PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

A PROJECT REPORT IN PHYSICS (042) SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE COMPLETIOM OF

AISSCE 2023-2024
BY
B. SRI KRISHNA

AISSCE Roll No: ……………………………..

Under the supervision of

Mr. R. NAMACHIVAYAM
PGT Physics
JAIRAM PUBLIC SCHOOL
Chinnathirupathi (Po),
Salem, Tamilnadu.

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 JAIRAM PUBLIC SCHOOL
CBSE-SENIOR SECONDARY,
Chinnathirupathi (Po), Salem-636008

CERTIFICATION

This project entitled ”PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ”, is the investigatory

project work in physics (042), successfully completed by master SRI
KRISHNA .B, student of class XII, Jairam Public School, Salem, with
AISSCE Roll NO. …..……………….. under the supervision of Mr. R.
Namachivayam (PGT Physics), for the partial fulfillment of requirements for the
course completion in pursuance of AISSCE 2023-2024.

…………………… ..…..………………
Teacher In-charge Principal

……………………
Practical Examiner School Stamp

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have taken effect in this project. However it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individual.

I would like Principal sir, Mr. Paul Francis Xavier and school for providing
me with facilities required to do my project.

I am highly indebted to my physics teacher, Mr.R.Namachivayam, for his

invaluable guidance which has sustained my efforts in all these stages of this
project work.

I would also like to thanks my parents for their continuous support and
encouragement.

My thanks and appreciation also goes to my fellow classmates and to the

people who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

SRI KRISHNA. B

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 INDEX

Sno. Contact Page no.

1 INTRODUCTION 5

2 HISTROY 8

3 HERTZ’S OBSERVATION 14

4 HALLWACH’S AND LENARD’S 15

OBSERVATIONS

5 EXPERIMENT OF PHOTOELECTRIC 17
EFFECT

6 LAW’S OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION 24

7 FAILURE OF CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY 25

TO EXPLAIN

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY 26

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 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

INTRODUCTION

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free

carriers when light shines on a material. Electrons emitted in this
manner can be called photo electrons. This phenomenon is commonly
studied in electronic physics, as well as in fields of chemistry, such as
quantum chemistry or electrochemistry.
According to classical electromagnetic theory, this effect can be
attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From
this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of light would induce
changes in the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the metal.
Furthermore, according to this theory, a sufficiently dim light would be
expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and
the subsequent emission of an electron. However, the experimental
results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by
classical theory.
Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons
when those photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency (energy).
Below that threshold, no electrons are emitted from the material
regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the
light. (Rarely, an electron will escape by absorbing two or more quanta.
However, this is extremely rare because by the time it absorbs enough
quanta to escape, the electron will probably have emitted the rest of the
quanta.) To make sense of the fact that light can eject electrons even if
its intensity is low, Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a
wave propagating through space, but rather a collection of discrete wave
packets (photons), each with energy hv. This shed light on Max Planck’s
previous discovery of the Planck relation (E=hv) linking energy € and
frequency (v) as arising from quantization of energy. The factor /h is
known as the Planck constant.
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In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with
ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while
studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck
suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only
be released in “packets” of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a
paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete
quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric
effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum
mechanics. In 1914, Millikan’s Experiment supported Einstein’s model
of the photoelectric effect. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1921 for “his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”, and
Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for “his work on
the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect”.
The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching
zero (in the case of negative electron affinity) to over 1 MeV for core
electrons in elements with a high atomic number. Emission of
conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few
Electron-volts, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet
light. Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in
understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced
the formation of the concept of wave-particle duality. Other phenomena
where light affects the movement of electric charges include the
photoconductive effect (also known as photoconductivity or
photoresistivity), the photovoltaic effect, and the photoelectrochemical
effect.
Photoemission can occur from any material, but it is most easily
observable from metals or other conductors because the process
produces a charge imbalance, and if this charge imbalance is not
neutralized by current flow (enabled by conductivity), the potential
barrier to emission increases until the emission current ceases. It is also
usual to have the emitting surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the
flow of photoelectrons and make them difficult to observe. Additionally,
the energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by thin oxide
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layers on metal surfaces if the metal has been exposed to oxygen, so
most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect
use clean metal surfaces in a vacuum.

When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a

vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used, and emission
into a vacuum distinguished as external photoemission.

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History

When a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain

threshold frequency (typically visible light for alkali metals, near
ultraviolet for other metals, and extreme ultraviolet for non-metals), the
radiation is absorbed and electrons are emitted. Light, and especially
ultra-violet light, discharges negatively electrified bodies with the
production of rays of the same nature as cathode rays. Under certain
circumstances it can directly ionize gases. The first of these phenomena
was discovered by Hertz and Hallwachs in 1887. The second was
announced first by Philipp Lenard in 1900.

The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an

arc lamp, or by burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction
coil between zinc or cadmium terminals, the light from which is very
rich in ultra-violet rays. Sunlight is not rich in ultra- violet rays, as these
have been absorbed by the atmosphere, and it does not produce nearly
so large an effect as the arc-light. Many substances besides metals
discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light: lists
of these substances will be found in papers by G. C. Schmidt and O.
Knoblauch..
19TH CENTURY:
In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic
effect while studying the effect of light on electrolytic cells. Though not
equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on photovoltaics was
instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and
electronic properties of materials. In 1873, Willoughby Smith
discovered photoconductivityin selenium while testing the metal for its
high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving
submarine telegraph cables.
Johann Elster (1854-1920) and Hans Geitel (1855-1923), students in
Heidelberg, developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be

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used to measure the intensity of light. Elster and Geitel had investigated
with great success the effects produced by light on electrified bodies.

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed the photoelectric Effect and the

production and reception of electromagnetic Waves. He published these
observations in the joumal Annalen Der Physik. His receiver consisted
of a coil with a spark gap.Where a spark would be seen upon detection
of Electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened Box to
see the spark better. However, he noticed that the Maximum spark
length was reduced when in the box. A glass Panel placed between the
source of electromagnetic waves and The receiver absorbed ultraviolet
radiation that assisted the Electrons in jumping across the gap. When
removed, the spark Length would increase. He observed no decrease in
spark Length when he replaced the glass with quartz, as quartz does Not
absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his months of Investigation and
reported the results obtained. He did not Further pursue the
investigation of this effect. The discovery by Hertz in 1887 that the
incidence of ultra-violet light on a spark gap facilitated the passage of
the spark, led immediately to a series of investigations by Hallwachs,
Hoor, Righi and Stoletow on the effect of light, and especially of ultra-
violet light, on charged bodies. It was proved by these investigations
that a newly cleaned surface of zinc, if charged with negative electricity,
rapidly loses this charge however small it may be when ultra-violet light
falls upon the surface; while if the surface is uncharged to begin with, it
acquires a positive charge when exposed to the light, the negative
electrification going out into the gas by which the metal is surrounded;
this positive electrification can be much increased by directing a strong
airblast against the surface. If however the zinc surface is positively
electrified it suffers no loss of charge when exposed to the light: this
result has been questioned, but a very careful examination of the
phenomenon by Elster and Geitel has shown that the loss observed
under certain circumstances is due to the discharge by the light reflected
from the zinc surface of negative electrification on neighbouring
conductors induced by the positive charge, the negative electricity under

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the influence of the electric field moving up to the positively electrified
surface.

With regard to the Hertz effect, the researchers from the start showed a
great complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigue that is, the
progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic
surfaces. According to an important research by Wilhelm Hallwachs,
ozone played an important part in the phenomenon. However, other
elements enter such as oxidation, the humidity, the mode of polish of the
surface, etc. It was at the time not even sure that the fatigue is absent in
a vacuum.

In the period from February 1888 and until 1891, a detailed analysis of
photoeffect was performed by Aleksandr Stoletov with results published
in 6 works; four of them in Comptes Rendus, one review in
Physikalische Revue (translated from Russian), and the last work in
Journal de Physique. First, in these works Stoletov invented a new
experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis
of photoeffect. Using this setup, he discovered the direct proportionality
between the intensity of light and the induced photo electric current (the
first law of photoeffect or Stoletov's law). One of his other findings
resulted from measurements of the dependence of the intensity of the
electric photo current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence
of an optimal gas pressure P corresponding to a maximum photocurrent;
this property was used for a creation of solar cells.

In 1899, J. J. Thomson investigated ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes.

Thomson deduced that the ejected particles were the same as those
previously found in the cathode ray, later called electrons, which he
called "corpuscles". In the research, Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a
cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation.
It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the
atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused a
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subatomic "corpuscle" to be emitted, and current to be detected. The
amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the
radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more
current.

20TH CENTURY:

The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultra-violet light was made

by Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced across several
centimeters of air and made very great positive and small negative ions,
it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as did J. J. Thomson, as a
Hertz effect upon the solid or liquid particles present in the gas.

In 1902, Lenard observed that the energy of individual emitted electrons

increased with the frequency (which is related to the color) of the light.
This appeared to be at odds with Maxwell’s wave theory of light, which
predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to the intensity
of the radiation.

Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency

using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate
large changes in intensity, and that had sufficient power to enable him to
investigate the variation of potential with light frequency. His
experiment directly measured potentials, not electron kinetic energy: he
found the electron energy by relating it to the maximum stopping
potential (voltage) in a phototube. He found that the calculated
maximum electron kinetic energy is determined by the frequency of the
light. For example, an increase in frequency results in an increase in the
maximum kinetic energy calculated for an electron upon liberation
ultraviolet radiation would require a higher applied stopping potential to
stop current in a phototube than blue light. However, Lenard’s results
were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in
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performing the experiments: the experiments needed to be done on
freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in
a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current
emitted by the surface was determined by the light’s intensity, or
brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of
electrons emitted from the surface.
The researches of Langevin and those of Eugene Bloch have shown that
the greater part of the Lenard effect is certainly due to this ‘Hertz
effect’. The Lenard effect upon the gas itself nevertheless does exist.
Refound by J. J. Thomson and then more decisively by Frederic Palmer,
Jr., it was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at
first attributed to it by Lenard.In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this
apparent
Paradox by describing light as composed of discrete Quanta, now called
photons, rather than continuous Waves. Based upon Max Planck’s
theory of black-body Radiation, Einstein theorized that the energy in
each Quantum of light was equal to the frequency multiplied by A
constant, later called Planck’s constant. A photon above A threshold
frequency has the required energy to eject a Single electron, creating the
observed effect. This Discovery led to the quantum revolution in
physics and Earned Einstein the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. By
Wave-particle duality the effect can be analyzed purely in Terms of
waves though not as conveniently.
Albert Einstein’s mathematical description of how the photoelectric
effect was caused by absorption of quanta of light was in one of his
1905 papers, named “On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of Light”. This paper proposed the
simple description of “light quanta”, or photons, and showed how they
explained such
Phenomena as the photoelectric effect. His simple explanation in terms
of absorption of discrete quanta of light explained the features of the
phenomenon and the characteristic frequency.
The idea of light quanta began with Max Planck’s published law of
black-body radiation (“On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the
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Normal Spectrum”) by assuming that Hertzian oscillators could only
exist at energies E proportional to the frequency fof the oscillator by E =
I , where his Planck’s constant. By assuming that light actually
consisted of discrete energy packets, Einstein wrote an equation for the
photoelectric effect that agreed with experimental results. It explained
why the energy of photoelectrons was dependent only on the frequency
of the incident light and not on its intensity: a low-intensity, the high-
frequency source could supply a few high energy photons, whereas a
high-intensity, the low- frequency source would supply no photons of
sufficient individual energy to dislodge any electrons. This was an
enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first
because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally
from James Clerk Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetic behavior,
and more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in
physical systems. Even after experiments showed that Einstein’s
equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, resistance to the
idea of photons continued since it appeared to contradict Maxwell’s
equations, which were well understood and verified.
Einstein’s work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons
increases linearly with the frequency of the light. Perhaps surprisingly,
the precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was
known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasing
frequency of incident light and is independent of the intensity of the
light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally
determined until 1914 when Robert Andrews Millikan showed that
Einstein’s prediction was correct.
The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of
wave-particle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously
possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being
manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to
understand in terms of the classical wave description of light, as the
energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the
incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would
‘gather up’ energy over a period of time, and then be emitted.

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Hertz’s Observations

The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was first discovered by

Heinrich Hertz in 1887. While demonstrating the existence of
electromagnetic waves, Hertz found that the high voltage sparks passed
across the metal electrodes of the detector loon more easily when the
Cathode was illuminated by UV light from an arc lamp. The UV light
falling on the metal surface caused the emission of negatively charged
particles, which are known as electrons, into the surrounding space and
hence enhanced the high voltage sparks.

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Hallwach’s and Lenard’s Observations

During the years 1886-1902, Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard

investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail.
Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an electroscope. He allowed UV
light to fall on a zinc plate. He observed that the zinc plate became: (i)
uncharged if initially negatively charged, (ii) positively charged if
initially uncharged, (iii) more positively charged if initially positively
charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively
charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to UV
light.

A few years later Lenard observed that when UV radiations are allowed
to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
electrodes (cathode C and anode A), a current flows in a circuit. As soon
as UV radiations are stopped, the current also stops. These observations
again indicate that UV radiations incident on the emitter plate C eject
out same negatively charged particles from it. These particles are
attracted by the collector plate A, setting up a current through the
evacuated glass tube. After the discovery of electrons by JJ Thomson in
1897, it was established that these particles are indeed electrons and
were called photoelectrons. In 1900, Lenard argued that that when UV
light is incident on the emitter plate, it causes the emission of electrons
from its surface. These electrons are attracted by the positive collector
plate so that the circuit is completed and the current flows. This current
was called Photoelectric current.

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Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the frequency of the
incident light was less than the a certain minimum value, called the
threshold frequency, no photoelectrons were emitted at all.
Different substances emit photoelectrons only when exposed to
radiations of different frequencies. Alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Cs and
R barer highly photosensitive. They emit electrons even with visible
light. Metals like Zn, Cd, Mg, Al etc. respond only to UV light. X-rays
can eject electrons even from heavy metals.

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Experimental study of photoelectric effect

An extensive study of photoelectric effect was made by Lenard and RA

Millikan. Figure depicts a schematic view of the Arrangement used for
the experimental study of the Photoelectric effect. It consists of an
evacuated Glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C And
another metal plate A. Monochromatic light From the source S of
sufficiently short wavelength Passes through the window W and falls on
the Photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent Quartz window is
sealed on to the glass tube, Which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass
through It and irradiate the photosensitive plate C. The Electrons are
emitted by the plate C and are Collected by the plate A (collector), by
the electric Field created by the battery. The battery maintains The

potential difference between the plates

C and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be
reversed by a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a
desired positive or negative potential with respect to emitter C. When
the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C. the
electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of
electric current in the circuit. The potential difference between the
emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the
resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is measured by a
microammeter (µA). The photoelectric current can be increased or
decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to
the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can

17
be varied, as can the potential difference V between the emitter C and
the collector A.
We can use the experimental arrangement of Fig. to study the variation
of photocurrent with (a) intensity of radiation, (b) frequency of incident
radiation, (c) the potential difference between the plates A and C, and
(d) the nature of the material of plate C. Light of different frequencies
can be used by putting appropriate coloured filter or coloured glass in
the path of light falling on the emitter C. The intensity of light is varied
by changing the distance of the light source from the emitter.

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EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF LIGHT ON PHOTOCURRENT:

The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to

emitter C so that electrons ejected from C are attracted towards collector
A. Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the accelerating
potential fixed, the intensity of light is varied and the resulting
photoelectric current is measured each time. It is found that the
photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light as shown
graphically. The photocurrent is directly proportional to the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second. This implies that the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the

intensity of incident radiation.

EFFECT OF POTENTIAL ON PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT:

We first keep the plate A at some positive accelerating potential with

respect to the plate C and illuminate the plate C with light of fixed
frequency + and fixed intensity . We next vary the positive potential of
plate A gradually and measure the resulting photocurrent each time. It is
found that the photoelectric current increases with increase in
accelerating (positive) potential. At some stage, for a certain positive
potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are collected by the plate A
and the photoelectric current becomes maximum or saturates. If we
increase the accelerating potential of plate A further, the photocurrent
does not increase. This maximum value of the photoelectric current is
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called saturation current. Saturation current corresponds to the case
when all the photoelectrons emitted by the emitter plate C reach the
collector plate A. We now apply a negative (retarding) potential to the
plate A with respect to the plate C and make it increasingly negative
gradually. When the polarity is reversed, the electrons are repelled and
only the most energetic electrons are able to reach the collector A. The
photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it drops to zero at a

certain sharply defined, critical value of the negative potential Vo on the

plate A. For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the minimum
negative (retarding) potential Vo given to the plate A for which the
photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called the cut-off or stopping
potential.
The Interpretation of the observation in terms of photoelectrons is
straight forward. All the photoelectrons emitted from the metal do not
have the same energy, Photoelectric current.Is zero when the stopping
potential is sufficient to repel even the most energetic photoelectrons,
with the maximum kinetic energy (Kmax), so that Kmax = e Vo We can
now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same
frequency but of higher intensity 12 and 13 (13_12_1). We note that the
saturation currents are now found to be at higher values. This shows that
more electrons are being emitted per second, proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping potential remains the
same as that for the incident radiation of intensity Iı, as shown
graphically . Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity. In other words, the
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light source
and the emitter plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident
radiation.

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EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT RADIATION ON
STOPPING POTENTIAL:

We now study the relation between the frequency + of the incident

radiation and the stopping potential Vo. We suitably adjust the same
intensity of light radiation at various frequencies and study the variation
of photocurrent with collector plate potential. The resulting variation is
shown . We obtain different values of stopping potential but the same
value of the saturation current for incident radiation of different
frequencies. The energy of the emitted electrons depends on the
frequency of the incident radiations. The stopping potential is more
negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation. Note from Fig. that
the stopping potentials are in the order VO3 > Voe > VOL if the
frequencies are in the order +3 > +2 > +1. This implies that greater the
frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons. Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to
stop them completely. If we plot a graph between the frequency of
incident radiation and the corresponding stopping potential for different

metals we get a straight line.

The graph shows that
●The stopping potential Vovaries linearly with the frequency of incident
radiation for a given photosensitive material.
●There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency + for which the
stopping potential is zero.
These observations have two implications:

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●The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with
the frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
●For a frequency of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency
+0, по photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large.

This minimum, cut-off frequency to, is called the threshold frequency. It

is different for different metals. Different photosensitive materials
respond differently to light. Selenium Is more sensitive than zinc or
copper. The same photosensitive substance gives different response to
light of different wavelengths. For example, ultraviolet light gives rise
to photoelectric effect in copper while green or red light does not.Note
that in all the above experiments, it is found that, if frequency of the
incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the photoelectric
emission starts instantaneously without any apparent time lag, even if
the incident radiation is very dim. It is now known that emission starts
in a time of the order of 109 s or less. We now summarise the
experimental features and observations described in this section.
● For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
●For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity
of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its
intensity.
●For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum
cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold
frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no
22
matter how intense the incident light is. Above the threshold frequency,
the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
●The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag (110-9s or less), even when the incident radiation is
made exceedingly dim.

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Laws of photoelectric emission

On the basis of the experimental results on photoelectric effect, Lenard

and Millikan gave the following laws of photoelectric emission:

1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of the incident

radiation, (Above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light. The
saturation current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.

2. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum

cut-off frequency below which no photoelectrons are emitted,
howsoever high is the intensity of incident radiation. This
frequency is called threshold frequency.

3. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or

equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
directly proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation, but
is independent of its intensity.

4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time

lag between the incidence of light radiation and the emission of
photoelectrons is very small, even less than 10 s.

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Failure of classical wave theory to explain photoelectric effect

According to the wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave

consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of
energy over the region over which the wave extends. This wave picture
of light could not explain the basic features of light as explained below:

1. According to wave theory, when a wavefront of light strikes a

metal surface, the free electrons at the surface absorb the radiant
energy continuously. Greater the intensity of incident radiation,
greater are the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic felids, and
greater is the energy density of the wave. Hence higher intensity
should liberate photoelectrons with kinetic energy. But this is
contrary to the experimental result that the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on the intensity of
the incident radiation.

2. No matter what the frequency of the incident radiation is, a light

wave of sufficient intensity (over a sufficient time) should be able
to impart enough energy required to eject the electrons from the
metal surface. Thus the wave theory fails to explain the existence
of threshold frequency.

3. The energy of light wave is smoothly and evenly distributed across

its advancing wavefront. Each electron intercepts an insignificantly
small amount of this energy and so it should require a finite time to
escape from metal surface. But actually, the emission is almost
instantaneous.

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Bibliography

• https://www.google.co.in/search
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric
• NCERT Physics Textbook
• New Simplified Physics by SL Arora

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