6EI:G

B? G 6F 4A7 E4AF?4G BA

CHRISTINA SCHAFFNER

AGEB7H6G BA
In an article on the enlargement of the European Union in 2005, the
weekly European V oice comments:

Not everyone is feeling so optimistic after Monday's signing by

Romania and Bulgaria of treaties setting the terms for EU membership.
'Everyone knows that Bulgaria, and especially Romania, are not ready
for EU accession,' says Austria's Die Presse. (European V oice. 28 April,
2005, p. 18)

An article in The Economist (7 May, 2005, p. 50) reports on the shortage of

Arabic translators working for the FBI. An article in the German weekly Der
Spiegel (14 May, 2005) informs that a German publishing company decided
to publish on the very same day both a German and a Turkish translation of a
Dutch book, written by Ayaan Hirsi Ali and criticising radical Islamist
practises. In February 2004, a number of newspapers reported that the
British government had dropped charges against Katharine Gun, an intelli-
gence linguist who had been arrested for leaking secrets about preparations
for the conflict with Iraq. What all these examples have in common is that
they are related to the topic of translation and politics.
Whether politics is viewed as struggle for power, or as the political insti-
tutions and practices of a state, the associated social interactions are kinds
of linguistic action, types of discourse (for example, parliamentary debates,
broadcast interviews, written constitutions or manifestos of political
parties). All these types of discourse have specific characteristic features
and fulfil specific communicative functions, such as persuasion, rational
argument, threats and promises. Politics and language are, thus, closely
related. As Neubert (2005: 149) argues, they 'form a complex bond brack-
eting the political reality and its symbolic representation'.
The relationship between language and politics has seen increasing
interest within the last two decades, especially in the linguistic (sub)disci-

134
135 A Companion to Translation Studies

plines of critical linguistics, critical discourse analysis and political

discourse analysis (see Fairclough & Wodak 1997; Chilton, 2004, Chilton &
Schaffner, 1997), and also in the neighbouring disciplines of rhetorics,
philosophy and sociology (e.g. Habermas, 1981; Foucault, 1971; Bourdieu,
1982). Critical discourse analysis and political discourse analysis mediate
between linguistic structures as evident in a text and the social, political
and historical contexts of text production and reception. Scholars study the
textual or discursive manifestations of power structures and ideologies
and their specific linguistic realisations at lexical and grammatical levels,
with the aim of making visible the 'ideological loading of particular ways of
using language and the relations of power which underlie them' (Fairclough
& Wodak, 1997: 258).
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136 A Companion to Translation Studies

how these three aspects have been covered in the discipline of translation
studies, although the presentation here can only be selective.

The Politics of Translation

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(1) an ideological component, which refers to the fact that literature should
not be allowed to get too far out of step with the other systems in a
Politics and Translation 137

given society. This has consequences for the choice of topics and the
form of presentation.
(2) an economic component, which refers to the fact that a patron assures the
writer's livelihood by providing payment and similar support;
(3) a status component, which relates to the writer's position in society.

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Politics and Translation 139

example is Gonzalez Ruiz's (2000) empirical study into the translation of

film titles into Spanish under the Franco regime, which reveals ideological
manipulation to promote Catholic values through censorship. Censorship
is also the topic of a special issue of the journal TTR edited by Denise Merkle
(2002), in which most of the papers were devoted to literary translation.
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Politics and Translation 141

number of specified languages. Not all texts translated for and in the EU-
institutions belong to the category of political texts, but their production is
determined by institutional and political constraints (for more on transla-
tion policy and practice in the EU-institutions see, for example, Arthern,
1994; Volz, 1993; Tosi, 2002; Wagner et al., 2002; and Schaffner, 2001b).
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1 42 A Companion to Translation Studies

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IE9?EFEB?J?97B F;HBE9KJ?ED7HO ;NFB7D7J?ED H;L;7BI 7 8HE7: L7H?;JO E
JH7DIB7J?ED7B I ? JI J 7J M;H; ?DJ;D:;: JE ;BF J7H ;J J;NJI JE 8; CEH; H;7:
78B; J KI 9EDJH7:?9J?D EIA?D;D I 8 ?D:?D I J 7J J7H ;J J;NJI C?HHEH
IEKH9; J;NJI ?D J ;?H B?D K?IJ?9 IJHK9JKH; 7BP7:7 (;H;P I 7D7BOI?I 9EC8?D;I
:;I9H?FJ?L; JH7DIB7J?ED IJK:?;I 9H?J?97B :?I9EKHI; 7D7BOI?I 7D: 9KBJKH7B
IJK:?;I H?J?97B :?I9EKHI; 7D7BOI?I 9EC8?D;: M?J :;I9H?FJ?L; JH7DIB7J?ED
IJK:?;I ?I 7BIE J ; C;J E:EBE ?97B 87I?I EH J ; 7D7BOI?I E L7H?EKI D B?I
144 A Companion to Translation Studies

(and French) translations of Hitler's Mein Kampf. Baumgarten (2001) and

Baumgarten and Gagnon (2005) explain how ideological factors shaped the
textual make-up of translations. Among the translation strategies revealed
are 'omission of sensitive political material, an overall flattening of the
rhetorical style, shifts in register and the non-translation or adulteration of
some linguistic features' (Baumgarten & Gagnon, 2005: 29). These strate-
gies were found in translations that had been produced by translation
agents who sympathised with National Socialist ideology, thus high-
lighting that the 'interplay of open censorship and political attitudes leads
to subtle divergences from the original on the textual surface of the transla-
tions' (Baumgarten & Gagnon, 2005: 160.
(EB?J?97B J;NJI 7L; 7BIE 8;;D IJK:?;: HEC J ; FE?DJ E L?;M E ?DJ;H
FH;J?D EH ;N7CFB; /7:;DI E ;NFBEH;I J ; ?DJ;HFH;J;H I F;H EH
C7D9; ?D 7D ?DJ;HFH;J;H C;:?7J;: FEB?J?97B ?DJ;HL?;M M?J J ; EHC;H
KII?7D FH;I?:;DJ EH?I 1;BJI?D M ?9 M7I 8HE7:97IJ B?L; ED M;:?I
H7:?E /7:;DI ?? ;N7C?D;I 7 L7H?;JO E :?L;H ;D9;I 8;JM;;D J ; EH? ?D7B
KII?7D 7D: J ; ?DJ;HFH;J;H I M;:?I L;HI?ED 7I;: ED 7D ?DJ;H79J?ED?IJ?9
7FFHE79 JE ?DJ;HFH;J;H C;:?7J;: ;D9EKDJ;HI ;H IJK:O IK ;IJI J 7J J ;
?DJ;HFH;J;H I F;H EHC7D9; ?I 7 ;9J;: ?HIJ 7D: EH;CEIJ 8O J ; D7JKH; E J ;
7II? DC;DJ 7D: J ; 9ECCKD?97J?L; ;DH; ? ; 8O J ; 9EDL;DJ?EDI E D;MI
?DJ;HL?;M J7BA /7:;DI E 7A;H ;NFBEH;I J ; ; ;9JI E
FIO9 EBE ?97B 7D: 9KBJKH7B 9EDIJH7?DJI ED ?DJ;HFH;J;H IJH7J; ?;I ?D FEB?J?97B
?DJ;HL?;MI ; KI;I 7I 7 97I; IJK:O 7 J;B;L?I;: ?DJ;HL?;M M?J 7::7C
KII;?D 8HE7:97IJ 8O J ; H?J?I 9 7DD;B !, ?D ? ; 7J J ; J;DI;
F;H?E: 7 J;H J ; !H7G? ?DL7I?ED E KM7?J 7D: 8; EH; J ; IJ7HJ E J ; ?HIJ KB
/7H 7A;H ?BBKIJH7J;I FEII?8B; ?CFB?97J?EDI E J ; KI; E 9;HJ7?D IJH7J; ?;I
?D J;HCI E H;?D EH9?D 9KBJKH7B IJ;H;EJOF;I 9EDIJHK9J?D 7 9EDL;D?;DJ
?C7 ; E J ; ;D;CO 7D: ;D78B?D EH E8IJHK9J?D 7D KD:;HIJ7D:?D E J ;
EJ ;H I FE?DJI E L?;M 7D: FH?EH?J?;I 7A;H
, ; B?DA 8;JM;;D FEB?J?97B 7D: B; 7B 7IF;9JI 7I 7BH;7:O 8;;D ?DJ;: 7J
78EL; M?J H; ;H;D9; JE FEB?J?97BBO H;B;L7DJ J;NJI FHE:K9;: 7D: JH7DIB7J;:
?D 7D: EH J ; - ?DIJ?JKJ?EDI !D 7 M?:;H 9EDJ;NJ 7HH; BEEAI 7J B; 7B
9ED9;FJI M?J H; 7H: JE KC7D H? JI ?D JH7DIB7J?ED ; 7H K;I J 7J ?D9ED
I?IJ;D9?;I ?D 7D?I JH7DIB7J?EDI E ?DJ;HD7J?ED7B KC7D H? JI J;NJI 97D
9H;7J; 9ED KI?ED 7D: KD9;HJ7?DJO 7I JE EM IK9 J;NJI 7H; JE 8; KD:;HIJEE:
!D CO EMD H;I;7H9 ED FEB?J?97B :?I9EKHI; 7D: JH7DIB7J?ED ! 7L;
9ECC;DJ;: ED J ; ?CFEHJ7D9; E FEB?J?97B 879A HEKD: ADEMB;: ; EH J;NJ
9ECFH; ;DI?ED EH B79A E IK9 ADEMB;: ; ED J ; F7HJ E JH7DIB7JEHI EH
;N7CFB; ?D J ; 9EDJ;NJ E ;HC7D KD? ?97J?ED 7D: 7BIE ?D J ; M?:;H 9EDJ;NJ
E J ; H;LEBKJ?EDI ?D 7IJ;HD KHEF; ?D ?BBKIJH7J;: ?D JH7DIB7J;:
IF;;9 ;I 7D: EH ;II7OI E FEB?J?9?7DI MH?J;HI 7D: ?DJ;BB;9JK7BI I;;
Politics and Translation 145

9 7 D;H 7 9 7 D;H ;HJ?D J ;H ?IIK;I E

9ED9;HD 7L; 8;;D FEB?J?97B ?D BK;D9;I ED J ; 9 E?9; E IF;9? ?9 JH7DIB7J?ED
IEBKJ?EDI ;IF;9?7BBO M?J H; ;H;D9; JE H?J?I ;HC7D H;B7J?EDI ?D J ;
9EDJ;NJ E KHEF;7D ?DJ; H7J?ED EH ;N7CFB; I;; 9 7 D;H 9 ED 7
FEB?J?97B :?IFKJ; ?D 97KI;: 8O J ; 9 E?9; E 7H: 9EH; EH ;IJ;H ;HD
?D J ; D B?I JH7DIB7J?ED E 7 ;HC7D :E9KC;DJ 9 7 D;H ED J ;
CEH; EH B;II IK8JB; :? ;H;D9;I ?D J ; D B?I 7D: ;HC7D L;HI?EDI E J ;
B7?H 9 HE:;H F7F;H M ?9 H; B;9J;: ?:;EBE ?97B F ;DEC;D7 7D: 7D
7M7H;D;II E FEB?J?97B I;DI?J?L?J?;I ?D J ; JME 9EKDJH?;I 7D: 9 7 D;H
7 ED J ; HEB; E JH7DIB7J?ED ?D :?IJEHJ;: C;:?7 FH;I;DJ7J?ED E FEB?J?97B
?D EHC7J?ED 7II C;:?7 FB7O 7D ?CFEHJ7DJ HEB; ?D :?II;C?D7J?D FEB?J?9I
7D: ?D C;:?7J?D 8;JM;;D FEB?J?9?7DI 7D: J ; FK8B?9 7D: JH7DIB7J?ED ?I
? BO H;B;L7DJ ?D J ?I 9EDJ;NJ 7I M;BB !D J ; C;:?7 EM;L;H FEB?J?97B
:?I9EKHI; ?D JH7DIB7J?ED 7FF;7HI CEIJBO ?D H7 C;DJ;: EHC M?J J ;
JH7DIB7J?EDI E J;D :ED; 8O EKHD7B?IJI J ;CI;BL;I I;; EH ;N7CFB;
JJF MMM M7HM?9A 79 KA 79 7HJI 9J99I H;I;7H9 J D ED 7D ED E?D
H;I;7H9 FHE ;9J ED ,H7DIB7J?ED ?D BE87B ;MI

B? G 6 F4G BA B9 E4AF?4G BA
I DEJ;: 78EL; FEB?J?97BBO H;B;L7DJ :E9KC;DJI H;B;L7DJ EH :;9?I?ED
J7A?D EH EH ?CFB;C;DJ?D FH79J?97B FEB?J?97B IJ;FI EH ;N7CFB; J 7J 7H;
FHE:K9;: ?D ?DJ;HD7J?ED7B EH CKBJ?D7J?ED7B EH 7D?I7J?EDI IK9 7I -D?J;:
7J?EDI - KIK7BBO ;N?IJ ?D I;L;H7B B7D K7 ;I K9 J;NJI 7H; J ; H;IKBJ E
JH7DIB7J?ED 79J?L?J?;I ;L;D ? J ; B78;B JH7DIB7J?ED ?I DEJ KI;: 8KJ ?I
H;FB79;: 8O B7D K7 ; L;HI?EDI / ;D IK9 J;NJI 7H; FKJ JE KI; EH FEB?J?97B
FKHFEI;I ? ; J ; FEB?J?9?I7J?ED E JH7DIB7J?ED J ; :? ;H;DJ B7D K7 ;
L;HI?EDI C7O ?L; H?I; JE :? ;H;DJ FEB?J?97B ?DJ;HFH;J7J?EDI EH 79J?L?J?;I
;IEBKJ?ED E J ;- ;9KH?JO EKD9?B 7:EFJ;: ?D ?I 7 97I; ?D
FE?DJ , ; D B?I L;HI?ED E J ; J;NJ IF;7AI E M?J :H7M7B E !IH7;B?
7HC;: EH9;I HEC J;HH?JEH?;I E99KF?;: ?D J ; H;9;DJ 9ED B?9J M ;H;7I J ;
EJ ;H B7D K7 ; L;HI?EDI 7L; CEH; IF;9? ?9 H; ;H;D9;I JE J;HH?JEH?;I ; J ;
H;D9 J;NJ I7OI G:IG6 I 9:H ;DG8:H 6GB::H HG6:A :CC:H 9:H I:GG ID G:H D88JE:H ADGH
9J G:8:CI 8DC;A I , ; DED KI; E 7 :; ?D?J; 7HJ?9B; 7BBEMI EH JME :? ;H;DJ
H;7:?D I ? ; M?J :H7M7B HEC IEC; E J ; J;HH?JEH?;I EH M?J :H7M7B HEC
7BB J ; J;HH?JEH?;I !D EJ ;H MEH:I 7 B7D K7 ; IF;9? ?9 F ;DEC;DED
FHE:K9;: 9EDI?:;H78B; 9EDJHEL;HIO 7D: CEH;EL;H H;IKBJ;: ?D :? ;H;DJ
FEB?J?97BBO CEJ?L7J;: ?DJ;HFH;J7J?EDI E J ?I CKBJ?B?D K7B H;IEBKJ?ED
7DO 9EKDJH?;I 7L; CEH; EH B;II E ?9?7B JH7DIB7J?ED I;HL?9;I J 7J
KIK7BBO EF;H7J; KD:;H J ; 7KIF?9;I E J ; EH;? D C?D?IJH?;I , ;O FHE:K9;
JH7DIB7J?EDI EH ;N7CFB; E IF;;9 ;I EH FH;II H;B;7I;I FH;:EC?D7DJBO EH
146 A Companion to Translation Studies

information purposes; in other words, they serve embassies, diplomats,

governments, and the media. Such texts are increasingly made available on
the Internet. It may, however, also be the case that translations are intended
for propaganda purposes and/or for the transfer of political ideologies to
other cultures. For example, the works of Marx and Engels (especially The
Communist Manifesto), Lenin, and Mao Zedong have been translated with
the intention of making their ideas more widely known, spreading their
ideology, and thus inspiring the working classes in their struggle. It was
quite common in Eastern European Communist countries at the time of the
Cold War for speeches delivered at the congresses of the communist parties
and related important documents (such as five-year plans and party mani-
festos) to be translated into the languages of the other Eastern European
countries for immediate publication in daily newspapers. Translations into
'Western' languages, especially English, French and Spanish, were pub-
lished in brochures and distributed via the embassies.
Translations, as products, are thus used as tools for political action, i.e.
they are politicised. Such a use of translations for more or less hidden polit-
ical action is not confined to political texts in a narrower sense. For example,
Kadric and Kaindl (1997) illustrate how, as a result of textual shifts, the
Asterix translations into Croatian reinforced negative feelings towards the
former war-time enemy, Serbia. Issues like this have recently been
discussed in the context of translation and ethics (see, for example, the
special issue of the journal The Translator edited in 2001 by Anthony Pym).
It is in the context of translation theories inspired by cultural studies that
aspects of power, asymmetry in cultural exchanges, ethics and the engage-
ment of translators have been discussed in a forceful and committed way.
An example is the work by Venuti (1995, 1998b), who defines translation as
a socio-political practice and who recommends a translation method of
'foreignisation' in order to respect and represent the 'otherness' of the
foreign text, language and culture. Translation, via a method of foreign-
isation, thus becomes a form of political action and engagement (on the
scope and limitations of engagement in respect of translation (cf. Tymoczko,
2000). Engagement on the part of translators themselves can also take
forms that go beyond linguistic choices for the target text. Baker (2004), for
example, comments on commitments and political activities of recently
established networks of translators. For example, the constitution of the
network Translators for Peace states:

The Association was established by the undersigned promoters in order

to publish, as far as possible in every language and by whatever
channel, every message against: war in general; and in particular,
 C H 7G 5B8 F5BG 5H CB

7 7?DIJ J ; KI; E M7H 7I 7 C;7DI E H;IEBL?D ?DJ;HD7J?ED7B :?IFKJ;I

JJF MMM JH7 :K JJEH?F;HB7F79; EH ?D:;N JC

K9 D;JMEHAI E JH7DIB7JEHI 7H; LEBKDJ7HO EH 7D?I7J?EDI 7D: J ;?H

79J?L?J?;I JEE 7H; ;N7CFB;I E M 7J 97D 8; 97BB;: FEB?J?9?I7J?ED E JH7DIB7
J?ED J J ; J?C; E J ; EB: /7H J ; FEB?J?97B HEB; E JH7DIB7JEHI MEHA?D ?D
ECCKD?IJ 9EKDJH?;I M7I IJH;II;: 7I M;BB 7B8;?J J ; FEB?J?97B 9EDJ;NJ 7D:
J ; KD:;HBO?D ?:;EBE O M;H; L;HO :? ;H;DJ HEC J ; D;M D;JMEHAI EH
;N7CFB; JH7DIB7JEH JH7?D?D ?D J ; EHC;H ;HC7D ;CE9H7J?9 ;FK8B?9
IJH;II;: J 7J 7D 7M7H;D;II E J ; IE9?7B C?II?ED 7D: 9ECC?II?ED 7D: 79J?D
?D 9ED EHC?JO M?J ?:;EBE O E J ; ECCKD?IJ F7HJO M;H; ;II;DJ?7B
;B;C;DJI E J ; FHE ;II?ED7B FHE ?B; E IE9?7B?IJ JH7DIB7JEHI 7D: ?DJ;HFH;J;HI
I;; EH ;N7CFB; J ; 9EDJH?8KJ?EDI ?D ;DI9 ;D ED J ; FEB?J?97B
9EDJ;NJ ?D M ?9 B?J;H7HO JH7DIB7JEHI ?D 7IJ ;HC7DO MEHA;: K9 7 E9KI
ED ECCKD?IJ ?:;EBE O M7I ;NJ;D:;: JE J ; :?I9?FB?D; ?JI;B M?J JH7DIB7
J?ED IJK:?;I 8;?D :; ?D;: 7I 8;BED ?D JE J ; IE9?7B I9?;D9;I 7D: J KI
EL;HD;: 8O FH?D9?FB;I E 7HN?IJ ;D?D?IJ ;F?IJ;CEBE O !D EJ ;H MEH:I
J ; :?I9?FB?D; ?JI;B M7I FKJ ?DJE 7 FEB?J?97B 9EDJ;NJ 7D: J KI FEB?J?9?I;:
,E IKC KF J ; H;B7J?EDI ?F 8;JM;;D JH7DIB7J?ED 7D: FEB?J?9I ?I C7D? EB:
7I 97D 8; H;L;7B;: 8O IJK:?;I E JH7DIB7J?EDI 7I FHE:K9JI 7I M;BB 7I 8O
;NFBEH?D J ; IE9?E FEB?J?97B 9ED:?J?EDI ?D M ?9 JH7DIB7J?EDI 7H; FHE:K9;:
7D: H;9;?L;: I;; ;IJ;HC7D ED 97KI7B CE:;BI E JH7DIB7J?ED
,H7DIB7J?ED 7I FHE:K9J 7D: 7I FHE9;II 97D ? B? J IE9?E9KBJKH7B 7D:
FEB?J?97B FH79J?9;I DEHCI 7D: 9EDIJH7?DJI M ?9 97D 8; E F7HJ?9KB7H H;B;
L7D9; ?D J ; ?;B: E FEB?J?97B :?I9EKHI; D7BOI?D FEB?J?97B :?I9EKHI; ?D
JH7DIB7J?ED 97D O?;B: C7DO :;J7?B;: 7D: KI; KB ?DI? JI ?DJE J ; ?DJH?97J;
FEB?J?97B I9;D;HO E EKH ?D9H;7I?D BO BE87B?I;: MEHB: NFBEH?D J ; ?DJ;H
H;B7J?EDI ?F E J ; FEB?J?9I E JH7DIB7J?ED J ; JH7DIB7J?ED E FEB?J?97B J;NJI
7D: J ; FEB?J?9?I7J?ED E JH7DIB7J?ED IJK:?;I 9EKB: J KI C7A; 7 I? D? ?97DJ
9EDJH?8KJ?ED JE 7D ;C;H ?D 9H?J?97B JH7DIB7J?ED IJK:?;I