IGCSE O-Level Biology Masterfile

Current Syllabus: CH6,7,8,9,10

Part 1: Nutrition in Mammals

Holozoic Nutrition: A form of heterotrophic nutrition where animals feed on complex organic matter obtained
from other organisms, and internally process, or digest this matter. They also tend to have specialised organs
for this task
Chemical Digestion: When large food molecules are chemically broken down into their simplest forms in the
presence of an enzyme
Mechanical Digestion: When large food fragments are physically broken down to smaller fragments

Digestive System:
The mammalian digestive system is made up of the gut (alimentary canal) and its glands. Food substances
are digested in the alimentary canal, which extends from the mouth to the anus. The alimentary canal consists
of:
● Mouth and Buccal Cavity: Food is ingested through the mouth, entering the buccal cavity, around
which is the upper and lower jaws, containing 4 types of teeth:
○ Incisors & Canines: These are for biting off pieces of food. Humans have 8 incisors, 4 on each
jaw, and 4 canines, 2 per jaw
○ Premolars & Molars: These are for grinding food, breaking them down. They are the strongest
teeth. Humans have 8 premolars, 4 per jaw, and 12 molars, 6 per jaw.
Here, mechanical digestion takes place as the teeth chew the food, breaking them into smaller pieces
increasing surface area, a process known as mastication. Saliva is released by 3 pairs (6 total)
salivary glands through ducts into the buccal cavity. The tongue mixes food with saliva, and shapes it
into a bolus which slides down into the pharynx. Saliva consists of water, mucin, salivary amylase, and
mineral ions. The ions are there to keep a neutral pH, and chloride ions are present, to activate
salivary amylase, which may also be referred to as ptyalin. The amylase begins to break down some
cooked starch into maltose, and works best in a neutral pH. Mucin lubricates the food and binds it so it
stays together, allowing it to slide down the alimentary canal smoothly
● Pharynx: It is the part connecting the mouth and the oesophagus and trachea (windpipe), through the
larynx. The larynx has a slit-like muscle called the glottis, which controls the opening of the respiratory
passage. Due to the pharynx being a common passage for food and air, the epiglottis is there to
ensure food doesn’t enter the trachea by covering the trachea during swallowing. Nasal cavities and
eustachian tubes are also connected to the pharynx.
● Oesophagus: It is a narrow muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach through the thorax
and diaphragm. It has a wall with 4 layers, occurring for the rest of the gut except the anus: (listed
outermost to innermost)
○ Outermost layer is a thin membrane called serous coat, which is moist and slippery so that
friction is minimised when sliding over other organs
○ Muscle layer consists of 2 sets of muscles, an outer set of longitudinal muscles and a set of
circular muscles, which are antagonistic, meaning when one contracts, the other relaxes. They
are also smooth muscles, and their contractions are slow and sustained
○ Submucous coat is a layer of blood vessels and connective tissues
○ Innermost mucosa layer is called mucosa, which is folded extensively, with some gland cells
which secrete mucus, lubricating food for smooth passage
Peristalsis is the rhythmic contractions of the muscle layer pushing food forward. The circular muscle
contracts, making the lumen narrower and longer pushing food forward, and when the longitudinal
muscle contracts, the circular muscles relaxes, and the gut dilates becoming wider and shorter,
widening the lumen so food enters.
● Stomach: It is a muscular bag with a pH of 2 to 4. Its muscles contract and relax (can be referred to as
peristalsis) to churn the food that enters it through the oesophagus into a creamy liquid called chyme.
Its walls are lined with goblet cells, secreting mucus to protect the stomach, and in pits, in which the
walls are lined with gastric glands, secreting gastric juice, a mixture of hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and in
babies, renin. These glands are stimulated by food in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by
oxyntic cells, and pepsin and renin is secreted by zymogen cells. Pepsin and renin are secreted in
their inactive forms of pepsinogen and prorenin, and are converted to active enzymes by the
hydrochloric acid due to its pH. Hydrochloric acid here also makes the ptyalin (salivary amylase)
 inactive due to its pH, and a suitable environment for the enzymes, and also kills germs and parasites.
Food here is stored for a long time, so that it can be properly digested and churned. There are 2
sphincters controlling entry and exit into the stomach, those being the cardiac sphincter and pyloric
sphincter. The cardiac sphincter is located at the end of the oesophagus, and closes the passage. This
is why you don’t spew out your food when upside down. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage
into the duodenum, and periodically opens to allow chyme into the duodenum. It doesn’t do it in one go
because the enzymes work more efficiently in smaller batches.
● Small Intestine: The small intestine is a long narrow tube, to increase surface area for proper
absorption. The folded inner lining of the alimentary canal also assists with this, and also contains
glands secreting digestive enzymes. In humans, it is about 6 metres long, and consists of 3 parts:
○ Duodenum: Most of the digestion takes place within the duodenum, and digestive juices are
secreted into it. It is stimulated by chyme entering it. The digestive juices are:
■ Bile: This is secreted by the liver, and stored in the gallbladder, which contracts to send bile to
the duodenum via the bile duct. Bile contains bile salts (sodium glycocholate, sodium
taurocholate), which emulsify fats, lowering the surface tension of the fats and breaking them
up into minute fat globules suspended in water thus increasing the surface area. This aids
digestion by allowing lipases to work more efficiently to digest into fatty acids and glycerol. It
also contains sodium hydrogen carbonate to neutralise the stomach acid. Bile pigments are
also present, waste products formed by haemoglobin from broken down red blood cells
■ Pancreatic Juice: Pancreatic juice is produced by the pancreas, which is located on the left
side of the abdomen. This has a high water content which is then reabsorbed, and contains
pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase and trypsinogen (protease). Carbohydrate digestion
mainly takes place in the small intestine other than some digestion in the mouth by ptyalin
○ Jejunum
○ Ileum: Its main function is absorption, but also secretes intestinal juice
■ Intestinal juice contains sodium carbonate, which protects the mucosa layer. It also contains
enterokinase (peptidase), erepsin (peptidase), maltase, sucrase, lactase and intestinal lipase,
and does the final digestion. It is secreted by intestinal glands through openings between villi,
called crypts of lieberkuhn. The glands may be called brunner’s glands.
Absorption:
Digested foods (Simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol) are absorbed by the villi in the small
intestine
Absorption in small Intestine:
The small intestine has many adaptations to effectively absorb food products
● The inner wall is folded extensively to increase the surface area
● The wall has villi, which increase the surface area, and the epithelial cells of the villi have microvilli
further increasing surface area. The villi and intestinal wall are supplied with blood and lymphatic
vessels to carry absorbed food substances. A villus has a lacteal surrounded by blood capillaries,
where the former transports fats and the latter transports sugars and amino acids away from the
intestine. The continual transport maintains the diffusion gradient for food absorption
● Simple sugars and amino acids pass through the walls of the villi into the blood capillaries. Mineral
salts, vitamins pass into the blood capillaries of the villi. Glycerol is water soluble and diffuses into
epithelium, but fatty acids react with bile salts to form soluble soaps, which then diffuse into the
epithelium. From there, the soaps and glycerol recombine to form fat globules, and are absorbed into
the lymphatic capillaries. Water is also absorbed in the small intestine
Absorption in large intestine:
● The large intestine consists of 4 parts: Cecum, Appendix, Colon, Rectum
● Cecum and appendix aren’t utilised in humans
● The colon consists of 3 parts: Ascending Colon, Horizontal Transverse Colon and Descending Colon.
The colon absorbs mineral salts and water.
● The remaining matter enters the rectum, which consists of indigestible matter, bacteria, and dead
cells. This forms faeces and is passed through the anus periodically.
Assimilation:
Assimilation is the transport and utilisation of absorbed foods
Sugars:
The blood is rich in simple sugars. The blood capillaries join together to form a large vein called the hepatic
portal vein, which transports sugars to the liver. There, most of the sugars are converted to glycogen and
stored, but some glucose is distributed around the body, as it is used by all the cells for energy. During tissue
respiration it is oxidised, releasing energy for the activities of the cell. Excess glucose is stored in the liver as
 glycogen, where the conversion requires the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas. When glucose is
needed by the body, the liver converts the glycogen to glucose. This is initiated by the hormone glucagon,
also produced by the pancreas
Amino Acids:
Amino acids must also enter the river prior to general blood circulation. Amino acids entering the cells are
used for new protoplasm, and growth and repair of worn out parts of the body, and formation of new enzymes
and hormones
Fats:
The lacteal contains a colourless fluid called lymph, and when fats are absorbed, they mix to form a milky fluid
called chyle. The lymphatic capillaries (lacteal) join to form lymphatic vessels, which discharge chyle into the
bloodstream from where it is carried to all parts of the body. Fats prior to use are converted to forms that can
be oxidised or stored, which happens in the liver. When there is an adequate supply of glucose, fat doesn’t
need to be oxidised. Fats are used to build protoplasm, e.g. in cell membranes. Special tissues called adipose
tissues (occurring beneath the skin, around heart, kidneys, in mesenteries binding around intestine) store
excess fats. When there isn’t enough glucose, fats are oxidised for energy
Additional Notes
● Trypsin is secreted as the inactive trypsinogen, which is converted to trypsin by intestinal enterokinase
Digestion Process:
Region of Secretion Site of pH Enzymes Substrate Products
gut Production Produced

Mouth Saliva Salivary 6.5- Amylase Starch Maltose

Glands 7.5

Stomach Gastric Juices Gastric Glands 2 Pepsin Protein Polypeptides

Stomach Gastric Juices Gastric Glands 2 Renin Milk Protein (Solidifies)

Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Pancreas 7 Amylase Starch Maltose

Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Pancreas 7 Trypsin Protein Polypeptides

Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Pancreas 7 Chymotrypsin Protein Polypeptides

Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Pancreas 7 Carboxypeptidase Polypeptides Amino Acids

Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Pancreas 7 Lipase Fats Fatty Acids +

Glycerol

Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Pancreas 7 Nuclease Nucleic Acids Nucleotides

Ileum Intestinal Juice Ileum Mucosa 8.5 Maltase Maltose Glucose

Ileum Intestinal Juice Ileum Mucosa 8.5 Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Ileum Intestinal Juice Ileum Mucosa 8.5 Lactase Lactase Glucose + Galactose

Ileum Intestinal Juice Ileum Mucosa 8.5 Peptidase Polypeptides Amino Acids

Ileum Intestinal Juice Ileum Mucosa 8.5 Lipase Fats Fatty Acids + Glycerol

Ileum Intestinal Juice Ileum Mucosa 8.5 Nucleotidase Nucleotides Sugar + Base + Phosphates

Part 2: Nutrition in Plants

Plants utilise autotrophic nutrition. Autotrophic nutrition is a form of nutrition in which the organism is capable
of producing its own food. Plants are photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis only occurs in green plants.
Plants utilise photosynthesis to obtain glucose from water and carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is simplified to
6CO2+6H2O -(light energy)> C6H12O6+6O2. Photosynthesis actually occurs in 2 stages:
● Light Dependent Stage: During this stage, chlorophyll, located within the chloroplasts, absorbs light
energy. This energy is required to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen is a byproduct of the
 reaction, and only the hydrogen is required for the 2nd stage. The reaction is 12H2O -(photolysis)> 6O2
+ 24H. The process of splitting the water molecules is called photolysis.
● Light Independent Stage: In the light independent stage, hydrogen is used to reduce 6 molecules of
CO2 to a molecule of glucose and 6 molecules of H2O. The chemical energy utilised is obtained from
the light dependent stage. Enzymes play a part within this stage, a major enzyme in the process being
rubisco, which combines H and CO2
Importance of light wavelengths in photosynthesis: Experiments have shown different wavelengths
of light are absorbed better than others. This was performed by exposing a green leaf to lights of different
colours and recording the rate of photosynthesis. Green light is absorbed the least, and is why chlorophyll
appears green. It is due to chlorophyll reflecting most of the green light. Blue and red light are the most
effective wavelengths as they are absorbed the most. The rate of photosynthesis depends on the absorption
of light. The wavelengths which are most absorbed are also the ones giving the highest rates of
photosynthesis
Limiting Factors : Limiting factors consist of internal and external factors. External factors consist of:
● Light Intensity: Light is essential for photosynthesis, needed for splitting water and combining
hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Thus, the rate of photosynthesis will increase. This is up until a point,
where the UV rays will damage the chlorophyll.
● CO2 Concentration: CO2 is an essential part of photosynthesis, being one of the substances utilised in
it. A higher concentration of CO2 will result in an increase in the rate of photosynthesis
● Temperature: As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases, due to more efficient
enzymes. Diffusion is also positively affected by temperature. This increase is up until a point, where
the enzymes denature.
Internal Factors are also present, those being:
● Enzyme Quantity Present: Enzymes play a role in photosynthesis, and so the rate of photosynthesis
is affected by the quantity of enzymes present. If there are too few enzymes around, the rate of
photosynthesis will be limited
● Chlorophyll Quantity Present: Chlorophyll quantity is important as chlorophyll creates the energy
required for photosynthesis. If there is too little chlorophyll, the rate of photosynthesis will be limited
Uses of Glucose: Uses of the glucose made from photosynthesis include:
● Cellular Activities: Some of the produced glucose is immediately utilised for cellular respiration
● Formation of cellulose cell walls
● Storage: Excess glucose is converted to sucrose, which is transported to storage organs (seeds, stem
tubers, root tubers, corms) to be stored as starch or other forms depending on the plant. E.g. It is stored
as sucrose in the stem, in a sugarcane plant. Translocation is the transportation of sucrose from source
to sink (area where it will be used/stored). Starch is suitable for storage because it is inert, insoluble and
compact, and sucrose is suitable for transport because it is soluble & highly reactive.
● Temporary Storage: Photosynthesis can be faster than the rate of transport, meaning a large amount
of glucose accumulates in the leaf, which is turned to starch for storage, until the night when
photosynthesis stops, and is then converted back.
● Formation of proteins: Nitrates (and other mineral salts brought to the leaf) can react with glucose to
form amino acids, which then form proteins, to form new protoplasm. Excess amino acids are stored as
protein within the leaves, or carried to growing regions of the plant (stem, root apices) to build
protoplasm or for storage. Protein is also needed for enzyme and cell membrane formation
● Fats and oils: Some glucose is converted to fats and oils for storage, cellular respiration, and
protoplasm formation (like cell surface membrane). Some storage organs convert the sugars to fat.
Usage of stored resources:
Protein, fat and starch are formed from glucose, and excess is stored as insoluble products within storage
organs. The cells of the storage organs produce enzymes to digest the food to soluble and absorbable
products when needed. This process is similar to digestion in animals. Digested material is carried to all parts
of the plant, especially growing zones.
● Starch: Starch is digested to maltose (by diastase), then to glucose (by maltase), which may be
converted to sucrose and transported away. It is mainly used for energy, but some of the sugars can be
used for building up cell walls
● Protein: Proteins are digested to polypeptides (by pepsin) and then to amino acids (by erepsin). Amino
acids are assimilated to form new protoplasm.
● Fats: Fats are digested to fatty acids and glycerol
External Leaf Structure:
The leaf is the organ where photosynthesis occurs and where other food substances (fats and proteins) are
formed, which are then consumed by other organisms. The outside of the leaf consists of the lamina, midrib,
veins, and the petiole, and their functions are:
● Lamina: The lamina, or leaf blade is the flat and thin structure of the leaf. Here photosynthesis takes
place, and where chlorophyll is located. Stomata are also found here. Its thin structure allows for carbon
dioxide to readily reach the inner cells, and its flatness allows for sufficient absorption of sunlight
● Petiole: The petiole, or leaf stalk is responsible for supporting the lamina, and holding it away from the
stem. The petiole ensures that the lamina can obtain enough sunlight and air, and ensures that leaves
aren’t on top of each other.
● Midrib and veins: The midrib is the main vein of the leaf. From here, smaller veins branch off, which
then branch off into even smaller veins. This forms the vein network, which allows for the transport of
water and minerals to the leaf, and food substances out of the leaf.
Internal Leaf Structure:
The leaf, or lamina, consists of layers. This can be seen from its transverse section. The layers are as follows:
● Upper Epidermis: This layer consists of a single layer of closely packed cells. This layer is responsible
for protecting the mesophyll. These cells secrete a waxy substance, forming a thin layer on top called the
cuticle. This prevents excess water loss via evaporation, and focuses light into the mesophyll layer
below. The upper epidermal cells lack chloroplasts, thus allowing light to pass through to mesophyll.
● Mesophyll: The mesophyll layer consists of 2 parts:
○ Palisade Mesophyll: This layer consists of 1-2 layers of tightly packed long and cylindrical cells,
which contain a large quantity of chloroplasts for photosynthesis. This layer is where the bulk of
photosynthesis takes place. The cells ensure that each chloroplast has sufficient sunlight exposure
via cytoplasmic movement, cycling the chloroplasts. This is possible because the cytoplasm is 99%
water, which moves.
○ Spongy Mesophyll: This layer consists of more circular cells, and contains air gaps. In this layer,
gas exchange occurs. The leaf vein goes through this layer, and the xylem vessels release water into
the layer through osmotic movements. This leaves a layer of moisture on the cells, and also allows
for transport of substances. The air gaps allow for a larger surface area, and the layer of moisture
allows for gases to dissolve in it and diffuse into the cells.
● Lower Epidermis: This is like the upper epidermis, consisting of a single layer of tightly packed cells,
covered with the cuticle. It differs in that it contains openings called stomata. They are more abundant in
the lower epidermis in most dicotyledons. The stoma is bounded by 2 guard cells, which control the size
of the opening. Guard cells are a specialised cell, and differ in 3 ways from the epidermal cells:
○ They are bean shaped (in surface view), epidermal are irregularly shaped
○ They contain chloroplasts, and are able to make food via photosynthesis
○ They are the only epidermal cells capable of making sugar. According to one theory, the
concentration of potassium ions increases in guard cells when exposed to sunlight, and with sugar
formation lowers the water potential and water enters the cell. This makes it turgid, and thus the cell
curves. This is possible due to the cell wall being thicker on one side (side around the stomata). The
curved cell opens the stomata, and gas exchange can take place. During the night, the sugars are
used up, and the cell becomes flaccid again, closing the stomata. This reduces water loss.
Entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf:
During the day, carbon dioxide is rapidly used up for photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide concentration in the
leaf lowers greatly, lower than atmospheric air, meaning a diffusion gradient exists. Carbon dioxide diffuses
into the leaf through the stomata into the air gaps of the spongy mesophyll. The layer of water on mesophyll
cells allows for the carbon dioxide to dissolve in it, then diffuse into the cells.
Entry of water and mineral salts into the leaf:
Leaf veins form fine branches, ending among the mesophyll cells. The veins contain xylem and phloem
vessels. Xylem vessels bring water and dissolved mineral salts to the leaf, from the soil via the roots. After
getting out of the veins, the materials diffuse from cell to cell through the leaf mesophyll. Once the green cells
have received the raw materials, they can make food via photosynthesis, which is transported via the phloem.
Starch Test:
● Before the test, destarch the plant, then put in the presence of sunlight for 6-8hrs
● Boil the leaf for 30s: This kills the cytoplasm, denatures enzymes, and due to the cytoplasm being
dead, the cell membrane is permeable to iodine
● Boil the leaf in ethanol: (Precaution: ensure the bunsen burner is off), Chlorophyll will dissolve in the
ethanol. If chlorophyll wasn’t dissolved, the iodine would be green. This would be done in a boiling
tube, with the leaf and ethanol, which is submerged in a beaker with boiling water
 ● Wash the leaf with warm/boiling water: To remove/wash off the ethanol, and softens the leaf
● Put a few drops of iodine on the leaf: (Spread the leaf on a white tile first, for maximum visibility.

Testing the importance of CO2:

● Before the test, destarch the plant by putting it in a dark enclosure for a few days, ensuring that all the
stored starch will be used up in respiration.
● 2 plants need to be prepared, a control and experimental. Both will be enclosed within a polyethylene
bag, but in one bag there will be NaHCO3 (control) which releases CO2, and soda lime (experimental)
in the other, which absorbs CO2
● Control will show the presence of starch, but the experimental will show none as CO2 is needed for
photosynthesis, which is absorbed by soda lime, and thus the presence of starch.
Testing the importance of light:
The importance of light can be tested by covering part of a destarched leaf with black tape. After doing a
starch test, it can be observed that starch isn’t present in the covered part, showing the importance of light
Testing the importance of chlorophyll:
The importance of chlorophyll can be tested through a leaf with white borders (nam bhule gesi keo bole dio).
When doing a starch test, the white portion will have no starch, but the green portion will have starch.
Adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis:
Structure Adaptation

Large Flat Surface To absorb maximum sunlight

Thin Lamina Allows CO2 to reach inner cells rapidly and allows sunlight to reach all mesophyll
cells

Chloroplasts Chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light energy to chemical energy needed for the
manufacture of sugars

More chloroplasts in upper More light energy can be absorbed near leaf surface
palisade

Interconnecting system of air Allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide into mesophyll cells
spaces in mesophyll

Stomata in epidermal layers Opens in sunlight allowing CO2 to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out of the leaf

Veins containing xylem and Xylem transports water and mineral salts to mesophyll cells, phloem transports
phloem sugars away from the leaf to areas where it is needed

Petiole Holds leaf in position to absorb maximum sunlight

Essential Elements:
● Non Metallic: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur
● Metallic: Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron
Part 3: Transport in Mammals
Unicellular organisms don’t have transport systems because no part of the protoplasm is far away from the
plasma membrane or body surface. As organisms get more complex, they have more cells in between the
source and destination. Due to this, diffusion becomes too slow, necessitating the need for transport systems.
In mammals, this is made up of the blood system and lymphatic system. These are circulatory systems.

Circulatory Systems:
Circulatory systems are composed of 3 components:
● Circulatory Fluid: This is generally called blood. Lymphatic systems use lymph
● Contractile: Something to propel the circulatory fluid. This is often the heart
● Circulatory Tubes: They contain blood, and are called blood vessels, and are of 3 types:
 ○ Arteries: Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. They lack semilunar valves,
have rapid blood flow, with high blood pressure and pulsatile. The blood is oxygenated, except
for the pulmonary artery. There is a lower blood volume as the lumen is smaller, and it has a
thicker vessel wall which is muscular and has many elastic fibres
○ Veins: Blood vessels which carry blood to the heart. They have semilunar valves to prevent the
backflow of blood, and the blood has low pressure and is non-pulsatile. The blood is
deoxygenated, except for the pulmonary vein. There is a higher blood volume due to a larger
lumen, and the vessel walls are thinner, less muscular, and with few fibres
○ Capillaries: It is selectively permeable allowing for material exchange, and contains both
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Capillaries slow down blood flow, and join arteries to
veins There is a relatively high blood volume due to the lack of a tunica media, semilunar
valves, and there is just a single layer of flattened cells called the endothelium, which allows for
material exchange.
Two distinct circulatory systems can be found in vertebrates (closed) and non vertebrates (open):
● Open Circulation: In open circulation, blood is pumped into body cavities and touches tissues directly.
Blood is pumped from a heart into an aorta, which branches into many arteries, opening into a series of
blood spaces, called haemocoel collectively. Blood under low pressure slowly moves through the body
tissue until it returns to the heart. Blood distribution to tissue is poorly controlled.
● Closed Circulation: In closed circulation, blood is contained within blood vessels, and doesn’t contact
body tissues directly. Blood is pumped out of the aorta in the heart, which branches into smaller
arteries called arterioles, which then branch into capillaries. Exchange of materials and wastes is done
via capillaries, located between cells and all body tissues. These capillaries then merge into venules in
the tissue/organ, and then veins, which then return to the heart. Blood distribution can be controlled in
closed circulation. Closed circulation is of 2 types
○ Single Circulation: Blood only passes through the heart once. This can be seen in fish, where
blood is pumped to the gills where it is oxygenated, and is then distributed through the body.
Due to this, only 1 set of atria and ventricles are needed, giving the heart 2 chambers
○ Double Circulation: Blood passes through the heart twice, that is, there are 2 circuits. This can
be observed in humans. Blood is pumped into the lungs (pulmonary circulation), where gas
exchange occurs. From there, it returns back to the heart, and is then pumped into the body
(systemic circulation). This is done to ensure that the blood has high pressure, unlike a fish, and
it is faster.
Human circulatory system:
Blood passes through arteries, veins, and capillaries. Veins and artery walls consist of an inner layer of
endothelium, tunica intima, a player of smooth muscle and elastic fibres called the tunica media, and a layer of
fibrous connective tissue with collagen fibres, the tunica externa.
● Arteries: Arteries receive blood directly from the heart. The arteries closest to the heart have large
tunica medias to withstand the force of the ventricular systole, after which the arteries contract for more
even blood flow. Arteries further from the heart have more smooth muscle fibres in the middle layer.
Arteries can contract and dilate to control the size of the lumen, controlling blood flow. Arteries flow into
arterioles which are made of entirely smooth muscle fibres and no elastic fibres. These then flow into
capillaries.
● Veins: Capillaries flow into smaller vessels called venules, which have a wall of thin collagen fibres.
The venules then flow into a vein, which has less muscle and elastic fibres and a larger lumen. The
vein then joins the heart. Veins have semilunar valves which prevent backflow of blood.
The Heart:
The heart is located between the two lungs. It is surrounded by a sac called the pericardium, which has an
outer fibrous tissue and an inner portion with 2 membranes, one connected to the heart and the other to the
tissue. Pericardial fluid is secreted between them, which reduces the friction between the heart wall and other
surrounding tissues during beating. Pericardium is inelastic, preventing overstretching and filling of the heart.
The heart consists of 2 Atria and 2 Ventricles:
 ● Atria: Atria receive blood, and pump it into the ventricles. Due to the close proximity between the atria
and ventricles, they have thinner walls. The atria and ventricles are separated by cuspid valves. 70% of
the blood in the atria can go through freely through the valves due to the pressure, but contraction is
needed to get the last 30% through.
○ Right Atrium: The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic circulation. This is
given by the inferior vena cava (other parts of body) & superior vena cava (head, neck and
arms). The right atrium then pumps blood into the right ventricle, which forces open the tricuspid
valves between them. The tricuspid valves are made up of 3 flaps, which are connected to the
right ventricle walls by tendons called chordae tendineae. These valves are present to prevent
backflow of blood when the ventricles contract.
○ Left Atrium: The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary circulation. This is
given by the pulmonary vein, from the lungs. The left atrium pumps blood into the left ventricle,
which has the bicuspid (mitral) valves between them. The bicuspid valve has two flaps instead,
and is connected to the left ventricle walls by chordae tendineae.
● Right Ventricle: The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium. It has relatively thin walls.
When the right ventricle contracts, blood pressure forces the tricuspid valves shut, preventing blood
returning to the atrium. Blood is then forced up the only other opening, the pulmonary arch, where it
passes through semilunar valves, leading to two pulmonary arteries. The pulmonary arch has
semilunar valves, which shut close after the ventricle contraction.
● Left Ventricle: The left ventricle has significantly thicker walls than the right, about 3x as thick. This is
due the fact that the left ventricle needs to pump blood through a larger distance, and the blood in the
lungs has more time for oxygenation. When the left ventricle contracts, the blood leaves through the
aortic arch, forcing its semilunar valves open. The semilunar valves then close, preventing backflows.
Two small coronary arteries are on the aortic arch, which provide resources to the heart itself.
Cardiac Cycle:
The heart has 3 parts to a complete cycle of contraction and relaxation. They are called systoles and diastoles.
● Atrial Systole: Both atria contract simultaneously. During this, the atrioventricular valves (cuspid
valves) are forced open and the blood drains into the ventricles
● Ventricular Systole: Once the blood has drained into the ventricles, the ventricles contract. The
ventricles also both contract simultaneously. During this contraction, or systole, the atrioventricular
valves are forced shut from the pressure. This causes a ‘lub’ sound.
● Diastole: Diastole is the relaxation phase. When the arteroventricular valves (semilunar valves) shut
close, the second sound, ‘dub’ occurs. This is due to the high pressure blood slamming against the
valves.
This whole cycle takes just 0.8s, and occurs 72 times a second. One cycle is one heartbeat
Contents of Blood:
Blood is composed of cells suspended in a fluid matrix called plasma. The 3 main components are:
● Plasma: It is a pale yellow liquid, consisting of 90% water and 10% of a variety of substances. Some of
these are kept in certain concentrations while others are allowed to fluctuate based on rates of removal
and supply by particular organs. These are in solution, or suspension. The substances are:
○ Water: maintained at constant concentration, provides tissue cells with water, holds many
dissolved materials for transport, helps maintain blood pressure and volume.
○ Plasma proteins, maintained at a constant concentration
■ Serum albumin: Abundant, binds plasma calcium
■ Serum globulins: α-globulin (Binds thyroxine and bilirubin), β-globulin (Binds iron,
cholesterol, and vitamins A,D,K), γ-globulin (Also known as antibodies, binds antigens,
important to immunological reactions, binds histamine as well)
■ Prothrombin: A catalytic agent in the blood clotting process
■ Fibrinogen: Takes part in blood clotting process
■ Enzymes: Participates in metabolic activities
○ Mineral ions, also maintained at constant concentration: Na, K, Ca, Mg, H2PO4, HPO4, PO4, Cl,
HCO3, SO4
 ○ Dissolved products of digestion (Glucose, amino acids, fats), variable conc.
○ Dissolved excretory products (Carbon dioxide, metabolic wastes), variable conc.
○ Vitamins, variable conc.
○ Hormones, variable conc.
● Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): The process of producing RBCs is called haemopoiesis, and the
tissues producing it are called hematopoietic tissues. All bones contain haemopoietic tissues in infants,
but in adults the main regions are the pelvis, ribs, vertebrae. This is often called red bone marrow, and
they contain blood stem cells. RBCs have a lifespan of 3-4 months, after which it is broken in either the
spleen or liver, from where the proteins are broken down, and iron from haem is extracted to be used
for further RBC production. Remaining haem is broken down to bile pigments, which are then excreted.
The RBCs have a few key adaptations for carrying oxygen, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide.:
○ Biconcave, Thin Shape: RBCs have a biconcave, thin, shape, allowing for rapid and efficient
diffusion of gases. The biconcave structure allows for a larger surface area for diffusion relative
to the volume. The thin structure allows for efficient diffusion of gases from its surface inwards.
○ Lack of Nucleus: The lack of a nucleus allows for the RBC to carry more oxygen
○ Haemoglobin: Haemoglobin allows for RBCs to transport oxygen. It is a substance formed
from iron and globulin, a protein. Haemoglobin is able to bind with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin. This oxyhaemoglobin is an unstable compound, meaning it readily gives up
oxygen. It is also able to carry carbon dioxide, a byproduct of respiration. Some haemoglobin
can combine with carbon dioxide after the oxygen disassociated, forming
carbaminohemoglobin, though the majority of the carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma as
bicarbonate. This is then exchanged in the lungs, where it again gains oxygen and is pumped
out through the aorta to the body tissue.
○ Carbonic Anhydrase: This catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water, which
converts carbon dioxide into bicarbonate, which is then carried in the plasma to the lungs.
● White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): WBCs are larger than RBCs, and are present in smaller numbers,
about 702:1. They have nuclei but their lifespan is generally just a few days, and they play an important
role in the body’s defence mechanisms against disease. There are 2 main types of WBC:
○ Granulocytes (72%): Granulocytes have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm. They are all
capable of amoeboid movement, and are formed in the bone marrow, and they can be
subdivided into 3 types:
■ Neutrophils (70%): aka Phagocytes, are capable of squeezing between capillary wall
cells and enter intracellular spaces, in a process known as diapedesis. They move to
infected areas of the body where they engulf and digest bacteria. They are phagocytic
■ Eosinophils (1.5%): They are responsible for allergic responses, and their populations
are increased in people with allergic conditions (asthma, hay fever). They possess
antihistamine (Histamine is a chemical preventing allergic responses). The number of
eosinophils is controlled by hormones produced in adrenal cortex
■ Basophils (0.5%): They produce heparin and histamine. Heparin is an anticoagulant, or
blood thinner. It prevents coagulation (clotting), and is balanced with fibrinogen in blood.
○ Agranulocytes (28%): aka mononuclear leukocytes, have non granular cytoplasms and a bean
or oval shaped nucleus, and they are of 2 main types:
■ Monocytes (4%): These are formed in the bone marrow, and have a bean shaped
nucleus, are actively phagocytic. They ingest bacteria and other large particles. THey
are able to migrate from the bloodstream to inflamed areas of the body like neutrophils
■ Lymphocytes (24%): They are produced in the thymus gland and lymphoid tissues
from precursor cells originating in the bone marrow. They are rounded and have a small
amount of cytoplasm, and have limited ameboid movement. Their main function is in
immune reactions, like antibody production, graft rejection and tumour cell killing. Some
lymphocytes can live up to 10 years, as these are the memory cells.
 ● Platelets: These are cell fragments. Their main function is to initiate blood clotting, and are formed
from large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes. They are irregularly shaped and frequently
enucleated.
Functions of Blood:
Blood transports the following:
● Transport of digested food substances: Digested food substances are soluble, which can be
transported by the plasma, which is 90% water.
● Transport of soluble excretory materials: Excretory materials can be transported by the plasma
● Transport of metabolic byproducts: Metabolic byproducts, like carbon dioxide, can be carried within
the plasma. Carbon dioxide is carried as bicarbonate within the plasma, where it is taken to the lungs.
● Transport of hormones from the production glands to target organs: Hormones can be carried in
the plasma
● Distribution of heat: Heat is produced by the respiring body tissues (esp. Muscles and liver), which
produces heat, which is distributed throughout the body. This is done by the plasma
● Transport of oxygen from lungs to body tissue: Oxygen is carried by haemoglobin within red blood
cells. This combines to form oxyhaemoglobin, which is unstable, meaning it readily gives up oxygen.
When passing through the body tissue in capillaries, the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to oxygen and
haemoglobin, from where oxygen diffuses into the body tissue.
● Defence against disease, done in 3 ways:
○ Blood clotting, which prevents excess blood loss and entry of pathogens
○ Phagocytosis, done by granulocytes, engulfing bacteria and digesting them
○ Immunity due to antibodies and lymphocytes
Protective functions of blood:
● Clotting: Blood clotting occurs when the blood in a damaged tissue coagulates, which prevents further
blood loss and prevents entry of pathogenic organisms. Undamaged vessels also need to not clot.
Clotting occurs when blood escaping from a wound is exposed to air, which triggers thromboplastin, a
lipoprotein, to be released from injured tissues, and calcium ions. Calcium ions catalyses the
conversion of inactive plasma proteins prothrombin to thrombin, an enzyme, which breaks down
fibrinogen to a meshwork of insoluble threads called fibrin, which then traps blood cells in the
meshwork, forming a blood clot. Clotting proteins, fibrinogen, and blood cells are all trapped, which
then forms serum. Clotting doesn’t occur in undamaged blood vessels because the lining of the
vessels are smooth, not promoting cell or platelet rupture. There are also substances actively
preventing clotting, like heparin, a blood thinner. This is balanced with fibrinogen to control blood
clotting.
● Phagocytosis: This is generally done by neutrophils. When cell and tissues are damaged, neutrophils
use ameboid movement to get to the site of the damage. From there, they engulf bacteria. Bacteria are
made more visible to neutrophils by plasma proteins called opsonins, which attach to the bacteria.
When the bacteria is engulfed, a phagosome is formed, which then combines with a small lysosome to
form a phagolysosome. The hydrolytic enzymes in the lysosome digests the bacteria, which is
absorbed into the cytoplasm of the neutrophil. Neutrophils can get to the site of damage as they can
squeeze through capillary walls in a process called diapedesis, and move around intercellular spaces.
Large phagocytes, called macrophages, are present in organs like the liver, spleen and lymph nodes.
They engulf toxic foreign particles and microbes to retain them for a long time. This is a way of
localising infections. Neutrophils and macrophages together form the body’s reticulo-endothelial
system.
● Production of antibodies: When disease causing germs enter the bloodstream, they can produce
toxins, which then triggers the blood to produce antibodies. These antibodies neutralise the toxins, and
are produced by the lymphocytes, but they can also be found freely in the plasma. Antibodies can also
kill bacteria. Antibodies persist in the blood for a long time, which are located in B lymphocytes.
Immunity can also be built after a person overcomes a disease, and antibodies can be gained.

Serum is blood without fibrinogen, blood cells and clotting proteins

Tissue Fluid:
Tissue fluid is in between tissue cells, which facilitates material exchange. Materials can diffuse out of the
blood capillaries into the tissue fluid, and then diffuse into the cells. This is useful when cells are far away from
blood capillaries like nerve cells. Waste products can also diffuse out of cells and into blood capillaries. Tissue
fluid is blood plasma, but without red blood cells and plasma proteins (fibrinogen, etc.)
Tissue fluid is formed when blood passes through capillaries. The pressure is too high in the capillaries, and
since erythrocytes and plasma proteins don’t usually diffuse out of the capillaries, tissue fluid is forced out. The
blood cannot sustain this amount of tissue fluid leaking out, and so some is absorbed back in later. The
remaining fluid is reabsorbed into lymphatic capillaries, which then converts the tissue fluid to lymph. These
lymphatic capillaries join lymphatic vessels. These lymphatic vessels then join up to rejoin the bloodstream via
the left subclavian vein in the neck. Lymph is cleaned by lymphocytes, where they produce antibodies to filter
out bacteria and foreign particles from the lymph, which are then ingested by phagocytes.
Main Arteries of the Body
The arteries leaving the heart are the pulmonary artery (RV) and aortic arch (LV). From the aortic arch, the
following arteries form:
● Carotid Arteries: They supply blood to the head and neck
● Subclavian Arteries: They supply blood to the arms, and they have one subclavian artery per arm
● Dorsal Aorta: The dorsal aorta extends off the aortic arch going downwards, running parallel to the
backbone, to its left side. From it, the following arteries form:
○ Hepatic Artery: To liver
○ Mesenteric Arteries: To intestines
○ Renal Arteries: One to each kidney
○ Iliac Arteries: To each leg
Main Veins of the Body
Blood is returned by the main veins as follows:
● Pulmonary Veins: Brings oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
● Jugular Veins: Brings blood from head and limbs
● Subclavian Veins: Brings blood from forelimbs (arms). The jugular and subclavian veins join to form the
superior vena cava, which opens to the right atrium of the heart.
● Inferior Vena Cava: This runs parallel to the dorsal aorta, up the backbone. It is joined by several veins
bringing blood from various parts of the body
○ Iliac Veins: Brings blood from hindlimbs
○ Renal Veins: Brings blood from kidneys
○ Hepatic Vein: Brings blood from liver. The hepatic vein is also connected to the intestines,
where the hepatic portal vein brings blood from the intestines due to the gut not having its own
vein. It is called a portal vein because it carries blood from one capillary network to another.
Part 4: Transport In Plants
Translocation is the movement of manufactured food substances through the phloem vessels.. In plants, there
are 2 main vascular tissues, or vessels, called the xylem and the phloem for transport/translocation:
● The Xylem consists of vessels, which is a long hollow tube stretching from the root to the leaf, and it is
a dead structure. Its walls are strengthened by lignin, which are deposited in the wall in various ways
like rings, spirals, or the whole wall may be lignified except for pits. The xylem has 2 main functions:
○ Conducting (Transporting) water, with its dissolved mineral salts from roots to stem and leaves
○ Providing mechanical support to the plant
The xylem also has a number of adaptations for these functions:
○ A continuous lumen with no obstructions to water and mineral salts, like partition walls or a
protoplasm
○ Lignified walls to prevent the collapse of vessels, collectively providing mechanical support.
 ● The Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells. Sieve tubes are made up of a single row of
sieve tube cells, which are elongated cells, with thin walls and lack many organelles. They lack a
nucleus, golgi body and ribosomes, but retain a cell wall, a thin living cytoplasm, mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulums. Between each sieve tube cell is a sieve plate, a perforated wall. Due to the
sieve tube cell lacking many organelles, it needs a companion cell. Each companion cell is a narrow
thin walled cell with many mitochondria and ribosomes, and a nucleus, and they assist sieve tube cells
in the transport of manufactured food. Each sieve tube cell has at least 1 companion cell adjacent to it.
Structures of stems and roots:
● Dicotyledonous Stem: Xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) are grouped together to form vascular
bundles, with the cambium separating the two. Cambium cells can divide and differentiate to form new
xylem and phloem tissue, allowing for the stem to thicken. The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring
around the pith. Around the vascular bundles is the cortex, a parenchyma tissue, and the stem is
enclosed by the epidermis. The cortex and the pith are used to store food substances
● Dicotyledonous Root: The xylem and phloem are separated, and lie on different radii alternating
between each other. The cortex is a storage tissue, and the epidermis has a piliferous layer. This
piliferous layer has root hairs, which are outgrowths of an epidermal cell. The cuticle is absent.
Absorption of Water:
● Absorption of water takes place in the zone of root hairs, or zone of maturation. Each root hair is an
outgrowth of an epidermal cell, which is in between soil particles. From here water surrounding the soil
particles and their dissolved mineral salts are absorbed by the root hair
● Absorption occurs due to a greater concentration of sugars and salts in the root hair cell. The soil water
has a higher water potential, and as the two solutions are separated by a semi-permeable membrane,
water enters the root hair cell, which dilutes the cell sap of the root hair cell.
● From here, the water can take one of two pathways to the xylem vessel: Symplast and Apoplast
○ Symplast pathway uses osmosis to absorb water from cell to cell. The symplast pathway uses
the interconnected protoplasms of cells to transfer water. This is done via plasmodesmata
connecting the cytoplasms of cells. As water enters the RHC, the water potential increases
relative to the root cells and water flows in. The water potential of the RHC decreases and water
flows in from the soil. This continues to adjacent cells until the xylem vessel.
○ Apoplast pathway bypasses the cell membrane and cytoplasm and travels via the cell wall
instead. Up to 50% of a cellulose cell wall can be free space which can be occupied by water,
which then forms the apoplast pathway. The key characteristic of the apoplast pathway is that
no water enters the cytoplasm. The apoplast pathway is faster than the symplast pathway,
however when entering the xylem it must take the symplast pathway as there are features
called casparian strips blocking the apoplast pathway. Due to this water must go into the
cytoplasm and enter the xylem.
○ This may be so that living cells can exercise control over water and salts entering the xylem.
Absorption of Salts:
● The cell membrane can allow dissolved ions through into the root cortex. These ions can then be
transported via diffusion or active transport. Ions can flow through the apoplast and symplast pathways
and then enter the xylem via diffusion or active transport. The uptake of ions via diffusion is dependent
on the concentration of the cell sap and soil, however calcium can be absorbed even when there is a
higher concentration in the cell sap. This is due to active transport, and indicates that active transport is
the main mechanism in the absorption of mineral salts.
Adaptations of the root hair cell for absorption:
● Long and narrow shape increases the surface area to volume ratio increasing the rate of absorption
● Cell sap has sugars amino acids and salts which are more concentrated than the soil solution, and it is
prevented from leaking out by a cell surface membrane resulting in water entering the cell via osmosis
● The cell can provide energy for active transport which comes from cellular respiration as it is living.
Movement of water up the xylem:
● Water rises up the xylem by 3 main factors: root pressure, capillary action and transpiration pull.
 ● Root pressure is the flow of water from the active transport of ions by the roots. As the concentration of
ions in the xylem increases, concentration increases, water flows in via osmosis, and it can only go up.
● Capillary action is the tendency of water to move up fine tubes due to its cohesive and adhesive
properties. It works when the adhesive properties are greater than the cohesive properties, which can
be observed in fine capillary tubes, and as the xylem vessels are a collection of fine capillary tubes
water moves up the vessels, but it only works to a small extent.
● The largest contributor is transpiration, which occurs as excess water and water produced during
photosynthesis evaporate through aerial parts of the plant. There are 3 main types of transpiration:
○ Stomatal Transpiration: Stomatal transpiration makes up for 90% of all transpiration. The
intercellular gaps in the mesophyll are continuously coated by a layer of moisture. This moisture
comes from the cell itself as water continuously moves out of the cell, which then evaporates on
the cell wall, and then diffuses through the stomata to the drier air outside the leaf. Cell sap of
the mesophyll cells becomes more concentrated as water evaporates, and thus it pulls water
via osmosis from cells deeper inside the leaf, which then need to draw water from cells even
deeper until it reaches the xylem. In the xylem, water is drawn.
○ Cuticular Transpiration: This accounts for roughly 10% of all transpiration. This occurs due to
water evaporation directly from the epidermal cells.
○ Lenticular Transpiration: A minute amount of water is lost through lenticels, which are small
pores in the stem of the plant.
This creates tension in the xylem as water is drawn. Water has high cohesion, meaning molecules tend
to stick to each other, and water also has high adhesion, meaning it sticks to the xylem walls. The
cohesive force means the water has high tensile strength (resistance to stretching and pulling), forming
a solid column, and so it can transfer this tension to the roots as well. Once this builds up, water is
pulled up, due to the water’s cohesive and adhesive properties. This is known as cohesion-adhesion
theory.
Importance of transpiration:
● Transpiration Pull: Transpiration creates a suction force called the transpiration pull, which is the main
force in transporting water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves, supplying the leaves with
sufficient water and salts for photosynthesis.
● Removal of heat: As water evaporates, it takes along with it the heat built up in the leaf, cooling it
down, and preventing it from being scorched by the sun.
Factors of transpiration:
● Humidity: Humidity is the measure of the concentration of water in the air. If humidity is low, i.e. the air
is dry, there will be a concentration gradient for the water to diffuse into the outside air. If the humidity is
high, the air will be damp and the concentration gradient will be flatter.
● Temperature: If all other factors remain constant, an increase in temperature will result in a faster rate
of evaporation, increasing the rate of transpiration.
● Light: Light influences the size of stomata. In the presence of light, the stomata are wide open (as the
guard cells can photosynthesise, and K+ ions are released into the guard cells, allowing water to flow in
and make the cell turgid, as mentioned in part 2). In the absence of light, the stomata close.
● Wind: Water can make the surrounding air around the leaf moist, which can decrease the rate of
transpiration. Wind can take the water away, making the air less damp, allowing for faster rates of
transpiration. The faster the wind the faster the rate of transpiration.
Wilting:
Turgor pressure in the mesophyll helps support the leaf, keeping it firm and spread widely for photosynthesis,
however in excessive sunlight transpiration is too strong and the cells lose their turgor. This is called wilting
Advantages: Rate of transpiration reduced as the leaf folds up reducing the surface area for sunlight
absorption, and the thus the guard cells also become flaccid and the stomata closes
Disadvantages: Rate of photosynthesis is reduced as the flow of water becomes a limiting factor. The closed
stomata also reduces the amount of carbon dioxide entering the plant.
Part 5: Respiration
Energy is needed for everyday activities for any organism. Green plants use photosynthesis to absorb energy
from the sun and store it within organic foods. Animals obtain energy by feeding on organic food made by
plants, or on other animals. Energy is locked up within these organic foods, and thus they need to be broken
down. It is done by oxidation and occurs inside every living cell in animals and plants, known as respiration.
Respiration: Respiration is the oxidation of food substances with the release of energy in living cells
- Catabolic reactions are the breakdown of complex substances into simpler compounds. This is
exergonic (meaning it releases energy), whereas anabolic reactions create complex substances from
simpler compounds and are endergonic, and the sum total of the reaction makes up the metabolism.
Respiration comes in 2 types: Aerobic and Anaerobic:
● Aerobic Respiration: It is the breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen with the
release of a large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products. The
overall equation for aerobic respiration is: C6H12O6+6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O + (large amounts of energy).
The process is much more complicated, involving several reactions with various enzymes. These
enzymes are located within the mitochondria, making it an important organelle for aerobic respiration.
Most animals and green plants respire aerobically. It is a catabolic reaction.
● Anaerobic Respiration: It is the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen with the
release of a small amount of energy. In anaerobic respiration, glucose is broken down only partially. It
can be observed in microorganisms like yeast, which can respire anaerobically when it has no oxygen
present. The yeast can survive off the little energy it gives, and it produces ethanol as a byproduct. This
anaerobic respiration in yeast is known as alcoholic fermentation. It also occurs in the muscles:
○ Anaerobic respiration in the muscles: Muscle cells respire aerobically to get energy for
contractions. However, in cases of rapid and vigorous contractions, like sprinting, extra energy
is required. This is because the heart and lungs cannot supply the respiring cells with enough
oxygen. This additional energy can be obtained via anaerobic respiration, but lactic acid is
formed in the process. As more and more anaerobic respiration is conducted, lactic acid builds
up, and at a point the concentration is too great for the muscles and fatigue occurs, and the
body must rest as the lactic acid is toxic. This built up lactic acid is known as the oxygen debt.
During the rest period, the lactic acid is transported to the liver. Some of the lactic acid is
oxidised for energy, which is used to convert the rest to glucose to return to the muscles.
Uses of Energy:
● Synthesis of complex food substances: Synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
● Buildup of protoplasm
● Cellular Division
● Homeostasis
● Transmission of Nerve Impulses
● Active Transport
● Movement
Respiration:
Aerobic respiration involves 2 processes:
● Tissue Respiration: Energy is released from organic food molecules by oxidation. This occurs within
the living cells or tissues. All the energy a plant or animal needs is obtained via tissue respiration
● Gaseous Exchange: Oxygen has to be brought to the cells, and carbon dioxide needs to be taken out
of the cells. Gaseous exchange is the process of obtaining oxygen from the surrounding medium (air or
water) and returning the products of respiration. Breathing is a part of gaseous exchange, and refers to
the muscular contractions and movement of the ribs resulting in air entering and leaving the lungs.
Gaseous Exchange:
The air passage consists of the:
● External Nostrils: Air enters the body through the 2 external nostrils
● Nasal Passage: The nasal passage has a moist mucous membrane, and the wall is lined with hairs.
Breathing through the nasal passage. This has a few advantages:
○ Dust and foreign particles, incl. bacteria are trapped by the hairs in the nostrils, and the mucus
on the mucous membrane
 ○ Air is warmed up and moistened as it passes through the nasal passage into the lungs
○ Harmful chemicals
At the end of the nasal passage are 2 openings, the internal nares, where air passes into the pharynx
● Pharynx: Air entering the pharynx then enters the larynx
● Larynx: Air entering the larynx goes through the glottis into the trachea
● Trachea: The trachea lies in front of the oesophagus and extends from the larynx to the chest cavity,
supported by C shaped rings of cartilage ensuring it is always open. It is lined with ciliated epithelial
cells with goblet cells in between to catch germs, bacteria and microparticles.
● Bronchus: The trachea splits into 2 tubes, called the bronchi. It is also lined with ciliated epithelial
cells. Bronchi split further into bronchial tubes. The right bronchus divides into 3 bronchial tubes for the
3 lobes of the right lung, and the left bronchus divides into 2 bronchial tubes for the 2 lobes of the left
lung. The left lung is smaller due to the heart taking up more space.
● Bronchioles: The bronchial tubes divide repeatedly forming smaller and smaller tubes, till the smallest
tubes called bronchioles are formed. They aren’t supported by cartilage. They end in a cluster of alveoli
● Alveoli: Alveoli have thin, moist walls, and a supply of blood capillaries. This makes them suited for
gaseous exchange, and that is why they are the surface of gaseous exchange in the lungs
The lungs are elastic, allowing them to expand and contract during breathing easily. The lungs lie in the pleural
cavity. The cavity is lined by 2 transparent, elastic membranes called the pleura, where the inner pleuron
covers the lung and the outer is in contact with the walls of the thorax and diaphragm. In between is a layer of
lubricating fluid to ensure the membranes glide over each other during breathing.
The chest wall is supported by the ribs, which are attached to the backbone dorsally (meaning at the back), in
a way so that they can move up and down, and ventrally (meaning at the front) connected to the sternum,
however this is only the first 10 pairs, the remaining 2 pairs float. There are 12 pairs of ribs. Between the ribs
are 2 sets of muscles, the internal and external intercostal muscles. These are antagonistic muscles.
The diaphragm is a dome shaped sheet of muscle and elastic tissue that separates the thorax from the
abdomen. The diaphragm flattens downward during contractions and arches when relaxing. The intercostal
muscles and diaphragm work together to change the volume of the thoracic cavity, and by extension, the
lungs.
Breathing Mechanisms:
During inspiration, or inhalation:
● External intercostal muscles contract, internal relax, resulting in ribs moving upwards and outwards,
moving the sternum up and further away from backbone, increasing dorsoventral (front to back)
diameter of the thorax, and the upward movement also increases the breadth of the thorax
● Diaphragm contracts and flattens as ribs move upwards, enlarging the thoracic cavity. This increase in
volume means that the pressure lowers inside the thoracic cavity relative to outside air
● As the cavity enlarges, the air pressure in the alveoli causes the lungs to expand to fill up the larger
space, which reduces the air pressure in the alveoli. Alveolar air is at a lower pressure than
atmospheric air, which rushes into the lungs until the air pressures are equal.
● A short pause occurs where the gaseous exchange between alveolar air and blood occurs, where
oxygen dissolves into the moisture lining of the alveolar walls, which then diffuses into the blood and
combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin, and carbon dioxide also diffuses out in the
opposite direction at the same time
During expiration, or exhalation:
● Diaphragm relaxes, and arches upwards. External intercostal muscles relax while the internal
intercostal muscles contract, and ribs and sternum return to their original positions. Air is forced out of
the lungs as it is compressed
Gaseous Exchange in the alveoli:
Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs via diffusion. Blood entering the lungs contain little oxygen but
much carbon dioxide, and air entering the lungs contains much oxygen but little carbon dioxide. A
concentration gradient with a higher oxygen concentration in the alveolar air than the blood and higher CO 2
concentration in the blood can be maintained in 2 ways:
● A continuous flow of blood through the capillaries
 ● Breathing air in and out of the alveoli
There is a once cell thick membrane separating the blood capillaries from the alveolar air, which is permeable
to oxygen and carbon dioxide, allowing easy diffusion of both gases. Oxygen will diffuse into the blood
capillaries after dissolving in the moisture lining because the concentration is greater in the alveolar air. It
combines with the haemoglobin in the blood, forming oxyhaemoglobin. This reaction is reversible, and the
direction of the reaction depends on the concentration of the oxygen in the environment. In the lungs, the
outside air has more oxygen, so oxyhaemoglobin is formed. When the blood is passing through the tissues
with little oxygen, the reaction is reversed and oxygen is released, which diffuses through the walls of the
capillaries and into the cells. Carbon dioxide produced by tissue cells diffuses into the blood plasma, where it
is carried in the form of hydrogen carbonate ions into the lungs, where the hydrogen carbonate ions are
converted back into carbon dioxide, which then diffuses out of the blood into the alveolar cavities. Some water
also evaporates from the alveoli walls, and some heat also escapes from the alveolar air.
Inspired and Expired Air:
Inspired and expired air vary in composition:
Inspired Air Expired Air

Oxygen Approx 21% Approx 16.4%

Carbon Dioxide Approx. 0.03% Approx. 4%

Nitrogen Approx 78% Approx. 78%

Water Vapour Variable, rarely saturated saturated

Temperature Variable About body temperature (37C in humans)

Dust Particles Variable, but usually present Little, if any

Lung Capacities:
Only some of the air is changed during each breathing cycle, and it the amount varies with the depth of a
breath. Tidal Air is the amount of air moved within a normal, quiet breathing cycle, and is about 500cm3. An
extra volume of air can be taken in with a deep breath, and this additional volume is called Complemental Air.
An additional volume of air can be forced out after normal expiration, and this additional volume is called
Supplemental Air. These volumes are both about 1500cm3. Vital Capacity is the volume of air a person can
take in with the deepest breath, which is about 3500-4000cm3. Residual Air is the volume of air which cannot
be pushed out no matter the force used to push it out, and it is about 1500cm 3
Stimulants for breathing:
The stimulus for breathing is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood or alveolar air. No breathing
occurs when there is too little carbon dioxide in the lungs, and thus there is a danger in ‘overbreathing’
Irritant Particles:
A danger of irritant particles entering the lungs and respiratory tubes exists. Normally, most of these irritant
particles are filtered off by nose hairs or trapped in mucus, however sometimes particles can enter the system.
Usually their presence causes violent coughing, resulting in their expulsion. In certain industries, there is too
much dust produced so much that the mechanisms cannot cope, and prolonged exposure can result in serious
lung damage.
Smoking:
Smoking can damage the ciliated epithelial cells of the thorax. The smoke can alter the epithelial cells so much
so that the cilia fall off, which causes a build up of mucus in the thorax. The smoke also forms tar in the lungs
as it settles. THis tar is a mixture of toxic carcinogens, which are chemicals able to alter the DNA of the alveoli,
causing mutations. The genes control cell division, and these chemicals can alter it, causing uncontrolled
division. These altered genes are oncogenes, which can lead to malignant tumours, which are harmful. Benign
tumours aren’t harmful and can be cut. There are tumour suppressor genes present in the cells, however the
carcinogens prevent them from functioning. Nicotine in cigarettes stimulates the secretion of adrenalin, and
can lead to people developing hypertension, high blood pressure and heart diseases. Smoking can also cause
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and chronic bronchitis. Emphysema is the rupture of alveoli.
Respiratory Center:
The respiratory centre in the medulla of the brain controls breathing. Only the external intercostal muscle and
the diaphragm need signals from the respiratory centre. When inhaling, the respiratory centre sends signals to
these muscles to contract, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. This causes air to be sucked in. During
exhalation, the respiratory centre stops sending signals for 3s, the muscles relax, volume decreases, and air is
forced out. The stimulant to stop sending signals is the stretching of the lungs, and chemoreceptors are
sensitive to the chemical composition of the blood. These chemoreceptors send signals to the respiratory
centre to adjust breathing when imbalances occur.

Gaseous Exchange in Green Plants:

Green plants lack specialised breathing mechanisms for gaseous exchange, as their surface area is large
enough in proportion to their volume so that simple diffusion is sufficient to meet their needs. There are 3 main
ways of gas exchange:
● Stomatal Gas Exchange: This takes place mainly in the leaves and young stems
● Cuticular Gas Exchange: The cuticle hinders the movement of gases, but gas exchange does occur
through the cuticle, and it is very important during the night, when the stomata are closed.
● Lenticular Gas Exchange: Old woody stems develop a layer of waterproof cork tissue beneath the
epidermis. This tissue has openings called lenticels, for the exchange of gases.
Oxygen from the atmosphere enters the intercellular spaces between the cells of the leaves and stems, where
it dissolves into the moisture on the cell walls and diffuses into the cells, and diffuses cell to cell to reach the
tissues not directly exposed to the air. Carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out of the cells through
a system of intercellular spaces into the atmosphere via the stomata.
Roots can obtain oxygen for tissue respiration from the soil,, as oxygen is dissolved in the soil water, which
diffuses into the root hairs into the inner cells of the roots, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the roots through
the surface of the root hairs
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
Respiration Photosynthesis

Energy is liberated Energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules

Oxygen is used and carbon dioxide and water are given Carbon Dioxide and water are used while oxygen is given
off off

A catabolic process resulting in the breakdown of An anabolic process, resulting in the building up of
carbohydrate molecules carbohydrate molecules

Occurs at all times in all cells independent of chlorophyll Occurs only in cells containing chlorophyll in the presence
and sunlight of sunlight

Results in a loss of dry mass Results in a gain of dry mass

Misc Notes:
Blood Groups:
Blood varies by the antigens present on the RBC surface and antibodies present in the plasma. This also
affects which blood groups certain blood groups can get donor blood from. Blood positivity is determined by
the rhesus factor. Below table + means blood will clot, and - means blood won’t clot, and is a possible donor.
Recipient Recipient Recipient Donor Donor Donor Donor

Blood Group Antigen in RBC Antibody in serum A B AB O

A Antigen A Antibody b - + + -

B Antigen B Antibody a + - + -
AB Antigen A and B none - - - -

O none Antibody a and b + + + -