength
connectionis expressed
strength isin terms ofinvarious
expressed terms ofsymbols
varioussuch as P,
symbols N, as
such V N,
or P, in or
Figures 2 and 23,
V in Figures
depending
and on the on
3, depending force
thedirection to be considered;
force direction P is the connection
to be considered; strength represented
P is the connection as the tensile
strength represented
asorthe
compressive
tensile or force of the branch
compressive forcemember,
of the branch N and V are
while member, the N
while components
and V areof theP decomposed
components in of the
P
transverse and
decomposed in longitudinal
the transverse directions of the chord
and longitudinal member,ofrespectively.
directions the chord member, respectively.

Table 2. Chord member stress functions Qf for RHS truss T­, Y­, and K-connections.

Joint Type AISC 360-10 CIDECT Design Guide 3

(1 − n )
C1
Plate-to-RHS T- and Y- Q f=
Q= 1 −U 2 1)
connection connections f
where C1 = 0.2 for n < 0 and 0.1 for n ≥ 0 2)
(1 − n )
C1

b Q f= where C1 = 0.6-0.5(bs/b) (T-

RHS-to-RHS T-, Y-, and K-
Qf =
1.3 − 0.4U   ≤ 1.0 1)
b and Y- connections) or 0.5-0.5(bs/b) (K-
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 5 of 19

Table 2. Chord member stress functions Qf for RHS truss T-, Y-, and K-connections.

Joint Type AISC 360-10 CIDECT Design Guide 3

√ Q f = (1 − |n|)C1
Plate-to-RHS connection T- and Y-connections Qf = 1 − U2 1)
where C1 = 0.2 for n < 0 and 0.1
for n ≥ 0 2)
Q f = (1 − |n|)C1 where C1 =
  0.6-0.5(bs /b) (T- and Y-
b
RHS-to-RHS connection T-, Y-, and K-connections Q f = 1.3 − 0.4U bs ≤ 1.0 1) connections) or 0.5-0.5(bs /b)
(K-connections) for n < 0 and 0.1
for n ≥ 0 2)
1)U = Nu /[Ag Fy ]+Mu /[SFy ], where Nu and Mu = axial load and moment, respectively, and Ag and S = gross section
area and elastic section modulus of chord member, respectively. 2) n = Nu /Npl +Mu /Mpl , where Npl and Mpl = axial
yield strength and plastic moment strength of chord member, respectively.

If the angle between the chord and branch members is θ (≤90◦ ) in Y-connections, the connection
strength PCP in the branch axis can be computed by dividing NCP by sin θ.

NCP
PCP = for Y-connections (3)
sin θ
Equation (3) applies to the Y-connections where only one branch member is joined with the chord
member. For K-connections where both tensile and compressive branch members are joined with the
chord member (see Figure 3), the transverse components of the tensile and compressive branch forces
cancel out each other, and thus, the connection strength VCP in the longitudinal direction of the chord
member is determined as follows.
2NCP
VCP = for K-connections (4)
tan θ
According to the previous studies by Packer, Kosteski, etc. [5–9], the behavior of plate-to-RHS
connections is governed by deformation-controlled action and the strength increases with increasing
deformation. In this case, if the tensile and compressive branch members are not too close to be
overlapped (or gap K-connection), it is possible to superpose the resistances of the tensile and
compressive branch members that are independently determined.

2.2. Connection With Chord Face Stiffener

For longitudinal plate-to-RHS connections stiffened by the chord face stiffener of sufficient width
and thickness, the mechanism of chord face plastification or the distribution of yield lines is similar to
that of RHS-to-RHS truss connections. According to the CIDECT Design Guide 3, if the chord face
stiffener satisfies the minimum thickness in Equation (5), the chord face plastification strength NCP of
stiffened plate-to-RHS connections can be estimated using the same method as that of RHS-to-RHS
connections, as follows.
bs − t p
" !#
∗
ts ≥ 0.5t exp[3β ] or ts ≥ 0.5t exp 3 (5)
b−t
For AISC 360-10,
 r 
2
 2hs b 
NCP = F y t 
 +4 Q f for T- and Y-connections (6)
b−b
s b−b s


! !0.5
2 bs b
NCP = 9.8F y t Q f for K-connection (7)
b 2t
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 6 of 19

For CIDECT Design Guide 3,

 r 
2
 2hs b 
NCP = F y t 
 +4 Q f for T- and Y-connections (8)
(b − b ) sin θ
s b−b s


! !0.3
bs b
NCP = 14F y t2 Q f for K-connection (9)
b 2t
where hs , bs , and ts = length, width, and thickness of the chord face stiffener, respectively (see Figure 2b).
The chord member stress functions Qf depending on the type of truss connections are presented
in Table 2. Note that Equations (6) and (8) apply to the T- and Y-connections where one tensile or
compression branch member is joined, whereas Equations (7) and (9) apply to the K-connections where
both tensile and compression branch members are joined simultaneously.
The connection strength NCP in Equations (7) and (9) is the force acting in the transverse direction
to the chord axis. Thus, the connection strength VCP in the longitudinal direction is determined by
substituting NCP into Equation (4).

2.3. Bolted Joint of Branch Member

The connection strength PCP in the direction of the branch axis, computed by Equation (3),
should not exceed the maximum force that the bolted joint of the branch member can carry. The design
limit states those that need to be accounted for at the bolted joint include bolt shear yielding, connection
slip, hole bearing, and the tensile yielding and block shear rupture of the gusset plate (see Figure 3b).
Among various failure modes at the bolted joint, the slip and subsequent hole bearing are critical in
the truss connection investigated in this study. According to AISC 360-16 [1], the slip strength and
hole-bearing strength, Pslip and Pbearing , respectively, can be computed as follows.

Pslip = µh f (Nb To )Ns (10)

Pbearing = 1.2Lc t g Fug ≤ 2.4d t g Fug (11)

where µ = slip coefficient at the faying surface, taken as 0.33 for unpainted clean mill scale steel surfaces;
hf = filler coefficient, which is taken as 1.0 if a filler is not used; Nb = total number of bolts at the joint;
To = pretension of a single bolt; Ns = number of frictional surfaces; Lc = clear distance in the direction
of the force between the edge of the hole and the edge of the adjacent hole or edge of the gusset plate;
d = bolt diameter; tg = thickness of the gusset plate; and Fug = ultimate strength of the gusset plate.
For the K-connection where both tensile and compressive branch members are jointed, the strengths
of the bolted joints in the longitudinal direction of the chord member, Vslip and Vbearing , respectively,
can be determined as follows.

Vslip = 2Pslip cos θ for K-connections (12)

Vbearing = 2Pbearing cos θ for K-connections (13)

If slip is not allowed at the bolted joint, the chord face plastification strength VCP by Equation (4)
should not exceed Vslip . However, even after slip occurs, the bolted joint may not fail until VCP reaches
Vslip plus Vbearing because hole bearing that is activated after the slip provides additional resistance.

3. Test Program

3.1. Specimen Details

To investigate the behavior and failure mode of plate-to-RHS K-connections, cyclic loading tests
of three truss specimens (N00-150, S15-150, and S25-200) were performed. Table 3 and Figure 4 show
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 7 of 19

the test variables and connection details of the specimens. In the specimen names, the first letters
N and S indicate the plate-to-RHS connections without and with chord face stiffener, respectively;
the following numbers “15” and “25” indicate the thickness of the stiffeners (ts =15 and 25 mm,
respectively); and ‘1500 and ‘2000 indicate the width of the connecting chord face (b = 150 and 200 mm,
respectively). As shown in Figure 4a, the plate-to-RHS K-connections were fabricated as follows.
First, the longitudinal plate of thickness tp = 15 mm and length lp = 700 mm was welded to the
connecting chord face. Then, two concrete-filled composite branch members were connected to the
longitudinal plate by bolting (i.e., slip-critical joint). For the bolted joint, a T-stub including the gusset
plate PL-100 × 310 of thickness 15 mm was used at the end of the branch members. To mitigate stress
concentration at the weld joint, the gusset plate was extended by 90 mm inside and welded to the
steel section (B-100 × 100 × 4.0) and embedded D10 bars; in addition, 4M8 bolts were installed to tie
the gusset plate and steel section. The inclination angle between the chord and branch members was
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
θ = 45◦ . The geometrical parameters of the chord and branch members, longitudinal plate, and chord
A square
face stiffener hollow structural
are summarized 3. of B-150 × 150 × 4.5 (h = b = 150 mm and t = 4.5 mm) was used for
section
in Table
the chord member in N00-150 and S15-150, while a rectangular hollow structural section of B-150 × 200 ×
4.5 (h = 150 mm, bTable
= 2003. Geometric
mm, parameters
and t = 4.5 mm) was of plate-to-RHS
used in S25-200. truss connections.
For N00-150, the longitudinal plate (tp
= 15
Specimen
mm and
Type
lp = 700 mm) was welded to the connecting chord face (t = 4.5 mm) without stiffener; for S15–
Chord Member Longitudinal Plate Chord Face Stiffener
150 and S25-200, on the other hand, the same longitudinal plate was used along with the chord face
N00-150 Unstiffened b = 150 mm; b/t = 33.3 lp /b = 4.67 -
stiffener of thickness 15 and 25 mm, respectively.lp = 700 mm
S15-150 For Stiffened
N00-150, weld b = 150
size
mm;was = 33.3
b/t w = 1.41t t=p =6.5
15mm
mm at thelp /b = 4.67
joint bs =the
between mm; ts = 15 mm;
120 longitudinal plate = 0.8
bs/band
chord face.
S25-200 For S15-150
Stiffened andmm;
b = 200 S25-200, w = 6.5 mm at the weldlpjoint
b/t = 44.4 between
/b = 3.5 bs =the
170chord
mm; tsface
= 25and
mm;stiffener
bs /b = 0.85
and w = 10 mm at the weld joint between the longitudinal plate and stiffener.
3,100
Gusset plate
(PL-100x310x15)
chord member (B-150x150x4.5 or B-150x200x4.5)
15 100

Gusset plate 2M24 bolts 70 M24

60 50
Reinforcing
(PL-100x15)
1300 or 850

bars 2D13 bolt

205

1,420 hole

310
Longitudinal plate or
00
13

1,430
850

(PL-700x200x15)
15

M8
303030

3030
100

bolt
Composite branch member 70 27 46 hole
100
(B-100x100x4) 100

Section Gusset plate

(a) Configuration of RHS truss connection specimens (b) Composite branch member and bolted joint

C C
Chord face
150 stiffener (15 mm) 150

Top chord Top chord B 150x150x4. 5

B 150x150x4. 5
□- □-
15
150

120
350

365
100

100

700x120 (15t)
100

100

C-C section C-C section

250 250

C 100 C 100

N00-150 (Unstiffened) S15-150 (stiffened)

C
200

Top chord
170 B 150x200x4. 5
□-
25

375
100

700x170 (25t)
100

C-C section
250
Chord face
stiffener (25 mm) C 100

S25-200 (stiffened)
(c) Details of plate-to-RHS K-connections with or without chord face stiffener

Figure 4. Configuration and connection details of truss specimens with plate-to-RHS K­connection (unit: mm):
Figure 4. Configuration and connection details of truss specimens with plate-to-RHS K-connection
(a) Configuration of RHS truss connection specimens; (b) Composite branch member and bolted joint; (c)
(unit: mm): (a) Configuration of RHS truss
Details of plate-to-RHS connection
K-connections specimens;
with or without(b) Composite
chord branch member and
face stiffener.
bolted joint; (c) Details of plate-to-RHS K-connections with or without chord face stiffener.
3.2. Material Strength and Test Setup
Table 4 shows the material strengths of the hollow steel sections, plates, and bolts. For the steel
sections used as the chord and branch members, yield strength was Fy = 405 MPa for B-150 × 150 × 4.5 and
B-150 × 200 × 4.5, and Fy = 395 MPa for B-100 × 100 × 4.0. For the plates used as the longitudinal plate and
chord face stiffener, yield strength was Fy = 429 MPa for thickness 15 mm and Fy = 328 MPa for thickness
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 8 of 19

A square hollow structural section of B-150 × 150 × 4.5 (h = b = 150 mm and t = 4.5 mm) was
used for the chord member in N00-150 and S15-150, while a rectangular hollow structural section
of B-150 × 200 × 4.5 (h = 150 mm, b = 200 mm, and t = 4.5 mm) was used in S25-200. For N00-150,
the longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm and lp = 700 mm) was welded to the connecting chord face
(t = 4.5 mm) without stiffener; for S15–150 and S25-200, on the other hand, the same longitudinal plate
was used along with the chord face stiffener of thickness 15 and 25 mm, respectively.
For N00-150, weld size was w = 1.41t = 6.5 mm at the joint between the longitudinal plate and
chord face. For S15-150 and S25-200, w = 6.5 mm at the weld joint between the chord face and stiffener
and w = 10 mm at the weld joint between the longitudinal plate and stiffener.

3.2. Material Strength and Test Setup

Table 4 shows the material strengths of the hollow steel sections, plates, and bolts. For the steel
sections used as the chord and branch members, yield strength was Fy = 405 MPa for B-150 × 150 × 4.5
and B-150 × 200 × 4.5, and Fy = 395 MPa for B-100 × 100 × 4.0. For the plates used as the longitudinal
plate and chord face stiffener, yield strength was Fy = 429 MPa for thickness 15 mm and Fy = 328 MPa
for thickness 25 mm. For the concrete of composite branch members, the average compression strength
of three concrete cylinders (100 mm diameter and 200 mm height) was fc ’ = 57.4 MPa. The yield
and ultimate strengths of high-tension M24 bolts used for the bolted joint of branch members were
Fy = 1040 MPa and Fu = 1102 MPa, respectively.

Table 4. Material strength.

Type Member Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa)

4.5 mm Chord 405 503
RHS
4.0 mm Branch 395 508
15 mm Longitudinal plate and stiffener 429 574
Plate
25 mm Stiffener 328 519
Bolt M24 Bolted joint of branch 1040 1102
Bar D10 Branch 511 665

Figure 5 shows the test setup for lateral loading. A hydraulic actuator of nominal loading capacity
1000 kN was attached to the left end of the chord member. The hydraulic actuator could exert its full
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
loading capacity (i.e., 1000 kN) during positive loading (i.e., pushing to the right) whereas exerting
only 65% of its loading capacity during negative loading (i.e., pulling to the left). As shown in
loading capacity (i.e., 1000 kN) during positive loading (i.e., pushing to the right) whereas exerting only Figure 5,
four ball
65% of its loading capacity during negative loading (i.e., pulling to the left). As shown in Figure 5, fourplanar
jigs were installed to the chord member as lateral support to minimize rotation of the
truss. ball jigs were
Lateral installed to the
displacements chord
were memberat
measured asboth
lateral support
ends of theto chord
minimize rotationusing
member, of thethe
planar truss.
linear variable
Lateraltransducers
differential displacements were measured
(LVDTs) fixed to at both ends
a vertical of the chord
member member,
standing using the linear variable
independently.
differential transducers (LVDTs) fixed to a vertical member standing independently.

Actuator
(Push 1000 kN
& Pull 650 kN) Lateral
support
Lateral Lateral
support support Ball jig
Reaction
frame

Ball jig

Figure 5. Test setup for cyclic lateral loading of RHS truss specimens.
Figure 5. Test setup for cyclic lateral loading of RHS truss specimens.
Table 4. Material strength.

Type Member Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa)

4.5 mm Chord 405 503
RHS
4.0 mm Branch 395 508
15 mm Longitudinal plate and stiffener 429 574
Plate
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 9 of 19

3.3. Check for Limits of Applicability

For the plate-to-RHS K-connections of the specimens, the limits of applicability summarized in
Table 1 were checked as follows.

• The steel yield strength of the chord member, Fy = 405 MPa, exceeded the upper limit of 360 MPa
in AISC 360-10. According to the CIDECT Design Guide 3, the steel yield strength was smaller
than the upper limit of 460 MPa. The yield ratio, Fy /Fu = 405/503 = 0.805, was slightly greater than
the upper limit of 0.8.
• In all specimens, the yield strength of the longitudinal plate, Fyp = 429 MPa, did not satisfy the
requirement of the CIDECT Design Guide 3, Fyp ≤ Fy (=405 MPa). For the longitudinal plate
under shear force parallel to the chord axis, AISC 360-10 limits Fyp to be not greater than Fu t/tp
to prevent punching shear failure on the connecting chord face. However, for N00–150, Fyp was
significantly larger than Fu t/tp (=503·4.5/15 = 151 MPa).
• For S25-200, the wall width-to-thickness ratio of the chord member, b/t = 44.4, was slightly greater
than the upper limit of 40 in AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3. On the other hand,
the ratios of the chord width to the branch width, bb /b = 0.667 and 0.5, were smaller than the upper
limit of 0.85 in AISC 360-10, and the ratios of the stiffener width to the chord width, bs /b = 0.8 and
0.85, did not exceed 0.85.
• For N00-150 and S15–150, the ratio of the plate length to the chord width, lp /b = 4.67, exceeded the
upper limit of 4 in the CIDECT Design Guide 3. On the other hand, for S25-200, lp /b = 3.5 was
within the limit.
• The minimum thickness of chord face stiffener computed by Equation (5) was 19.6 mm for S15-150
(provided thickness ts = 15 mm) and 24.3 mm for S25-200 (provided thickness ts = 25 mm). Thus,
S15-150 did not satisfy the requirement.

4. Test Results

4.1. Load-Displacement Relationship and Failure Mode

Figure 6 shows the lateral load-displacement (V–∆) relationship and failure mode of the unstiffened
specimen N00-150. During the push in the positive direction where the chord member was under
compression, the out-of-plane rotation or torsional deformation of the plane truss occurred largely.
Such torsional effects were attributed to inappropriate lateral supporting: for N00-150 that was tested
first, the location of ball jigs was different from Figure 5 and was concentrated at the center region
(horizontal distance 1000 mm) of the chord member. Consequently, as lateral load exceeded 150 kN,
the plane truss rotated and the strength was no longer increased. As shown in Figure 6b, out-of-plane
deformation or distortion occurred significantly at the plate-to-RHS K-connection, and thus, loading in
the positive direction was stopped. During the pull in the negative direction where the chord member
was under tension, on the other hand, loading was continued until ∆ = −50 mm. The maximum
load Vu = −402 kN was reached at ∆ = −27 mm (later drift ratio = −1.9%). At the load level of about
V = −150 kN, the stiffness decreased as slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch members.
As shown in Figure 6b, the unstiffened K-connection of N00-150 underwent severe deformations
of the connecting chord face (t = 4.5 mm and b/t = 33.3) and longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm). This shows
that the governing limit state was chord face plastification. There was no weld rupture. At the bolted
joint of the branch members, scratches on the faying surface were clearly shown and, due to subsequent
hole bearing action, threaded marks or dents were left on the inner face of the hole.
was reached at Δ = −27 mm (later drift ratio = −1.9%). At the load level of about V = −150 kN, the stiffness
decreased as slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch members.
As shown in Figure 6b, the unstiffened K-connection of N00-150 underwent severe deformations of
the connecting chord face (t = 4.5 mm and b/t = 33.3) and longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm). This shows that
the governing limit state was chord face plastification. There was no weld rupture. At the bolted joint of
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 10 of 19
the branch members, scratches on the faying surface were clearly shown and, due to subsequent hole
bearing action, threaded marks or dents were left on the inner face of the hole.

700
N00-150 Push (+)
500 VCP AISC = +154; -149 kN
VCP CIDECT = +135; -132 kN
300 Vu = +196 kN
Latera load V (kN) Vslip = ±190 kN

100

-100

-300 Hardening
Vu = −402 kN
behavior due
to bolt hole
-500
Reaction frame slip bearing after
Pull (-) at the lab floor connection slip
-700
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Lateral displacement Δ (mm)
(a) Lateral load-displacement relationship

Chord
member

L. plate

G. plate
Chord face
deformation
Branch without weld
member rupture

Sliding and hole

bearing in G. plate

Bolted joint
Rotation of chord member between L. and
(positive loading, torsional G. plates
effect)
(b) Failure mode

Figure 6. Test results of unstiffened plate-to-RHS connection: N00-150: (a) Lateral load-displacement
relationship; (b) Failure mode.

Figure 7 shows the test results of the stiffened specimen S15-150. For S15-150, out-of-plane rotation
and torsional effects were greatly reduced. As shown in Figure 7a, after robust initial elastic behavior,
the stiffness decreased due to slip at the bolted joint of branch members at the load level of about
V = ±200 kN; however, the strength and stiffness began to increase again, as the bolt was in contact
with the hole edge and bearing action was activated. The maximum load in the positive direction,
Vu = +487 kN, was less than that in the negative direction, Vu = −593 kN, due to torsional effects
during the push in the positive direction. Note that, during the pull in the negative direction, S15-150
was not fully tested until its ultimate limit state due to the loading limit of the actuator (i.e., 650 kN).
At the load level of V = ±400 kN, the load was sharply reduced as the reaction frame slipped on the
floor; however, the load was recovered soon after.
longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm) were significantly reduced at the stiffened K-connection of S15–150
(compare with N00-150 in Figure 6b). There was no weld rupture, and the bolts had little or no
deformation. At the bolted joint of branch members, scratches on the faying surface due to slip and, due
to subsequent bearing action, threaded marks or dents on the inner face of the hole were clearly shown.
This Sci.
Appl. indicates
2020, 10,that
3793the governing limit states were the slip and subsequent hole bearing at the bolted
11 joint
of 19
in addition to chord face plastification.

Hardening behavior
700 due to hole bearing
S15-150
after connection slip Vu = +487 kN
500 VCP AISC = ±525 kN
VCP CIDECT = +402; -394 kN
300 Vslip = ±190 kN
Latera load V (kN)

100 Pull (-) Push (+)

Reaction frame slip

-100
at the lab floor
Reaction frame
-300 slip at the lab floor
Hardening behavior
-500 due to hole bearing
Vu = −593 kN after connection slip
-700
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Lateral displacement Δ (mm)
(a) Lateral load-displacement relationship

Chord face
Stiffener

L. plate

Reduced
G. plate
chord face
deformation
Branch

Hole bearing
Slip
after slip

Reduced rotation of chord

member (positive loading)

(b) Failure mode

Figure 7. Test results of stiffened plate-to-RHS connection: S15-150: (a) Lateral load-displacement
relationship; (b) Failure mode.

As shown in Figure 7b, the deformations of the connecting chord face (t = 4.5 mm and b/t = 33.3)
and longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm) were significantly reduced at the stiffened K-connection of S15–150
(compare with N00-150 in Figure 6b). There was no weld rupture, and the bolts had little or no
deformation. At the bolted joint of branch members, scratches on the faying surface due to slip and,
due to subsequent bearing action, threaded marks or dents on the inner face of the hole were clearly
shown. This indicates that the governing limit states were the slip and subsequent hole bearing at the
bolted joint in addition to chord face plastification.
Figure 8 shows the test results of the stiffened specimen S25-200. For S25-200, after robust linear
elastic behavior until V = ±200 kN, the stiffness decreased as slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch
members. The decrease in stiffness was more pronounced under positive loading due to torsional
effects. After the slip, the load increased again as the bolts provided additional resistance through
bearing action. The maximum loads in the positive and negative directions were Vu = +442 kN and
−602 kN, respectively. Although the strength was temporarily decreased and then recovered as the
reaction frame slipped on the floor, the cyclic behavior of S25-200 was stable overall. As shown in
Figure 8a, S25-200 was not loaded further in the negative direction up to its ultimate limit state due to
the limit on the loading capacity of the actuator.
 As shown in Figure 8b, although the wall width-to-thickness of the connecting chord face (b/t = 44.4)
exceeded the allowable limit of 40 specified in AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3, the deformations
of the connecting chord face (t = 4.5 mm) and longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm) were greatly reduced and
similar to those in S15-150. Slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch members. The slip occurred first at
the K-connection
Appl. to the top chord member and then followed at the bottom N-connection. Note
Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 12 that,
of 19
despite the slip, the strength of the bolted joint of branch members was maintained stable.

700
S25-200 Push (+)
500 VCP AISC = ±644 kN Vu = +442 kN
VCP CIDECT = +479; -463 kN
300
Latera load V (kN)
Vslip = ±190 kN

100

-100
Reaction Reaction frame
frame slip at slip at the lab floor
-300
the lab floor
Hardening due to hole
-500 Vu = −602 kN bearing after slip at the
Pull (-) faying surface
-700
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Lateral displacement Δ (mm)
(a) Lateral load-displacement relationship

Chord face Slip at

bolted joints

L. plate
Longitudinal plate

G. plate
Gusset
Branch plate
Chord face
Bolt Inner face of
hole (G. plate)
L. plate Slip

G. plate

Branch Scratches
Out-of-plane due to slip
deformation of plates Bottom N-joint

(b) Failure mode

Figure
Figure 8. 8.Test
Testresults
resultsofofstiffened
stiffenedplate-to-RHS
plate-to-RHS connection:
connection: S25-200:
S25-200: (a)
(a)Lateral
Lateralload-displacement
load-displacement
relationship; (b) Failure mode. relationship; (b) Failure mode.

As shown in Figure 8b, although the wall width-to-thickness of the connecting chord face
(b/t = 44.4) exceeded the allowable limit of 40 specified in AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3,
the deformations of the connecting chord face (t = 4.5 mm) and longitudinal plate (tp = 15 mm) were
greatly reduced and similar to those in S15-150. Slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch members.
The slip occurred first at the K-connection to the top chord member and then followed at the bottom
N-connection. Note that, despite the slip, the strength of the bolted joint of branch members was
maintained stable.

4.2. Effects of Chord Face Stiffener

For N00-150, the stiffness and strength began to degrade early as out-of-plane deformations of
the connecting chord face and longitudinal plate occurred at the unstiffened connection. In particular,
inappropriate lateral supporting increased such premature strength and stiffness degradation. On the
other hand, for S15-150 and S25-200 with the plate-to-RHS K-connection stiffened by chord face
stiffener, the deformations of the connective chord face and longitudinal plate were greatly reduced,
and consequently, the lateral resistance of the trusses, such as strength and stiffness, was greatly
improved. Note that such stiffening effects were achieved even in the state where the design parameters
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 13 of 19

were beyond the limits of applicability specified in current design codes. For example, the steel
yield strength of the chord member (Fy =405 MPa) exceeded the specified limit (=360 MPa) by 13%;
for S15-150, the thickness of the chord face stiffener (ts =15 mm) was only 77% of the minimum
thickness specified in the CIDECT Design Guide 3; and for S25-200, the wall width-to-thickness ratio
of the connecting chord face (b/t = 44.4) exceeded the specified limit (=40) by 11%.
For the stiffened specimens S15-150 and S25-200, chord face plastification was delayed, and instead,
the slip and subsequent hole bearing at the bolted joint of branch members became the governing limit
states. In general, slip may limit or delay strength development in the slip-critical bolted connection;
however, the connection slip that occurs while maintaining the frictional resistance can have positive
effects of increasing ductility and energy dissipation, particularly under seismic loading. In this
study, as shown in Figures 6–8, S15-150 and S25-200 with the stiffened truss K-connections displayed
a hardening behavior dissipating considerable energy after the slip at the bolted joint of branch
members. This indicates that, if the post-slip bearing resistance of the bolted joint of branch members
is large enough to achieve stable cyclic behavior, the seismic performance of stiffened plate-to-RHS
connections can be greatly improved by allowing slip at the slip-critical bolted joint.

5. Strength Evaluation

5.1. Theoretical Strengths

The chord face plastification strength VCP of the unstiffened and stiffened plate-to-RHS
K-connections was evaluated using the equations discussed in the previous Section 2. For the
unstiffened connection N00-150, VCP was computed by Equations (1) and (2) for the T- or Y-connections
where one branch member is joined. Since both the tensile and compressive branch members were
connected to one longitudinal plate, the plate length lp in Equations (1) and (2) was replaced by
an effective length 0.5lp (=350 mm). For the stiffened connections S15-150 and S25-200, NCP was
computed by Equations (7) and (9), and VCP was then determined from Equation (4). As shown in
Table 5, the Qf values (i.e., chord member stress function) were different depending on the direction
of loading, and thus, the values of VCP for the positive and negative loadings (i.e., under chord
compression and tension, respectively) were separately computed. In the computation of Qf , the axial
loads of the chord member (=Nu ) were approximated as the maximum loads Vu by the test and the
moment was neglected (Mu ; 0). The theoretical strengths in Table 5 were computed based on the
actual material strengths in Table 4.

Table 5. Theoretical strengths of plate-to-RHS truss connections.

Chord Face Plastification Strength VCP (kN) 1) Bolted Connection Strength (kN)
Specimen AISC 360-10 CIDECT Design Guide 3 Slip Post-slip ultimate
Positive 2) Negative 2) Positive 2) Negative 2) Vslip VSB (=Vslip + Vbearing )
N00-150 +154 −149 +135 −132 190 723 (=190 + 533)
S15-150 +525 −525 +402 −394 190 723 (=190 + 533)
S25-200 1) +644 −644 +479 −463 190 723 (=190 + 533)
1)For N00-150, NCP was computed by Equations (1) and (2), applying an effective length 0.5lp instead of lp .
For S15-150 and S25-200, Equations (7) and (9) were used. VCP was then computed by Equation (4). 2) The chord
member was in compression and tension under positive and negative loadings, respectively.

Table 5 also presents the slip and hole-bearing resistances in the bolted joint of branch members,
Vslip and Vbearing , respectively. Vslip (=190 kN) and Vbearing (=533 kN) were computed by Equations
(10)–(13). In the computation of Vslip , the preload of the bolts was taken as To =204 kN measured by the
torque wrench. Note that, for the stiffened truss connections, Vslip (=190 kN) was the smallest and thus
the governing limit state was the slip at the bolted joint between the longitudinal plate and branch
member. However, since bearing action was activated as the body of the bolts was in contact with
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 14 of 19

the edge of the hole after slip, the ultimate resistance of the bolted joint was greater. Such post-slip
ultimate strength was estimated by adding Vslip and Vbearing ; VSB = Vslip + Vbearing (=723 kN).

5.2. Comparison Between Theoretical and Test Strengths

Figures 6–8 compare the test and theoretical strengths of the truss connections. The theoretical
strengths VCP (chord face plastification) and Vslip (connection slip) are represented as the horizontal
solid and dotted lines. VSB (post-slip ultimate strength, = 723 kN) is not included in the figures,
as the strength value is over 700 kN. The behavior of the unstiffened and stiffened plate-to-RHS
K-connections, such as governing limit states and related connection strengths, can be summarized
as follows. Note that, since the truss connections did not develop their strength fully under positive
loading due to torsional effects, the theoretical strengths were compared with the test strengths under
negative loading only.

(1) In all specimens, the maximum loads Vu were greater than Vslip (=190 kN), which was the slip
resistance of the bolted joint of the branch members. Thus, in the load-displacement curves
in Figures 6–8, the stiffness degradation or slip behavior occurred roughly at the load levels
of V = ±190 kN. However, the post-slip ultimate strength VSB (= 723 kN) was greater than the
maximum loads. This explains why hole bearing failure did not occur at the bolted joint while
threaded marks or dents were left on the inner face of the hole (see Figures 7b and 8b).
(2) For N00-150, VCP of AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3 (= −149 kN and −132 kN,
respectively) was less than Vslip (=190 kN). This indicates that the behavior of the unstiffened
plate-to-RHS K-connection was governed by chord face plastification. Basically, the chord face
plastification was a ductile failure mode accompanying hardening behavior, as reported in the
previous studies by Packer, Cao, and Kosteski [6,7]. Thus, during negative loading, the strength
significantly increased with increasing displacement. Consequently, the maximum load in the
negative direction, Vu = −402 kN, was much larger than VCP .
(3) For S15-150 and S25-200 with the stiffened plate-to-RHS K-connections, the overall behavior
was governed by chord face plastification after connection slip at the bolted joint of the branch
members. Overall, both AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3 gave reasonable estimates on
the chord face plastification strengths VCP of the stiffened connections. AISC 360-10 overestimated
the connection strength; the test-to-theoretical strength ratio was Vu /VCP = 1.13 for S15-150
(= −593 kN/−525 kN) and 0.93 for S25-200 (= −602 kN/−644 kN). On the other hand, the CIDECT
Design Guide 3 underestimated the connection strength; Vu /VCP = −593 kN/−394 kN = 1.51 for
S15-150 and Vu /VCP = −602 kN/−463 kN = 1.30 for S25-200.

As compared above, considering that the test strengths included over-strength effects due to
post-yield hardening behavior, the CIDECT Design Guide 3 results in safe and conservative design for
stiffened plate-to-RHS K-connections, whereas AISC 360-10 may result in less- or nonconservative
design. When designing the plate-to-RHS connections stiffened by chord face stiffener, it is necessary
to satisfy the limits of applicability presented in Table 1. Although some of the limits, such as yield
strength (Fy ≤ 360 MPa), wall width-to-thickness ratio of the connecting chord face (b/t ≤ 40), and plate
length-to-chord width ratio (b/lp ≤ 4), etc. were violated, test data are not sufficient to investigate the
effects of such variables on the connection behavior. Further study on the limits of applicability for
RHS truss connections is required.

6. Finite Element Analysis

For the unstiffened and stiffened plate-to-RHS K-connections, N00-150 and S15-150, finite element
modeling (FEM) was implemented using ABAQUS (Dassault Systèmes Simulia Corp., Providence,
RI, USA). [11]. As shown in Figure 9a,b, the stress-strain relationships of steel materials used for
the branch and chord members were idealized as the bilinear or trilinear relationships based on the
actual stress–strain curves obtained from the material tensile tests. The yield and ultimate strengths
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 15 of 19
used for the branch and chord members were idealized as the bilinear or trilinear relationships based
on the actual stress–strain curves obtained from the material tensile tests. The yield and ultimate
(Fy and Fu ) in Table 4 were used (Es = 200,000 MPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3), and the Von Mises
strengths (Fy and Fu) in Table 4 were used (Es =200,000 MPa and Poisson’s ratio =0.3), and the Von
yield criterion was applied to address the behavior under multiaxial stresses. For the high-tension
Mises yield criterion was applied to address the behavior under multiaxial stresses. For the high-
bolts, the trilinear σ-ε relationships were idealized based on the yield and tensile strengths, Fy = 0.9Fu
tension bolts, the trilinear σ‒ε relationships were idealized based on the yield and tensile strengths,
and Fu , respectively (see Figure 9c). To model the material nonlinearity of the steels and bolts under
Fy = 0.9Fu and Fu, respectively (see Figure 9c). To model the material nonlinearity of the steels and
cyclic loading, isotropic and kinematic hardening rules (i.e., combined hardening rule) were used with
bolts under cyclic loading, isotropic and kinematic hardening rules (i.e., combined hardening rule)
the Von Mises yield criterion and associated flow rule. The kinematic hardening modulus and the
were used with the Von Mises yield criterion and associated flow rule. The kinematic hardening
rate at which hardening modulus decreases with plastic strain were assumed as Ck = 700 MPa and
modulus and the rate at which hardening modulus decreases with plastic strain were assumed as Ck
γk = 75, respectively. For the infilled concrete of the branch member (fc ’ = 57.4 MPa), the damaged
=700 MPa and γk =75, respectively. For the infilled concrete of the branch member (fc’ = 57.4 MPa), the
plasticity model was applied. Under compression, a parabolic-linear model under compression was
damaged plasticity model was applied. Under compression, a parabolic-linear model under
used as shown in Figure 9d. The tensile behavior of the concrete before cracking was assumed as
compression was used as shown in √ Figure 9d. The tensile behavior of the concrete before cracking
a linear elastic relationship (fct ’ = 0.21 fc’ = 1.59 MPa), and then, the following softening behavior was
was assumed as a linear elastic relationship (fct’ = 0.21√fc’ = 1.59 MPa), and then, the following
also simplified as linear. To simulate the inelastic behavior of the concrete under multiaxial stress,
softening behavior was also simplified as linear. To simulate the inelastic behavior of the concrete
the Drucker–Prager plasticity model was applied.
under multiaxial stress, the Drucker–Prager plasticity model was applied.

800 600 600

Test
FE input 500 500
600
400 400
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
400 300 300
Longitudinal plate 200 200
200 Gusset plate Chord Branch
Chord face stiffener 100 B-150x150x4.5 100 B-100x100x4.0
0 0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12
Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm)
(a) Steel plate (15 mm) (b) Rectangular hollow steel sections

1200 60

1000 50

800 40
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

600 30

400 20

200 10

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.002 0.004
Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm)
(c) High-tension M24 bolt (d) Infilled concrete

Figure9.9. Stress-strain
Figure Stress-strain relationships
relationshipsofofsteel,
steel,high-tension
high-tensionbolt, and
bolt, filled
and concrete:
filled (a) Steel
concrete: plateplate
(a) Steel (15
mm);(b)
(15 mm); (b)Rectangular
Rectangularhollow
hollow steel
steel sections;
sections; (c)(c) High-tension
High-tension M24
M24 bolt;
bolt; (d)(d) Infilled
Infilled concrete.
concrete.

Figure 10
Figure 10 shows
showsthe theABAQUS
ABAQUSmodeling
modeling image.
image. All All
steelsteel
and and
concrete components
concrete componentsof theof plate-
the
to-RHS K-connection
plate-to-RHS specimens
K-connection were were
specimens meshed by theby
meshed C3D8R element,
the C3D8R a general-purpose
element, a general-purpose linearlinear
brick
element with reduced integration. The RHSs and filled concrete of the chord and branch member
brick element with reduced integration. The RHSs and filled concrete of the chord and branch member
weredivided
were dividedby bysetting
settingmesh
mesh size
size 2020 mm.
mm. ToTo account
account for for stress
stress flowflow
withwith accuracy,
accuracy, the longitudinal
the longitudinal plate
plategusset
and and gusset
plate atplate at thewere
the joint jointfinely
weredivided
finely divided
by settingby mesh
settingsize
mesh sizemm.
as 7.5 as 7.5
Formm. For the high-
the high-strength
strength bolts and weld joints, the smallest mesh size 5 mm was applied. The interface of the
bolts and weld joints, the smallest mesh size 5 mm was applied. The interface of the weld joints was weld
set
joints was set to “tie”. On the other hand, “interaction” was applied to the steel-to-steel and steel-to-
to “tie”. On the other hand, “interaction” was applied to the steel-to-steel and steel-to-concrete contact
concretetocontact
surfaces accountsurfaces to account
for bearing for bearingfriction
under compression, under undercompression,
shear, andfriction
separationunderundershear, and
tension.
The friction coefficient was assumed as µ =
separation under tension. The friction coefficient was assumed as μ = 0.25 for the steel-to-steel contact
0.25 for the steel-to-steel contact surface and µ = 0.47 for the
surface and μ = 0.47
steel-to-concrete for surface
contact the steel-to-concrete contact
[12,13]. As shown surface10,
in Figure [12,13]. Asjigs
the ball shownthat in Figure
were used10,forthe ball
lateral
jigs that were used for lateral supporting of the top chord member were also included in the analysis
supporting of the top chord member were also included in the analysis model. Note that, for N00-150
model.the
where Note that, for
location N00-150
of lateral where thewas
supporting location of lateral
different, the ballsupporting
jigs in thewas different,
analysis model the ballplaced
were jigs in
the analysis
near model were
the longitudinal placed
plate at thenear theso
center longitudinal plate at
that the distance the center
between twoso that
ball the
jigs distance
was 1000 mm.between
two ball jigs was 1000 mm.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 16 of 19
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, xx FOR
2020, 10, FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 15 of
15 of 18
18

yy
xx
zz

Figure 10.
Figure
Figure 10. Analysis
10. Analysis model,
Analysis model, support
model, support constraints,
support constraints, and
constraints, and load
and load conditions
load conditions of
conditions of S15-150.
of S15-150.
S15-150.

As the
As
As theboundary
the boundary
boundary condition,
condition,
condition,
thethe
basebase
the base
platesplates
at theatbottom
plates the bottom
at the bottom were considered
were considered
were considered
as fixed inasall
as fixed in all
directions
fixed in all
directions
or degrees or
of degrees
freedom. of
Thefreedom.
analysis The
was analysis
performed was inperformed
two phases. in two
In
directions or degrees of freedom. The analysis was performed in two phases. In the first phase, the
thephases.
first In
phase, the
thefirst phase,
preload the
of the
preload of of the
high-tension thebolts (To = 204bolts
high-tension kN) was(Too ==applied.
204 kN)
kN) waswas
Then,applied. Then, cyclic
cyclic lateral cyclic
loads lateral loads were
were applied were
to theapplied
loading to
preload high-tension bolts (T 204 applied. Then, lateral loads applied to
the loading
loading surface
surface
the
of thesurface of
chord of the
the chord
member. chord member.
The member. The
analysis The analysis
was analysis was
performed was performed
by performed by
controlling by controlling
the controlling the
lateral the lateral
displacement lateral of
displacement
the branch member. of the branch
Geometric member.nonlinearGeometric nonlinear
was applied. Notewas applied.
that
displacement of the branch member. Geometric nonlinear was applied. Note that the preload of the Note
the preload that the
of the preload
bolts wasofkept the
bolts
constantwas kept
during constant during
cyclic lateral cyclic
loading, lateral
which loading, which
was implemented was implemented
by the “fixed atby
bolts was kept constant during cyclic lateral loading, which was implemented by the “fixed at current the
current “fixed
length” at current
option
length”
in ABAQUS.
length” option in
option in ABAQUS.
ABAQUS.
Figure
Figure 11
11 compares
compares the
Figure 11 compares the lateral
thelateral
lateralload-displacement
load-displacement relationships
load-displacement relationships
relationships of N00-150
of N00-150
of N00-150 and and
and S15-150.
S15-150. The
S15-150.
The
analysis and
The and test
analysis
analysis test results
and results are
test resultsare denoted
denoted as
are denoted as the
the dashed
as dashed and
the dashed and solid
and solid lines,
solid lines, respectively.
lines, respectively. Overall,
respectively. Overall, the
Overall, the results
the results
results
of
of the
the FEM
FEM analysis,
analysis,such suchasasthe theelastic
elastic stiffness,
stiffness,slip at
slip the
at thebolted
bolted
of the FEM analysis, such as the elastic stiffness, slip at the bolted joint of the branch member, andjoint of
joint the
of branch
the branchmember,member, and
post-slip
and ultimate
post-slip strength,
ultimate agreed
strength, well
agreed with
wellthe test
with results.
the For
test results. S15-150 with
For S15-150
post-slip ultimate strength, agreed well with the test results. For S15-150 with the chord face stiffener, the chord
with face
the stiffener,
chord face
the energy
energy
stiffener,
the
thedissipation due to
energy dissipation
dissipation due to frictional
frictional
due to slip at the
the bolted
frictional
slip at bolted
slip at joint of the
the bolted
joint of the joint
branch
branch
of member
the branch
member was was observed
member
observed
was in
in
the analysis,
observed in similar
the to
analysis, in the test.
similar However,
to in the the
test. detailed
However, behavior
the detailedwas
the analysis, similar to in the test. However, the detailed behavior was different in the analysis and different
behavior in
was the analysis
different in and
the
test, as
as follows.
analysis
test, follows.
and test,First, the slip
as follows.
First, the slip First,
strength
strength
the at thestrength
slip
at the bolted joint
bolted joint
at theofbolted
the branch
of the branch
joint ofmember
the branch
member was greater
was greater
memberinwas the
in the
analysis than
greater
analysis
inthan in
the in the
the test.
analysis test. Second,
thanSecond, the
in the the bolted
test.bolted joints
Second,joints underwent
the underwent scratches
bolted scratches on
joints underwent on the
the faying
faying surface
scratches surface due
on the due to
faying to
slip and
surface threaded
due to slip marks or
and threaded dents on
marks theor inner
dents face
on theof the
inner hole
face(see Figure
of the
slip and threaded marks or dents on the inner face of the hole (see Figure 6b, Figure 7b, and Figure
hole6b,(seeFigure
Figure7b,6b,and Figure
Figure 7b,
8b). Figure
and
8b). Such effects
Such effects
8b). Suchwere
were not were
effects
not takennot
taken into
into account
taken for the
into account
account for the foranalysis. Thus, Thus,
the analysis.
analysis. Thus, for accurate
for accurate analysis,
for accurate fine
analysis,
analysis, fine
modeling
fine modeling on the
on bolted
the joint
bolted is
joint
modeling on the bolted joint is required. required.
is required.

500 800
500 800
Test (a) N00-150
N00-150 Test (b) S15-150
(b) S15-150
400 Test (a) 600 Test
400
Analysis 600 Analysis
300 Analysis Analysis
300 400
200 400
(kN)

(kN)

200
loadVV(kN)

loadPP(kN)

100 200
100 200
0 0
0 0
Lateraload
Lateraload

-100
-100 -200
-200
Latera
Latera

-200
-200 -400
-300 -400
-300
-400 -600
-400 -600
-500 -800
-500 -800
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Lateral displacement
Lateral Δ (mm)
displacement Δ (mm) Lateral displacement
Lateral Δ (mm)
displacement Δ (mm)

Figure
Figure
Figure 11. Comparison
11. Comparison
11. Comparison of load-displacement
of load-displacement
of load-displacement relationships
relationships
relationships by finite
by finite
by finite element
element
element modeling
modeling
modeling (FEM)
(FEM)
(FEM) analysis
and test. analysis and
analysis and test.
test.

Figure 12
Figure 12 shows
shows thethe Mises
Mises stress
stress distributions
distributions (S)
(S) and
and deformations
deformations at at the
the peak
peak points
points denoted
denoted
in Figure 11.
in Figure 11. In the
11. InInthe region
theregion
regionwhere
where
whereMises
Mises
Misesstresses
stresses S are
S are
stresses equal
equal
S are to or
to or
equal greater
togreater than the
thanthan
or greater yield
the yield strength
strength
the yield FFyy (=
strength (=
405 MPa
405 MPa for
for the
the RHS
RHS chord
chord member
member and
and 429
429 MPa
MPa for
for the
the longitudinal
longitudinal plate
plate and
and chord
chord face
face stiffener),
stiffener),
tensile or compressive yielding takes place and plastic strains occurs. For the unstiffened
tensile or compressive yielding takes place and plastic strains occurs. For the unstiffened connection connection
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 17 of 19

Fy (= 405 MPa for the RHS chord member and 429 MPa for the longitudinal plate and chord face
Appl. Sci. 2020,
stiffener), 10, x FOR
tensile PEER REVIEW yielding takes place and plastic strains occurs. For the unstiffened
or compressive 16 of 18

connection N00-150 (see Figure 12a), plastic regions where S ≥ Fy were both in the longitudinal plate
N00-150 (see Figure 12a), plastic regions where S ≥ Fy were both in the longitudinal plate and
and connecting chord face; particularly in the longitudinal plate, the plastic regions formed mainly
connecting chord face; particularly in the longitudinal plate, the plastic regions formed mainly
around the bolt holes. This shows that, in the analysis, the behavior of N00-150 was governed by
around the bolt holes. This shows that, in the analysis, the behavior of N00-150 was governed by
plastification of the connecting chord face and by slip and subsequent hole bearing at the bolted joint.
plastification of the connecting chord face and by slip and subsequent hole bearing at the bolted joint.
For the stiffened connection S15-150 (see Figure 12b), on the other hand, the connecting chord face
For the stiffened connection S15-150 (see Figure 12b), on the other hand, the connecting chord face
remained elastic as the chord face stiffener reduced stress concentration. Instead, plastic regions where
remained elastic as the chord face stiffener reduced stress concentration. Instead, plastic regions
S ≥ Fy were mainly in the longitudinal plate. This shows that the behavior of S15-150 was governed by
where S ≥ Fy were mainly in the longitudinal plate. This shows that the behavior of S15-150 was
slip and subsequent hole bearing at the bolted joint.
governed by slip and subsequent hole bearing at the bolted joint.

y y

x x

y
y
x
z
x
z

(a) N00-150 (unstiffened) (b) S15-150 (stiffened)

Figure12.
Figure 12. Results
Results of
of FEM
FEManalysis:
analysis:Mises
Mises stress contours
stress andand
contours deformations at peak
deformations load points:
at peak (a)
load points:
(a) N00-150 (unstiffened); (b)N00-150
S15-150(unstiffened);
(stiffened). (b) S15-150 (stiffened).

7.7. Summary
Summary and
and Conclusions
Conclusions
In
In this
this study,
study, the
the behavior
behavior andand design method of
design method of the
the plate-to-RHS
plate-to-RHSK-connections
K-connectionsstiffened
stiffenedbyby
chord face stiffener were investigated. Cyclic loading tests were performed to investigate
chord face stiffener were investigated. Cyclic loading tests were performed to investigate the the
stiffening
stiffening
effects effects
of the offace
chord the chord faceand
stiffener, stiffener, and the applicability
the applicability of current
of current design design
codes suchcodes such360-10
as AISC as AISC
and
360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3 was discussed. The conclusions are as follows.
CIDECT Design Guide 3 was discussed. The conclusions are as follows.

(1) The plate-to-RHS

(1) plate-to-RHS K-connections
K-connections exhibited
exhibited thethe deformation-controlled
deformation-controlledhardeninghardeningbehavior
behavior
dissipating considerable energy after slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch members.
dissipating considerable energy after slip occurred at the bolted joint of branch members.
Overall, the
Overall, the joint
joint behavior
behavior was
wasflexible
flexibledue
dueto toout-of-plane
out-of-planedeformations
deformationsofofthe theconnecting
connectingchord
chord
face and
face and longitudinal
longitudinal plate,
plate, and
and thus,
thus,there
therewaswasnot
notbrittle
brittlefailure
failuresuch
suchasasweld
weldrupture.
rupture.
(2) The
(2) The behavior
behavior ofof the
the plate-to-RHS
plate-to-RHSK-connections
K-connectionsstiffened
stiffenedby bychord
chordface
facestiffeners
stiffenerswas
wasgoverned
governed
first by
first by slip
slip at
at the
the bolted
bolted joint
jointof
ofbranch
branchmembers
membersand andthen
thenby bythe
theplastification
plastificationofofthe
theconnecting
connecting
chord face.
chord face. For
For S15-150
S15-150 andandS25-200,
S25-200,as asthe
thechord
chordface
facestiffener
stiffenerreduced
reducedthethedeformation
deformationofofthe
the
connecting chord face, the initial stiffness and ultimate strength were greatly
connecting chord face, the initial stiffness and ultimate strength were greatly increased. increased.
(3) The provisions of current design codes, such as AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3,
yielded a reasonable estimate of the chord face plastification strength of plate-to-RHS K-
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3793 18 of 19

(3) The provisions of current design codes, such as AISC 360-10 and CIDECT Design Guide 3, yielded
a reasonable estimate of the chord face plastification strength of plate-to-RHS K-connections.
The CIDECT Design Guide 3 resulted in the conservative estimate of the connection strengths,
whereas AISC 360-10 slightly overestimated the strength of the stiffened connections.

If the post-slip-bearing resistance of the bolted joint of branch members is large enough to achieve
stable cyclic behavior, the seismic performance of stiffened plate-to-RHS connections can be greatly
improved by allowing slip at the slip-critical bolted joint. Thus, for the seismic design of RHS trusses,
the following two-phase design may be applicable.

(1) In the first phase, the plate-to-RHS connections are designed for unfactored service loads
(i.e., serviceability limit state). The governing limit state of the truss connections is connection
slip at the bolted joint of branch members.
(2) In the second phase, the plate-to-RHS connections are designed for factored loads at the ultimate
limit state. The governing limit state of the truss connections is the plastification of connecting
chord face. The bolted joint of branch members should be checked for post-slip failure modes,
such as hole-bearing failure and block shear rupture.

Author Contributions: T.-H.Y. and T.-S.E. contributed to experimental and numerical investigations of the
behavior of plate-to-RHS k-connections. C.-G.K. contributed to experimental campaign. S.-M.K. contributed
to research funding and writing of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by C&S ENG Co., the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the
Korean Government (NRF-R-2019-01064 and NRF-2018R1A6A1A07025819), and the Urban Architecture Research
Program of KAIA (19AUDP-B106327-05).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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