PRACTICAL 1

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

NAME- KASHISH
COURSE- BA PROGRAMME
FORM NO.-
SUBJECT- LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
UPC-
ENROLLMENT NO.-
 INDEX
S.NO. CONTENT REMARKS
1. TITLE- The presence of conservation of
mass, volume and number according to
Piaget’s theory of Cognitive development.

2. BASIC CONCEPS-
Cognition
Cognition development
Theories of Cognition development

3. Literature review
4. Procedure
Design of study
Variable
5. Plan of study
6. Sample
The study consisted of two samples Child
A & Child B. Child A consisted of 5 years
i.e., pre-operational stage and Child B
consisted of 8 years i.e., concrete-
operational stage.
7. Preliminary information
8. Administration
9. Precautions
10. Result
11. Discussion
12. Conclusion
13. References
 LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
PRACTICAL 1

TITLE-
THE PRESENCE OF CONSERVATION OF MASS, VOLUME AND
NUMBER ACCORDING TO PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT.
Aim-
To study the presence of conservation of mass, volume and number, according
to Piaget’s theory of cognitive Development.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Lifespan Development refers to the full process of human development from
conception to death. It is a holistic approach to understanding all of the
physiological, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that people go through.
Since humans live according to the customs and values of a wide range of
cultures, this is a rich and diverse area of study. This article will provide you
with a comprehensive overview of the four facets of lifespan development and
how they interconnect to shape the human existence.

Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to

death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists. They
view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across
three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development, and
psychosocial.

There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop
into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a
series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain
erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud’s ideas and
suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said that our social
interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self.
Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how
children think and reason as they move through various stages. Finally,
Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral development. He said that we
pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive
development. You’ll learn about each of these theories in this section.

COGNITION
Cognition is defined as ‘the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge
and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.’ At Cambridge
Cognition we look at it as the mental processes relating to the input and storage
of information and how that information is then used to guide your behaviour. It
is in essence, the ability to perceive and react, process and understand, store and
retrieve information, make decisions and produce appropriate responses. The
modern word ‘cognition’ actually has its roots back to Latin, the word
‘cognisee’ which is to ‘get to know’. With that in mind, cognitive functioning is
therefore critical for day-to-day life, governing our thoughts and actions. We
need cognition to help us understand information about the world around us and
interact safely with our environment, as the sensory information we receive is
vast and complicated: cognition is needed to distil all this information down to
its essentials.
In psychology, the term "cognition" is usually used within an information
processing view of an individual's psychological functions, and such is the same
in cognitive engineering. In the study of social cognition, a branch of social
psychology, the term is used to explain attitudes, attribution, and group
dynamics. However, psychological research within the field of cognitive
science has also suggested an embodied approach to understanding cognition.
Contrary to the traditional computationalism approach, embodied
cognition emphasizes the body's significant role in the acquisition and
development of cognitive capabilities.

Human cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or abstract, as well

as intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and conceptual (like a model of a
language). It encompasses processes such as memory, association, concept
formation, pattern recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem
solving, and mental imagery. Traditionally, emotion was not thought of as a
cognitive process, but now much research is being undertaken to examine
the cognitive psychology of emotion; research is also focused on one's
awareness of one's own strategies and methods of cognition, which is
called metacognition. The concept of cognition has gone through several
revisions through the development of disciplines within psychology.

Psychologists initially understood cognition governing human action as

information processing. This was a movement known as cognitivism in the
1950s, emerging after the Behaviourist movement viewed cognition as a form
of behaviour. Cognitivism approached cognition as a form of computation,
viewing the mind as a machine and consciousness as an executive
function. However; post cognitivism began to emerge in the 1990s as the
development of cognitive science presented theories that highlighted the
necessity of cognitive action as embodied, extended, and producing dynamic
processes in the mind. The development of Cognitive psychology arose as
psychology from different theories, and so began exploring these dynamics
concerning mind and environment, starting a movement from these prior dualist
paradigms that prioritized cognition as systematic computation or exclusively
behaviour.

Beginning of cognition
Studies on cognitive development have also been conducted in children
beginning from the embryonal period to understand when cognition appears and
what environmental attributes stimulate the construction of human thought or
mental processes. Research shows the intentional engagement of foetuses with
the environment, demonstrating cognitive achievements. However, organisms
with simple reflexes cannot cognize the environment alone because the
environment is the cacophony of stimuli (electromagnetic waves, chemical
interactions, and pressure fluctuations). Their sensation is too limited by the
noise to solve the cue problem–the relevant stimulus cannot overcome the noise
magnitude if it passes through the senses (see the binding problem). Foetuses
need external help to stimulate their nervous system in choosing the relevant
sensory stimulus for grasping the perception of objects. The Shared
intentionality approach proposes a plausible explanation of perception
development in this earlier stage. Initially, Michael Tomasello introduced
the psychological construct of Shared intentionality, highlighting its
contribution to cognitive development from birth. This primary interaction
provides unaware collaboration in mother-child dyads for environmental
learning. Later, Igor Val Danilov developed this notion, expanding it to the
intrauterine period and clarifying the neurophysiological processes
underlying Shared intentionality. According to the Shared
intentionality approach, the mother shares the essential sensory stimulus of the
actual cognitive problem with the child. By sharing this stimulus, the mother
provides a template for developing the young organism's nervous system.
Therefore, the subliminal perception in a foetus emerges due to Shared
intentionality with the mother that stimulates cognition in this organism even
before birth.

Common types of tests on human cognition

Serial position
The serial position experiment is meant to test a theory of memory that states
that when information is given in a serial manner, we tend to remember
information at the beginning of the sequence, called the primacy effect, and
information at the end of the sequence, called the recency effect. Consequently,
information given in the middle of the sequence is typically forgotten, or not
recalled as easily. This study predicts that the recency effect is stronger than the
primacy effect, because the information that is most recently learned is still in
working memory when asked to be recalled. Information that is learned first
still has to go through a retrieval process. This experiment focuses on human
memory processes.

Word superiority
The word superiority experiment presents a subject with a word, or a letter by
itself, for a brief period of time, i.e. 40 Ms , and they are then asked to recall the
letter that was in a particular location in the word. In theory, the subject should
be better able to correctly recall the letter when it was presented in a word than
when it was presented in isolation. This experiment focuses on human speech
and language.

Brown–Peterson
In the Brown–Peterson experiment, participants are briefly presented with
a trigram and in one particular version of the experiment, they are then given a
distractor task, asking them to identify whether a sequence of words is in fact
words, or non-words (due to being misspelled, etc.). After the distractor task,
they are asked to recall the trigram from before the distractor task. In theory, the
longer the distractor task, the harder it will be for participants to correctly recall
the trigram. This experiment focuses on human short-term memory.

Memory span
During the memory span experiment, each subject is presented with a sequence
of stimuli of the same kind; words depicting objects, numbers, letters that sound
similar, and letters that sound dissimilar. After being presented with the stimuli,
the subject is asked to recall the sequence of stimuli that they were given in the
exact order in which it was given. In one particular version of the experiment, if
the subject recalled a list correctly, the list length was increased by one for that
type of material, and vice versa if it was recalled incorrectly. The theory is that
people have a memory span of about seven items for numbers, the same for
letters that sound dissimilar and short words. The memory span is projected to
be shorter with letters that sound similar and with longer words.

Visual search
In one version of the visual search experiment, a participant is presented with a
window that displays circles and squares scattered across it. The participant is to
identify whether there is a green circle on the window. In the featured search,
the subject is presented with several trial windows that have blue squares or
circles and one green circle or no green circle in it at all. In
the conjunctive search, the subject is presented with trial windows that have
blue circles or green squares and a present or absent green circle whose
presence the participant is asked to identify. What is expected is that in the
feature searches, reaction time, that is the time it takes for a participant to
identify whether a green circle is present or not, should not change as the
number of distractors increases. Conjunctive searches where the target is absent
should have a longer reaction time than the conjunctive searches where the
target is present. The theory is that in feature searches, it is easy to spot the
target, or if it is absent, because of the difference in colour between the target
and the distractors. In conjunctive searches where the target is absent, reaction
time increases because the subject has to look at each shape to determine
whether it is the target or not because some of the distractors if not all of them,
are the same colour as the target stimuli. Conjunctive searches where the target
is present take less time because if the target is found, the search between each
shape stops.

Knowledge representation
The semantic network of knowledge representation systems have been studied
in various paradigms. One of the oldest paradigms is
the levelling and sharpening of stories as they are repeated from memory
studied by Bartlett. The semantic differential used factor analysis to determine
the main meanings of words, finding that value or "goodness" of words is the
first factor. More controlled experiments examine the categorical relationships
of words in free recall. The hierarchical structure of words has been explicitly
mapped in George Miller's Wordnet. More dynamic models of semantic
networks have been created and tested with neural network experiments based
on computational systems such as latent semantic
analysis (LSA), Bayesian analysis, and multidimensional factor analysis. The
semantics (meaning) of words is studied by all the disciplines of cognitive
science.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development means the development of the ability to think and
reason. Children ages 6 to 12, usually think in concrete ways (concrete
operations). This can include things like how to combine, separate, order, and
transform objects and actions. Adolescence marks the beginning development
of more complex thinking processes (also called formal logical operations).
This time can include abstract thinking and the ability to form their own new
ideas or questions. It can also include the ability to consider many points of
view, compare or debate ideas or opinions, as well as consider the process of
thinking.

THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT-

VYGOTSKY THEORY

Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory postulates that social interaction is

fundamental to cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of
concepts such as culture-specific tools, language and thought interdependence,
and the Zone of Proximal Development. He expands on this by stating that a
child's learning benefitted greatly from being guided by a more knowledgeable
member of the community - such as a parent or teacher.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory also suggested that children internalise and

learn from the beliefs and attitudes that they witness around them. He believed
that culture played an important role in shaping cognitive development and
therefore that this development varied across cultures. Vygotsky also stressed
the importance of language as the root of all learning.

Vygotsky's theory places importance on guiding children's learning through

their interaction with a more knowledgeable other (MKO). The more
knowledgeable other could be anyone with a greater understanding of the task
or concept that the child is trying to complete or learn. Most often, this would
be a parent, caregiver or teacher, but it could also be a peer or mentor.

This theory is not limited to academic or educational learning, it can also be

applied to recreational learning such as playing games or using technology. In
these circumstances, a peer or older child is more likely to be the more
knowledgeable other.

The MKO could also be an electronic tutor, in cases where a program is set up
to guide learning using voice prompts or videos. Vygotsky's theory places
importance on guiding children's learning through their interaction with a more
knowledgeable other (MKO). The more knowledgeable other could be anyone
with a greater understanding of the task or concept that the child is trying to
complete or learn. Most often, this would be a parent, caregiver or teacher, but it
could also be a peer or mentor.

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The concept of the zone of proximal development, also known as the zone of
potential development, is used to explain a child's potential for cognitive
development and ability when they are guided through a task, rather than asked
to do it in isolation.

If a child is presented with a task that is slightly above their ability level, the
zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to their ability to do it with the
assistance of a more knowledgeable person. This theory explains why some
skills present themselves in a more social context when the child is unable to
display them by themselves.

The zone of proximal development can be described as the distance between the
actual developmental level when assessed independently and the level of
potential development when assessed in collaboration with peers or mentors or
under the guidance of a teacher.

Lev Vygotsky's theory highlights the role of culture in a

child's development of cognitive abilities such as reasoning
and communication. According to Vygotsky's theory, in a society adults
foster cognitive development in children by engaging them
in meaningful and challenging activities.
Vygotsky was a key figure in Soviet Psychology who studied children and
developed his own theories about how learning occurs. He believed that
learning happens in three different stages: cognitive, motoric, and sociocultural.
Cognitive learning involves thinking about concepts and ideas; motoric learning
involves doing things; and sociocultural learning involves interacting with
others.
Vygotsky's theory suggests that each stage builds upon the previous ones, and
he believed that adults learn from observing children. He also believed that
children learn through play, and that play is a form of sociocultural learning.
His work has become an integral part of contemporary psychology.
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Information processing theory is the approach to the study of cognitive

development evolved out of the American experimental tradition
in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt the information
processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational
changes in basic components of a child's mind. The theory is based on the idea
that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding
to stimuli. This perspective uses an analogy to consider how the mind works
like a computer. In this way, the mind functions like a biological
computer responsible for analysing information from the environment.
According to the standard information-processing model for mental
development, the mind's machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing
information in, working memory for actively manipulating information,
and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used
in the future.[1] This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise
mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the
information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a
continuous pattern of development, in contrast with cognitive-developmental
theorists such as Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development that thought
development occurs in stages at a time.

The information processing theory simplified is comparing the human brain to

a computer or basic processor. It is theorized that the brain works in a set
sequence, as does a computer. The sequence goes as follows, "receives input,
processes the information, and delivers an output".

This theory suggests that we as humans will process information in a similar

way. Like a computer receives input the mind will receive information through
the senses. If the information is focused on, it will move to the short-term
memory. While in the short-term memory or working memory, the mind is able
to use the information to address its surroundings. The information is then
encoded to the long-term memory, where the information is then stored. The
information can be retrieved when necessary, using the central executive. The
central executive can be understood as the conscious mind. The central
executive can pull information from the long-term memory back to the working
memory for its use. As a computer processes information, this is how it is
thought our minds are processing information. The output that a computer
would deliver can be likened to the mind's output of information through
behaviour or action.

Though information processing can be compared to a computer, there is much

more that needs to be explained. Information Processing has several
components. The major components are information stores, cognitive processes,
and executive cognition.

Information stores are the different places that information can be stored in the
mind. Information is stored briefly in the sensory memory. This information is
stored just long enough for us to move the information to the short-term
memory. George Armitage Miller discovered the short-term memory can only
hold 7 (plus or minus two) things at once. The information here is also stored
for only 15–20 seconds. The information stored in the short-term memory can
be committed to the long-term memory store. There is no limit to the
information stored in the long-term memory. The information stored here can
stay for many years. Long-term memory can be divided between semantic,
episodic, and procedural memories. The semantic memory is made up of facts
or information learned or obtained throughout life. The episodic memory is
made up of personal experiences or real events that have happened in a person's
life. Last the procedural memory is made up of procedures or processes learned
such as riding a bike. Each of these are subcategories of long-term memory.

Cognitive processes are the way humans transfer information among the
different memory stores. Some prominent processes used in transferring
information are coding, retrieval, and perception. Coding is the process of
transferring information from the short to long-term memory by relating the
information of the long-term memory to the item in the short-term memory.
This can be done through memorization techniques. Retrieval is used to bring
information from the long-term memory back to the short-term memory. This
can be achieved through many different recall techniques. Perception is the use
of the information processed to interpret the environment. Another useful
technique advised by George Miller is recoding. Recoding is the process of
regrouping or organizing the information the mind is working with. A
successful method of recoding is chunking. Chunking is used to group together
pieces of information. Each unit of information is considered a chunk, this could
be one or several words. This is commonly used when trying to memorize a
phone number.

Executive cognition is the idea that someone is aware of the way they process
information. They know their strengths and weaknesses. This concept is similar
to metacognition. The conscious mind has control over the processes of the
information processing theory.

PIAGET THEORY-
According to Piaget, every child goes through different periods of development
called stages. In each stage the child has a unique mode of thought that is an
outcome of qualitatively similar knowledge structures.

1. Sensorimotor stage of development (Birth –2 years)

In this stage, an infant’s actions in the world decide how he thinks about it.
Infants use a circular reaction, which means that when they accidentally
generate a new experience by their motor activity, they try to recreate the
occurrence repeatedly by a process of trial and error. They learn new behaviour
patterns through the process of imitation and copy behaviour from things
around them.

2. Preoperational stage (2 years – 7 years)

Once the actions of the child start becoming more organized, he is able to use
symbolic representations to think and can carry out operations mentally.

3. Concrete operational stage (7 years – 12 years)

In this stage, the child’s thinking becomes logical in nature. His thinking is tied
to concrete reality. Children are now able to find solutions for conceptual
problems by manipulating data using their logical concrete–operational skills.

4. Formal operational stage (12 years upwards)

At this stage, the adolescent is now able to think independently and can explore
possible or hypothetical realities. These adolescents solve problems by starting
with possible solutions and then reasoning to arrive at the real solution.

Implications for Education and Development: Piaget's theory has profound

implications for education. It suggests that teaching should be tailored to the
child's developmental stage. For example, educators should recognize that
young children may not understand abstract concepts well, while adolescents
may thrive in a more abstract, conceptual learning environment.
Critiques and Contemporary Relevance: Piaget's theory has been both
influential and critiqued. Some argue that it underestimates the abilities of
children and the role of social and cultural influences. Nonetheless, the theory
has significantly influenced child development research and continues to inform
educational practices and curricula.
Beyond Childhood: While Piaget's theory is often associated with child
development, it's important to note that cognitive development continues
throughout adulthood. The formal operational stage in Piaget's theory reflects
the cognitive abilities of adolescents and adults, suggesting that cognitive
development is a lifelong process.
In conclusion, Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development offers a
comprehensive framework for understanding how individuals, particularly
children, progress through distinct stages of intellectual growth. From the
sensorimotor stage of infancy to the formal operational stage of adolescence and
beyond, this theory has deepened our insight into the cognitive development of
individuals and continues to influence the fields of psychology, education, and
child development.

Piaget’s Conservation Experiment

Jean Piaget's experiments on the conservation of mass, volume, and number are
foundational in the study of cognitive development, highlighting how children's
understanding of these fundamental concepts evolves as they grow. These
experiments form a crucial aspect of Piaget's broader theory of cognitive
development, which outlines the stages through which children pass as they
develop intellectually.
In the conservation of mass experiment, children are typically presented with
two equal quantities of a substance, such as clay or liquid. They observe the
experimenter changing the shape or appearance of one of the quantities, often
spreading it out or moulding it into a different shape. Young children, who are in
the preoperational stage, often believe that the transformed quantity has more or
less "mass" because it appears different. They haven't yet grasped the concept of
conservation, where the amount of substance remains unchanged despite
changes in shape.
Piaget conducted similar experiments for the conservation of volume and
number. These experiments reveal how children's thinking evolves as they
progress through Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Over time, typically
during the concrete operational stage, children come to understand that mass,
volume, and number are conserved properties, regardless of changes in
appearance or arrangement. These experiments have left an indelible mark on
the fields of psychology and education, shaping our understanding of children's
cognitive growth and the need for developmentally appropriate teaching
methods.
LITERATURE REVIEW-

In the study titled "Social Learning and Cognitive Development: Modelling

Effects on Children's Understanding of Conservation" by John P. Murray, the
effects of modelling children's understanding of conservation are examined. In
120 youngsters, the cognitive constraints of social learning were investigated.
Children were classified as conservers, partly conservers, or non-conservers
based on a pre-test of substance conservation. Following that, each kid saw a
videotape of either a conserving, mixed, or non-conserving model performing a
basic Piagetian conservation activity. A post-test was then administered. The
extent of post-modelling behaviour modification was shown to be proportional
to the child's starting developmental level. Children who witnessed a non-
conserving model did not regress in their conservation comprehension. These
findings imply that the favourable impacts of modelling are predictable based
on the initial cognitive level.

The study "Embodied Action Improves Cognition in Children: Evidence from a

Study Based on Piagetian Conservation Tasks" by Lozada and Karro (2016)
investigated whether embodied action (enaction) increases cognitive
understanding in children. The study analysed quantity conservation
conceptualization in children who were active participants in the transformation
process using Piagetian conservation tasks in 6-7-year-olds and compared these
results to those of children who were mere observers of an adult's demonstration
(as is traditionally done). The investigation involved 105 first-graders. Half of
the youngsters were shown conservation chores, while the other half actively
participated in matter transformation. Our findings revealed that active
manipulation of the material helped children recognize quantity invariance in a
greater proportion than simply watching the demonstration. That is, their active
experience allowed them to understand conservation phenomena more easily
than passive observers. Thus, the findings of this study highlight how active
participation promotes cognitive processes in learning environments, fostering
autonomy and agency during childhood.
McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) conducted a study titled "Conservation
Accidents" in which eighty children aged 4 years 2 months to 6 years 3 months
were tested on length and number conservation, both when the transformation
occurred due to direct action by the experimenter and when it occurred
'accidentally' as a by-product of another activity. Fifty children were saved
when the change was "accidental," while only 13 were saved when it was
"intentional." These findings are interpreted as evidence that aspects of the
experimenter's behaviour, particularly his actions toward the task materials, can
influence children’s interpretation of utterances by implying that the
experimenter is thinking about something other than the one specified
linguistically. It has been proposed that standard approaches may undervalue
children’s cognitive capacity.

A study titled "Feedback and Performance of Piagetian Conservation Tasks in a

Developing Country” by Nehal (1983) explored the usefulness of a feedback
strategy (knowledge-of-results) in post-test conservation of substance and
quantity. Individual interviews were used to acquire data from 247 Nigerian
individuals. Statistical evaluations utilizing t-tests revealed that the feedback
individuals performed considerably better (p.05) than the no-feedback controls.
The theoretical implications of the findings, particularly as they relate to
Nigerian cultural practice, were highlighted.

PROCEDURE-
DESIGN OF STUDY-

The design of the study used in the study is “experimental research design” in
which the manipulated or the independent variable is- “task and age”, while the
dependent variable on which the effect is observed is “conservation”. In this
controlled research framework, the choice of "task" and "age" as independent
variables allows for the systematic examination of their potential impact on the
child’s ability to conserve

VARIABLE-

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE- TASK & AGE

Independent variable- The independent variable is the factor that the researcher
manipulates or controls to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is the
cause or treatment variable in an experiment. Researchers deliberately change
the independent variable to see how it influences the dependent variable. The
independent variables are Task & Age.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE- CONSERVATION

Dependent variable - The dependent variable is the outcome or response that

researchers measure to assess the effect of the independent variable. It
represents the result or effect of changes in the independent variable.
Researchers measure the dependent variable to determine whether the
manipulation of the independent variable had an impact. The dependent variable
is Conservation.

PLAN OF STUDY-

In the conservation of mask, first 2 equal balls of clay were shown and the
participants were asked if they were equal. Then the ball on the right-hand side
was flattened and the participants
were asked again in they were equal or not. The answer was recorded

In the conservation of volume, coloured water was poured in two same

transparent glasses from a large container and the participants were asked to
stop the experimenter when the water was equal, Then the water from the right
glass was poured in a taller glass and the participants were asked whether the
water was more in any one glass or were they equal.

in the conservation of number, two rows of five coins were made and the
participants were asked if the number of coins were equal or not. Then the
second row of coins was made longer by putting more space between them and
the question was asked if the number of coins were equal or not.

Hypothesis - The presence of conservation of mass, volume and

number will be higher in the child of Concrete operational stage.

Sample:
The study consisted of two samples Child A & Child B. Child A consisted of 5
years i.e., pre-operational stage and Child B consisted of 8 years i.e., concrete-
operational stage.

Preliminary Information:
Name- Child A
Age- 4
Stage- pre-operational stage
Name- Child B
Age- 8
Stage- Concrete operational stage

Administration:
Informed consent from the guardians of the participants were taken and they
were debriefed about the experiment. Material for the experiment were prepared
before the participant was brought to the laboratory. Seating arrangement was
made in the manner that the participant and the experimenter were facing each
other. Rapport was formed with the participants before the start of the
experiment.
The seating arrangement was made in the manner that the participant and the
experimenter were facing each other. Rapport was formed with the participants
before the commencement of the experiment. At the end of the experiment, the
children were given reinforcements and it was made sure that the participants
were not uncomfortable in any manner and escorted back to the guardian. At the
end of the experiment, it was made sure that the participants were not
uncomfortable in any manner and escorted back to the guardian.
Instructions:
Task Pre-instructions Post-instructions
Number Does this row have Now does this row
more coins or does has more coins or
this row has more does this row has
coins? Or are they more coins? Or are
the same? they the same? Why
do you think this has
more coins?
Mass Can you tell me does Okay so this ball has
this has more more playdough.
playdough or that Let’s try and make
ball has more them same. What
playdough? Or are about now? Does this
they the same? ball have more
playdough? Or are
they the same?

Volume I am going to pour Okay. Now does this

blue water in these cup has more water
cups and you are or this cup has more
going to tell me water? Or are they
when they have the the same? Okay, so
same amount. okay. this cup has more
Does this cup have water, can you tell
more water or does me why?
that cup has more
water? Or are they
 the same?

Precautions:
o Informed consent was taken from the child's parents.
o Good rapport was formed before starting with the tasks.
o No external noise was there to disturb the participants.
o All The coins were of the same size and number in the task of number.
o In the conservation of liquid task transparent glasses were used.
o It was made sure that coloured playdough was used.
o It was made sure that the participant was not uneasy after the experiment.

o RESULT:
TABLE 1: Conservation of mass, volume and number in Child A and
Child B

Child A Child B
Task
Case 1 Case 2 Response Case 1 Case 2 Response
(Conser (Conserv
vation) ation)

Mass Yes No Yes no

Volume Yes No Yes Yes

Number Yes No Yes Yes

Error 0 3 0 1

Error 0 100% 0 33%

Percentage

DISCUSSION-
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the
nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:
  Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up

RESEARCH STUDIES:

Introduction
Cognitive development is a field unified by certain themes and beliefs that are
basic; however, it is a vast and varied field especially in regard to cognitive
development
in early childhood (Bjorklund, 2013). Throughout childhood, cognitive
development
occurs within varies levels. As a result, cognitive development analyzes the
nature of
development in regard to how children increase to develop conscious control
over
cognition and behavior. Also, how cognitive development happens in a social
context
(Bjorklund, 2013). Beyond this brief introduction of cognitive development in
early
childhood, this paper will also compare and contrast the theories of Jean Piaget
and Lev
Vygotsky as well as apply the theories of cognitive development.
Comparing and Contrasting Theories of Piaget and Vygotsky
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky proposed two of the more so critical theories of
cognitive development in regard to how the thinking of children develops and
changes
from infancy to adulthood. The theories beliefs of Piaget and Vygotsky are
similar in
particular ways, but yet are different in other ways. However, Piaget saw
children as
inquiring scientists who had an ability of learning by experimenting with one’s
environment. While, Vygotsky regarded children as apprentices who had the
ability of
learning from other individuals who had more experience (Introduction, 2010).
In
addition, Piaget held the belief that cognitive development occurred in stages
while
Vygotsky would focus on themes providing a differing perspective in regard to
development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015).

Piaget would develop one of the more so purposeful theories of intellectual

development based on stages. Piaget’s theory details four distinctive stages of
cognitive
development. Each stage applies to any possible cognitive activity, and each
stage
represents a specific organization of every thought in a unified mental structure.
The first
stage, the sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to two years of age and during
this stage
children are interacting with their environment. The second stage, the
preoperational
thought occurs between the ages of two to seven. In this stage children gain an
ability of
representing events and objects with a particular symbol, but do not have the
capability of
logical thought. The third stage, the concrete operations is a stage that lasts from
seven
years of age to the age of 11. This stage is the stage where children acquire the
ability of
logical thought and applying such thought to external world representations.
However, this only occurs in the existence of perceptible objects. The last stage
is
formal operations; established by adulthood but begins around 11 years of age.
Children
do not just apply logical thought to things, but to ideas as well. For this reason,
abstract
representations can occur such as the concept of justice (Stages of development,
2010).
Through his beliefs and theory, Piaget held that development occurred before
learning
and that learning was a result of development. As for Vygotsky, his belief in
cognitive
development varied from Piaget’s beliefs and theory. Vygotsky held the belief
that
development and learning were working in a process by way of socialization
and
language. Broderick and Blewitt (2015), “Vygotsky is arguably best known for
his
emphasis on the critical role that the culture or society into which one is born
plays in the transmission of knowledge” (p. 108).
REFERENCES OF RESEARCH STUDIES:
Bjorklund, D. (2013). Cognitive development: An overview. Oxford Handbooks
Online.
Retrieved from http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com

Broderick, P., & Blewitt, P. (2015). The life span: Human development for
helping
professionals (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Introduction. (2010). In curriculum connections psychology: Cognitive

development.
London, UK: Brown Bear Books Ltd. Retrieved from http://library.capella.edu

Stages of development. (2010). In curriculum connections psychology:

Cognitive
development. London, UK: Brown Bear Books Ltd. Retrieved from
http://library.capella.edu

transmission of knowledge”
(p. 108).
transmission of knowledge”
(p. 108).
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and
learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt
previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

The practical aims to investigate the presence of conservation of mass, volume,

and number in children, aligning with Piaget's theoretical framework of
cognitive development. In the study, an experimental research design was
employed to systematically examine the influence of two independent variables:
"task" and "age" on the dependent variable, "conservation." The primary
objective of this design was to assess how variations in tasks and age affected
children's ability to recognize the conservation of fundamental properties of
objects. The experiment was conducted with two children. The age of child A
was 4 years belonging to the pre-operational stage and the age of child B was 8
years belonging to the concrete-operational stage. The conservation tasks
conducted on both children were based on mass, number, and volume. For the
mass, children are presented with two identical quantities of clay. One quantity
was rolled into a compact ball, while the other was flattened into a thin pancake
shape. The children were asked whether the two quantities had the same amount
of clay or if one had more. For Volume, children were shown a tall, narrow
container filled with water. The water was then poured into a shorter, wider
container in full view of the child. The children were asked whether there was
now more or less water than before. For number, children were shown two rows
of coins with an equal number of coins in each row. One row was then spread
out to appear longer. The children were asked if there were now more or fewer
objects in the spread-out row.

After the completion of the experiment, the error percentage of both children
was calculated. The analysis of the responses of the participants helps in
fulfilling the objective of the study. The hypothesis of the practical states that
the conservation of mass, volume, and number will be higher in child B who is
8 years old and is in his concrete-operational stage. The findings proved the
hypothesis because it was revealed that the error percentage of child A (pre-
operational stage) was 100% while the error percentage of child B was 33%
which shows that the conservation was higher in the 8-year-old child as
compared to the 4-year-old child. However, child B who was in his concrete-
operational stage made an error in the conservation of mass which can be
related to various environmental factors that he grew up in that might have
affected his cognition.

Our study offers valuable insights into the cognitive abilities of children at
different developmental stages. However, it is crucial to acknowledge certain
limitations of the study. Firstly, the sample size is limited to just two children,
which restricts the generalizability of the findings. While these two age groups
represent distinct cognitive stages, a larger and more diverse sample would
enhance the study's applicability to a broader population of children. Another
limitation is that the study focuses solely on the presence of conservation in
terms of mass, volume, and number. Cognitive development encompasses a
wide range of domains, and future research could consider expanding the scope
to include other cognitive skills and areas, providing a more comprehensive
understanding of children's cognitive development. The study may not
adequately account for cultural and socioeconomic factors that can influence
cognitive development. The study does not account for external factors, such as
educational experiences and familial influences, which can shape cognitive
development Furthermore, the study primarily aligns with Piaget's theoretical
framework, which, though influential, has faced critiques and evolving
perspectives in the field of developmental psychology. It might be important to
consider incorporating complementary theories and contemporary perspectives
to offer a more holistic view of cognitive development in children.

Studying the presence of conservation in children holds valuable scope within

the field of developmental psychology. By conducting experiments with two
participants, one aged 4 and the other aged 7, we seek to gain insights into how
cognitive abilities related to conservation evolve as children progress through
different developmental stages. It allows for a deeper understanding of how
cognitive development evolves within the critical transitional phases of
childhood. By comparing a 4-year-old child in the pre-operational stage with a
7-year-old child in the concrete-operational stage, we can pinpoint the specific
cognitive advancements that occur during this developmental progression. The
scope of this research extends beyond theoretical considerations, as it delves
into the practical implications of Piaget's theory for understanding cognitive
growth in children. Moreover, it offers a unique opportunity to examine how the
specific cognitive domains of mass, volume, and number conservation manifest
in children at distinct developmental ages. The practical applications of this
research are significant, particularly in the field of education. The findings can
inform educators about the cognitive capabilities and limitations of children at
different stages, enabling them to tailor instructional methods and materials
accordingly. This customization of educational approaches can enhance the
overall learning experience for students, fostering more effective knowledge
acquisition.

CONCLUSION-
In conclusion, this practical study has provided valuable insights into the
presence of conservation of mass, volume, and number in children, firmly
grounded within the theoretical framework of Jean Piaget's cognitive
development theory.
By conducting experiments involving two participants, a 4-year-old and a 7-
year-old, significant findings were uncovered that shed light on the cognitive
abilities related to conservation across different developmental stages. Our
research not only aligns with Piaget's theoretical predictions but also adds a
layer of depth by demonstrating the practical implications of his cognitive
development theory. By comparing the performance of children at distinct
developmental ages, we have discerned critical differences in their conservation
abilities, highlighting the qualitative shifts in thinking as they transition from
the pre-operational to the concrete-operational stage.
Researchers have made amazing contribution to the school of psychology. One
of these was Jean Piaget and his theory on cognitive development. Jean Piaget,
the Swiss biologist, philosopher, psychologist, and educationist, is regarded as
one of the most important child development researchers of modern times.
Moreover, he was interested in knowledge and how children come to know their
world. This was the one of main reason why he proposed this theory.
At the most general level, Piaget's theory was focused on the development of
the intelligence due to the children adaptation to the environment. Moreover,
Piaget identified three basic developmental process of the child. They are
assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Assimilation refers to children
interpret incoming information to make it understandable within them exist
mental structure. Where, accommodation is referred to the way in which
children current understanding changes repose to new experiences
or information. And equilibrium is three step process, where, first children
failure to assimilate new information on the other hand, mental structure
accommodates the new information in a way that creates a more advanced
equilibrium.
Moreover, Piaget's general depiction includes four major stages. The first stage
is sensorimotor stage. This stage is occurred between birth to the 2 years. The
second stage is Preoperational stage, which is between 2 to 7 years. Third stage
is Concrete operational stage is between 7 to 11 years. And the last stage of
Piaget's cognitive development theory is formal operational theory, which is
between 12 years and above.

However, Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a valuable and helpful

guide to teacher in order to use in classrooms. Using this theory in a classroom,
teachers and students can get benefit in several ways. Such as this theory helps
teacher to assess the current level of the students and guild them in order to gain
the new information. As well as, with the help of this theory teachers will be
aware to create an effective lesson plan with cratering different level of
students.

REFRENCES-
Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development
2.1 Cognitive Development: The Theory of Jean Piaget
What Is Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: 4 Stages