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Physics Notes
nd
2 Year
Short Questions

Prepared By: Professor Tahir Aziz

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Chapter 12

Q1. The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electrical field zero or non-
zero in this region? Explain.
Ans:
∆𝑽
As we know that, 𝑬 = − if potential is constant then ∆𝑉 = 0 so,
∆𝑟

0
𝐸=−
∆𝑟
𝐸=0

Hence electric field will be zero if potential is constant.

Q2. Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge. Do electric filed and
the potential increase or decrease?
Ans:
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
As we know electric intensity and potential are given by 𝐸 = and 𝑉 = respectively. As we follow field lines
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
of positive charge “𝑟” increases both 𝐸&𝑉 will decrease.

Q3. How can you identify that which plate of capacitor is positively charged?
Ans:
 With the help of gold leaf electroscope we can identify which plate of capacitor is positively charged.
 By bringing a positive point charge near the plate we can identify the nature of charge on plate.

Q4. Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed between parallel plates
(a) With similar and equal charges. (b) With opposite and equal charges.
Ans:
a) When point charge is placed between two similar and equal charged plates then net force will be zero.
b) When point charge is placed between two opposite and equal charges then force will be doubled.

Q5. Electric lines of force never cross. Why?

Ans:
Electric lines of force never cross each other because “𝐸” has only one direction at a given point. If lines cross “𝐸”
would have more than one direction which is not possible.

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Q6. If a point charge 𝒒 of mass 𝒎 is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines pointing
in the same direction, will it make a rectilinear motion?
Ans:
a) If point charge is placed in the field of single charge then it will follow rectilinear motion.
b) If point charge is placed in non-uniform field between two charges then it will not follow rectilinear motion.

Q7. Is 𝑬 necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is spherical? Assume that
charge is distributed uniformly over the surface.
Ans:

𝐸⃗ will be zero inside a charged rubber balloon. According to Gauss’s law,

1
𝜙= (𝑄)
𝜖𝑜
Since no charge is present inside Gaussian surface so,

𝜙 = 0 ⋯ (i)
∵ 𝜙 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝐴 ⋯ (ii)
⇒ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 0 ∵ 𝐴 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐸⃗ = 0

Q8. Is it true that Gauss’s law states that the total number of lines of forces crossing any closed
surface in the outward direction is proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within surface?
Ans:
Yes, it is true. According to Gauss’s law,
1
𝜙= (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
𝜖𝑜
1
𝜙= (𝑄)
𝜖𝑜

𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑄

𝜙∝𝑄

Q9. Do electrons tend to go to region of high potential or of low potential?

Ans:
Since electrons are negatively charged. So they tend to go to region of high potential from low potential i.e. towards
positive plate.

Chapter 13

Q1. A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the drift
velocity of free electrons by

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i. Increasing the potential difference

ii. Decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire
Ans:
i. By increasing the potential difference across the ends of the conductor, the drift velocity increases.
ii. By decreasing length and temperature the resistance of the wire decreases. So current will increase
hence drift velocity will also increase.

Q2. Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.

Ans:
If bends do not affect the length and area of cross section of wire then resistance will remain same. Otherwise it will
change.

Q3. What are the resistances of the resistors given in the figure A and B? What is the tolerance of
each? Explain what is meant by the tolerance?

Ans:
For fig A:

Resistance = 1500Ω

Tolerance = ±5%

For fig B:

Resistance = 49000Ω

Tolerance = ±10%

Tolerance:

The variation from the marked value of the resistor is called tolerance.

Q4. Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?

Ans:
With the rise of temperature atoms of conductor starts vibrating with greater frequency and amplitude. So the chance
of collision of atoms with free electrons increases. Hence resistance of conductor rises with temperature.

Q5. What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys Ohm’s law?
Ans:

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The temperature of filament of lighted bulb increases with time, so its resistance will also increase. Hence Ohm’s law
is not obeyed.

Q6. Is the filament resistance lower or higher in a 500W, 220V light bulb than in a 100W, 220V bulb?
Ans:
𝑉2
Since 𝑃 =
𝑅

𝑉2
⇒𝑅=
𝑃
i. 𝑃 = 500𝑊, 𝑉 = 220𝑉
(220)2
𝑅1 =
500
𝑅1 = 96.8Ω

ii. 𝑃 = 100𝑊, 𝑉 = 220𝑉

(220)2
𝑅2 =
100
𝑅2 = 484Ω

⇒ So resistance of (500W, 220V) bulb is lower than (100W, 220V) bulb.

Q7. Describe a circuit which will give a continuously varying potential.

Ans:
A rheostat is a circuit which can give continuously varying potential. With the help of this circuit we can get any value
of potential between 0 to V.

Q8. Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when the current drawn
from it is increased?

Ans:
Terminal potential difference is given by 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟. Where "𝐸" is emf of battery and "𝑟" is internal resistance of
battery.

As current "𝐼" increases factor "𝐼𝑟" also increases so terminal potential difference decreases.

Q9. What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to determine an unknown resistance?
Ans:
Wheatstone bridge:
𝑅1 𝑅3
It is a circuit which is used to find unknown resistance, =
𝑅2 𝑅4

Unknown Resistance:

Let 𝑅4 = 𝑋 is unknown.
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑋

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𝑅3 𝑅2
𝑋=
𝑅1

Chapter 14

Q1. A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along the x-axis.
For what orientation of the loop is the flux maximum? For what orientation is the flux minimum?
Ans:
Maximum Flux:
⃗
Flux will be maximum if plane of loop is perpendicular to magnetic field. In this case angle between B
⃗ is 0°
and A
ΦB = BA cos 0°
ΦB = BA (1)
ΦMAX = BA
Minimum Flux:

Flux will be minimum if plane of loop is parallel to magnetic field. In this case angle between ⃗B and ⃗A
is 90°
ΦB = BA cos 90°
ΦB = BA (0)
ΦMIN = 0

Q2. A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, which can be calculated using Ampere’s
law. Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, what can you conclude about the
magnetic field due to stationary charges? What about moving charges?
Ans:
a) There is no magnetic field present due to stationary charges because no current flows due to stationary
charges.
b) Current is produced due to moving charges. Hence magnetic field is set up around moving charges.

Q3. Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current I, if (a) the
length of solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains the same and (b) the number of turns
is doubled, but the length remains the same.
Ans:
a) Since magnetic field inside solenoid is given by,

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B = μo nI
N
∵n=
L
N
B = μo I
L
1
𝐵∝
𝐿
So magnetic field will be halved if length is doubled
b) Since
N
B = μo I
L
𝐵∝ 𝑁

So magnetic field will double if number of turns”N” are doubled.

Q4. At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region wherethere is magnetic
field in the negative z direction. What is the direction of the magnetic force? Will the proton
continue to move in the positive x direction? Explain.
Ans:
As we know that force on moving charge in magnetic field is given by,

Fm = q(v ⃗)
⃗ ×B
So in this case magnetic force is acted along y-axis.

Q5. Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is magnetic field perpendicular to
their velocities. If the charges are deflected in opposite directions, what can you say about them?
Ans:
⃗ × ⃗B).
When charged particle enters in magnetic field then a magnetic force acts which is given by Fm = q(v
Since both charged particles are deflected in opposite direction so they are oppositely charged.

Q6. Suppose that a charge 𝐪 is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity𝐯. Why is there no
work done by the magnetic force that acts on the charge 𝐪.
Ans:
Due to magnetic force charge particle is deflected in circular path. Since work done in closed path is zero so no work
is done by magnetic force.

Q7. If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you say that the
magnetic field in the region is zero?
Ans:
If charged particle moves in straight line through same region of space, then either magnetic field is zero or charged
particle is moving parallel to the field.

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Q8. Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near the
screen?
Ans:
Picture on TV screen is formed due to moving electrons. When a magnet is brought near the screen then a magnetic
force acts on the electrons and they are deflected from their path. Hence the picture on TV screen is distorted.

Q9. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop not tent to
rotate? Explain.
Ans:
If plane of coil is perpendicular to magnetic field then coil will not rotate. Since,
τ = NIBA cosα
∵ α = 90°
τ = NIBA cos90°
τ=0

Q10. How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a given region
of space?
Ans:
As, current loop is placed at different orientation into region where magnetic field is to be determined. If torque is
produced then magnetic field is present otherwise magnetic field is zero.

Q11. How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?
Ans:
To separate isotopes of chemical element we ionize element and pass it through magnetic field. Due to magnetic
force each isotopes will make its own circle. Hence isotopes can be separated.

Q12. What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque
acting upon the coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
Ans:
a) Maximum Torque:
Torque will be maximum if plane of coil is parallel to magnetic field.
τ = NIBA cosα
In this case α = 0°
τ = NIBA cos(0°)
τ = NIBA

b) Minimum Torque:
Torque will be minimum if plane of coil is perpendicular to magnetic field.
τ = NIBA cosα
In this case α = 90°
τ = NIBA cos(90°)
τ=0

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Q14. Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?

Ans:
Ammeter is connected in series to measure current. Its resistance should be very small so that it cannot effect
the current of circuit.

Q15. Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?

Ans:
Voltmeter is connected in parallel to measure voltage. Its resistance should be very high so that no current pass
through it and voltage is measured accurately.

Chapter 15

Q1. Does the induced emf in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced
current depend on the resistance of the circuit?
Ans:
𝚫𝝓
a) As we know that induced emf is given by,𝜺 = −𝑵 ( 𝚫𝒕 ).From this eq. we see that induced emf is independent
of resistance.
𝜺
b) Since induced current is given by, 𝑰 = 𝑹. So current depends upon resistance.

Q2. A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal to the loop is
oriented parallel to the magnetic field. Is an emf induced in the loop? Give a reason for your answer.
Ans:
No emf is induced in square loop. Because when square loop moves through uniform magnetic field then, Δ𝜙 = 0.
So,
𝜟𝝓
𝜺 = −𝑵
𝜟𝒕
(𝟎)
𝜺 = −𝑵
𝜟𝒕
𝜺=𝟎
Q3. A light metallic ring is released from above into a vertical bar magnet.Viewed
from above, does the current flow clockwise or anticlockwise in the ring?
Ans:
Due to rate of change of magnetic flux, current flows in clockwise direction. In this case the
magnetic field opposes external magnetic field.

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Q4. What is the direction of the current through resistor 𝑹 in fig? When switch is
(a) closed
(b) opened.
Ans:
a) When switch is closed, then current flows from left to right through resistance 𝑅.
b) When switch is opened, then direction of current through resistance is reversed and current flows from right to
left.
c)
Q5. Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
Ans:
No, induced emf does not always act to decrease magnetic flux. It opposes the cause. If magnetic flux decreases
it tends to increase it and vice versa.

Q6. When the switch in the circuit is closed a current is established in the coil
and the metal ring jumps upward. Why? Describe what would happen to the
ring if the battery polarity were reversed.
Ans:
When the switch is closed, due to rate of change of flux emf is induced in metallic ring.
According to Lenz’s Law induced emf opposes cause. Hence metallic ring jumps upwards.
If polarity of battery is reversed then metallic rings will jump upwards again.

Q7. The fig shows a coil of wire in the xy plane with a magnetic field directed
along the y-axis. Around which of the three coordinate axis should the coil be
rotated in order to generate emf and a current in the coil?
Ans:
If coil is rotated about x-axis then due to rate of change of magnetic flux is produced in the coil.

Q8. How would you position a flat loop of wire in a changing magnetic field so
that there’s no emf induced in the loop?
Ans:
If plane of coil is placed parallel to changing magnetic field then 𝚫𝝓 = 𝟎,so induced emf will be zero.
𝚫𝝓
∵ 𝜺 = −𝑵
𝚫𝒕
𝒊𝒇 𝚫𝝓 = 𝟎
(𝟎)
𝜺 = −𝑵
𝚫𝒕
𝜺=𝟎

Q9. In a certain region the earth’s magnetic field point vertically down. When a plane flies due north,
which wingtip is positively charged?
Ans:
⃗ ).
Magnetic force acted upon moving charges in magnetic field is given by, 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵

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When plane flies due north in a region where magnetic field point vertically downward, then due to magnetic force
left wingtip will be positively charged.

𝚫𝝓
Q10. Show that 𝜺 and 𝚫𝒕
have the same units.

Ans:
𝑾 𝑱
∵𝜺= = ⋯ (𝐢)
𝒒 𝑪
𝚫𝝓 𝑩𝑨 𝑵𝑨−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 𝑵𝒎 𝑱
∵ = = = = ⋯ (𝐢𝐢)
𝚫𝒕 𝚫𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑨𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑪
𝚫𝝓
From (𝒊)&(𝑖𝑖)we see that 𝜺 and have same units.
𝚫𝒕

Q11. When an electric motor, such as an electric bill, is being used, does it also act as a generator?
If so what is the consequence of this?
Ans:
Yes an electric motor can also act as a generator.
Consequences:
When armature coil rotates in magnetic field then due to rate of change of magnetic flux emf is induced in the
coil.

Q12. Can a D.C motor be turned into a D.C generator? What changes are required to be done?
Ans:
Yes D.C motor can be turned into a D.C generator.
 Replace applied input circuit with output circuit.
 Some mechanical arrangement is required to rotate the coil.

Q13. Is it possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through the
loop and still not have an induced emf in the loop?
Ans:
If area of coil and magnetic field are changed in such a way that flux remains constant then no emf is induced in the
coil.
This is because ∆𝜙 = 0
So,
Δ𝜙
𝜀 = −𝑁
Δ𝑡
𝜀=0

Q14. Can an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with the output from the generator
being used to operate the motor?
Ans:
No, it is not possible. It is against the law of conservation of energy. If it happens then system becomes self-
perpetuating which is not possible.

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Q15. A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in a horizontal plane. The oscillations are strongly
damped when a metal plate is paced under the magnet. Explain why this occurs?
Ans:
When an oscillating coil is placed in magnetic field then induced emf is produced. According to Lenz’s Law induced
emf is always opposite to cause which produce it. So oscillations are strongly damped.

Q16. Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. What steps would you take to determine the
turn ratio?
Ans:
In order to determine the turn ratio, we do the following steps:
 First of all we check the continuity of the coil by using Ohm’s meter and separate the coils as primary and
secondary coils.
 Now connect an alternating voltage source of known value (𝑉𝑝 ) across primary and measures the output
voltage (𝑉𝑠 ) across the secondary using voltmeter.
 By knowing the values of 𝑉𝑝 and 𝑉𝑠 the turn ratio of transformer can be determined by using the relation
𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
 = .
𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝

Q17.
a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?
b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from primary to secondary. How is, then the
power transferred?
Ans:
(a) No, a step up transformer cannot increase the power level. It can only increase the level of alternating voltage.
(b) In a transformer power is transferred from primary to secondary by mean of changing magnetic flux.

Q18. When the primary of a transformer is connected to A.C mains the current in it.
a) Is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but
b) Increases when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
Ans:
(a) If the secondary circuit is open, no power is used in it. Therefore, the current in the primary remains very small
to keep the power level very small in primary.
(b) If the secondary circuit is closed, then power is used in it. Therefore the current in the primary increases to
deliver the power to the secondary.

Chapter 16

Q1. A sinusoidal current has rms value of 10A. What is the maximum or peak value?

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Ans:
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 10𝐴

𝐼0 =?
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2
𝐼𝑜 = 10 × √2
𝐼𝑜 = 14.14𝐴

Q2. Name the device that (a) Permits flow of direct current but opposes the flow of alternating
current. (b) Permits flow of alternating current but opposes the flow of direct current.
Ans:
a) An inductor is a device which permits the flow of D.C but opposes the flow of A.C.
b) A capacitor is a device which permits the flow of A.C but opposes the flow of D.C.

Q3. How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when
connected to a 50Hz source?
Ans:
Since frequency of A.C is 50Hz, it means it has 50 positive peaks and 50 negative peaks. So incandescent lamp will
reach maximum brilliance 100 times per second.

Q4. A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D.C source arranged in series. The
switch is closed and after an interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the switch
contacts?
Ans:
When switch is reopened then due to back emf current through circuit is increased and spark is
produced at switch contact.

Q5. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) An inductor (b) A capacitor?
Ans:
a) As we know that reactance of inductor is given by,
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝑓
So doubling the frequency will double the reactance of the inductor.
b) As we know that reactance of capacitor is given by,
1
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑋𝐶 ∝ 𝑓
So doubling the frequency will half the reactance of the capacitor.

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Q6. In an R-L circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate your answer by a vector
diagram.
Ans:
In R-L circuit voltage (Vrms) leads current by angle “θ” as shown in fig.
𝑋 𝜔𝐿
Where 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐿 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅 𝑅

Q7. A choke coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an A.C circuit causes lamp to become dim.
Why is it so? A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be adjusted until the lamp
glows with normal brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?
Ans:
Initially the impedance of the circuit is large due to high reactance of the coil, so the current becomes small and hence
the lamp becomes dim.

Role of a variable Capacitor:

When a variable capacitor is connected in series with the lamp, then its reactance opposes the reactance of
the inductor. We adjust the capacitance so that its reactance becomes equal to the reactance of the inductor, then
both reactances cancel each other and hence the impedance of the circuit decreases to minimum. As a result the
current increases to maximum and the lamp glows with normal brilliance.

Q8. Explain the conditions under which electromagnetic wave are produced from a source?
Ans:
The electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerating charge in transmitting antenna. When an alternating voltage
source is connected with an antenna, the electrons within the wire start accelerating. These accelerating electron
produce a changing electric flux in the surrounding space. As a result, the changing magnetic flux is produced in its
surrounding space which again produces the changing electric flux in the next surrounding region and so on. Thus
each field generates the other. Such pattern of changing electric and magnetic fields are known as electromagnetic
waves.

Q9. How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio set?
Ans:
Radio set consists of an L-C resonance circuit. We adjust the value of capacitor so that frequency of resonance circuit
matches with particular radio station to be picked. So L-C circuit give large response to that radio wave.

Q10. What is meant by A.M and F.M?

Ans:
A.M:

A.M stands for amplitude modulation, in this type of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is increased
or diminished as the amplitude of the superposing modulating signal increases and decreases. The A.M transmission
frequencies range from 540kHz to 1600kHz.

F.M:

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F.M stands for frequency modulation, in this type of modulation the frequency of the carrier wave is increased
or diminished as the modulating signal amplitude increases or decreases but the carrier wave amplitude remains
constant. It ranges between 88MHz to 108MHz.

Chapter 17
Q1. Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids?
Ans:
Crystalline Solid:

Such solids in which atoms or molecules are arranged in regular manner are called crystalline solid e.g
sodium chloride, copper, iron etc.

Amorphous Solid:

Solids which have no regular arrangement of their atoms or molecules are called amorphous solid e.g.
ordinary glass, glue etc.

Polymeric Solid:

The solids which have structures intermediate between order and disorder are called polymers. e.g plastic, rubber and
synthetic rubber etc.

Q2. Define stress and strain. What are their units? Differentiate between tensile, compressional and
shear modes of stress and strain.
Ans:
Stress:

The Force per unit area applied to produce deformation is called stress .Mathematically,
𝑭
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑨
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑁/𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎

(i)Tensile Stress:

Force per unit area applied to produce deformation in the length of solid is called tensile stress.

(ii)Volume/Compressional Stress:

Force per unit area applied to produce deformation in the volume of solid is called volume stress.

(iii)Shear Stress:

Force per unit area applied to produce deformation in the shape of solid is called shear stress.

Strain:

Fractional change in length, volume, shape of solid due to applied stress is called strain.

(i)Tensile Strain:

The strain produced due to tensile stress is called tensile strain

∆𝑙
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙

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(ii)Volumetric Strain:

The strain produced due to volume stress is called volumetric strain

∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉

(iii)Shear Strain:

The strain produced due to shear stress is called Shear Strain.

∆𝑎
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑎
Q3. Define Modulus of Elasticity? Show the units of modulus elasticity and stress are same? Also
discuss its three kinds.
Ans:
Modulus of Elasticity:

It is defined as the ratio of stress and strain

Mathematically,
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦=
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

Since strain has no units, so modulus of elasticity and stress has same units.

Types:

(i)Young’s Modulus:

The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is called Young’s Modulus

𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠=
𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝑭⁄
𝑌=∆𝒍 𝑨
⁄𝒍

(ii)Bulk Modulus:

It is the ratio of volume stress and volume strain is called Bulk Modulus
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘’𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝑭⁄
𝐾=∆𝑽 𝑨
⁄𝑽

(iii)Shear Modulus:

It is the ratio of shear stress and shear strain is called shear modulus.
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠=
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝑭⁄
𝑨
𝐺=
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽

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Q4. Draw Stress-strain curve for ductile material,and define terms Elastic limit, Yield material
Ultimate tensile stress.
Ans:
Elastic limit:

The greatest stress that a material can endure without changing its shape
permanently is called elastic limit.

Yield point:

The point on the stress-strain curve beyond which if stressed is increased,

permanent deformation occurs in the material is called yield point.

Ultimate tensile stress:

It is the maximum stress that a material can with stand plastic deformation is called ultimate tensile stress. It
corresponds to point ‘C’ on curve.

Q5. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from the force extension graph?
Ans:
Strain Energy:

Energy stored in deformed materials in the form of Potential Energy, when stress is applied is called strain
energy.

Area under force-extension graph gives strain energy.

Q6. Describe the of energy bands in solids. Explain the difference amongst electrical behavior of
conductors, insulators and semi-conductors in terms of energy band theory.
Ans:
Each isolated atom of solid has distinct energy levels. When “N” such atoms are brought close together to form solid,
then each energy level is split into “N” sub-energy levels. Those sub energy levels are so closely spaced that we
cannot distinguish them and forms continuous energy band.

Conductors:

In conductors valence and conduction bands largely overlap each

other. There is no physical distinction between the two bands.

Insulators:

In insulators there’s a large energy gap between the valence and conduction
bands.

Semi-conductors:

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In semi-conductors a very narrow forbidden energy gap is present between

the valence and conduction bands.

Q7. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors how would you obtain n-type and
p-type material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic diagram.
Ans:
Intrinsic semi-conductor:

Semi-conductor in its extremely pure form is called intrinsic semi-conductor.e.g. pure silicon or pure
germanium etc.

Extrinsic semi-conductor:

Those semi-conductors to which some impurities are added to increase their conductivity are called extrinsic
semi-conductor.

N-type:

If we add pentavalent impurity (From Group V e.g. P) to pure semiconductor, then N-type
semiconductor is formed. In this case impurity atom forms covalent bond with four neighboring silicon atoms
but fifth electrons becomes free.

P-type:

If we add trivalent impurity (From Group III e.g. Al) to pure semiconductor, then P-type semiconductor
is formed. In this case impurity atom has three electrons in valence shell. It can form covalent bond with three
Si atoms, but Al atom has no electron to make covalent bond with fourth Siatom. So a deficiency of electron or
hole is developed.

Q8. Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semi-
conductor element.
Ans:
In semi-conductors, there are two kinds of charge carriers, electrons and holes. When
a battery is connected to a semi-conductor, it establishes an electric field due to
which a directed flow of electrons and holes takes place. Thus, the total current
flowing through the semi-conductor is due to flow of electrons and holes.

i.e. 𝐼𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 + 𝐼𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

Q9. Write a note in superconductor?

Ans:
Superconductor:

Superconductor are those conductors whose resistance reduces to zero below the certain temperature
called “Critical temperature”.

e.g. Helium is superconductor at 4.2 and Aluminum is superconductor at 1.2K

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Q10. What are Para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each
Ans:
Paramagnetic Substances:

Substances in which magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin motion of electrons support each other
and the atom behaves like a tiny magnet called Paramagnetic Substances.

e.g. Aluminum, Platinum, Manganese etc.

Diamagnetic Substances:

Substances in which magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin motion of electrons cancel each other effect
are called Diamagnetic Substances. e.g. copper, bismuth etc.

Ferromagnetic substances:

Substances in which magnetic fields of 1012to1016 atoms are aligned in small regions called domains, are
called Ferromagnetic substances. e.g Fe, Co, Ni etc.

Q11. What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a Transformer?
Ans:
Hysteresis loss:

Energy lost in magnetizing and demagnetizing a magnetic material when external field is applied is called
“Hysteresis loss”.

Area of hysteresis loop is measure of hysteresis loss. Greater the area, greater will be hysteresis loss.

A core of soft iron is used in the construction of transformer because it has less hysteresis loss.

Chapter 18

Q1. How does motion of an electron in an n-type substance differ from motion of holes in a p-type
substance?
Ans:
When external source of voltage is connected with p-n junction, then electrons and holes move in opposite
direction. However the motion of electrons in n-type substance is much faster than motion of holes in p-type
substance.

Q2. What is the net charge on n-type or a p-type substance?

Ans:
There is no net charge on n-type or a p-type substance because a neutral impurity is added to neutral pure
semiconductor to form n-type or p-type substance.

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Q3. The anode of a diode is 0.2V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward biased?
Ans:
Yes diode will be forward biased but it will not conduct because 0.2V is less than potential barrier in the depletion
region of diode.

Q4. Why charge carriers are not present in the depletion region?
Ans:
In depletion region there exists a potential difference between opposite charges called potential barrier. When an
electron or hole enters the depletion region it experience electric force and goes out of depletion region.

Q5. What is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of a diode on the width of depletion region?
Ans:
The width of depletion region decreases in case of forward biasing. In case of reverse biasing, the width of depletion
region increases.

Q6. Why ordinary silicon diode does not emit light?

Ans:
In ordinary silicon diode when electrons combine with holes in forward biasing then emitted photon is not in visible
range. So we can’t see any light.

Q7. Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?

Ans:
Photo diode is operated in reverse biased state because in the absence of any light very small reverse current flows
through the photo diode. When light falls on it then electron- hole pairs are generated and reverse current suddenly
increases so it can detect light.

Q8. Why is the base current in a transistor very small?

Ans:
Base is very thin region and the impurity concentration of base is very small as compared to emitter and collector in
transistor, so base current is very small.

Q9. What is the biasing requirement of the junction of transistor for its normal operation? Explain
how these requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?

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Ans:
For normal operation of transistor base-emitter junction must be forward biased and collector –base junction should be
reverse biased. In common emitter amplifier we ground emitter and then forward biased emitter-base junction and
reverse biased collector-base junction.

Q10. What is the principle of virtual ground?

Ans:
According to Principle of virtual ground if one of the input of OP-amplifier is grounded the other terminal will be at
virtual ground. i.e. if 𝑉− = 0, then 𝑉+ = 0.

Chapter 20
Q1. Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumption. Do any of these
assumptions contradict classical physics?
Ans:
Bohr’s first postulate contradicts the classical physics. According to Bohr’s theory electron revolving around the
nucleus in an orbit do not radiate energy. But according to classical theory revolving electron must radiate energy.

Q2. What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how line spectrum can be used for the
identification of elements?
Ans:
A spectrum which consists of only specific wavelengths is called line spectrum. Each element has its own line
spectrum with some regularities. So elements can be classified on the basis of their line spectrums.

Q3. Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom absorb a photon of energy 13.6eV or
greater than 13.6 eV?
Ans:
Yes, it can absorb photon of energy 13.6 eV or greater than 13.6 eV. If electron absorbs photon of 13.6 eV then H-
atom get ionized, but K.E of electron is zero. If the energy of absorbed photon is greater than 13.6 eV, then additional
energy becomes K.E of electron.

Q4. How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many lines while hydrogen contains only one
electron?
Ans:
Electron of hydrogen atom absorbs photon of suitable energy and get excited. But during de-excitation electron
returns to ground state following different energy states. So spectrum of hydrogen contains so many lines.

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Q5. Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photo of light?

Ans:
Yes, energy is conserved when an atom emits a photon of light. Sum of energies of emitted photons is equal to total
energy of absorbed photons.

Total Energy of absorbed photons = Total Energy of emitted photons.

Q6. Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is capable
of absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to other wavelengths?
Ans:
During excitation atoms absorb certain amount of energy which is equal to the energy difference between two energy
states. So on de-excitation they release same wavelengths..

Q7. What do we mean when say that the atom is excited?

Ans:
When electrons of atoms absorb photon whose energy is equal to energy difference between ground state and
excited state then electrons are shifted to excited state. So we say that atoms are excited.

Q8. Can x-rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized?

Ans:
X-rays are electromagnetic waves. So they possess all the properties of wave i.e. they can be reflected, refracted,
diffracted and polarized.

Q9. What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?

Ans:
Following are some advantages of laser light over ordinary light.

(i) Laser light is coherent but ordinary light is not.

(ii) Laser light is monochromatic but ordinary light consist of all wavelengths.

(iii) Laser light can travel without spreading so it can be used to destroy cancer cells and welding detached retina.

Q10. Explain why laser action could not occur without population between atomic levels?
Ans:
Laser action takes place by stimulated emission of radiation. Population inversion takes place when meta stable state
contains greater number of electrons than ground state. On de-excitation intense laser beam is produced.

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Chapter 20 (Within Chapter)

X-rays:
X-rays are high energy electromagnetic radiations. When high energy electron interacts with metal anode then
x-rays are produced due to inner shell transition.

Properties of X-rays:
 X-rays travel in straight lines with speed of light.
 X-rays can ionize the gases through which they pass.
 X-rays can damage a photographic film.
 X-rays can damage living cells (tissues).

Uses of X-rays:

 X-rays are used to destroy cancer cells within the body.

 X-rays are used to detect small tumors.
 X-rays are used to detect arms and explosive materials.
 X-rays are used for retouching and alterations of the paintings etc.

Spontaneous Emission:
When electron in ground state “E1” of atom absorbs photon of energy hf= E2 – E1, then it jumps to excited
state “E2”. If electron comes back to ground state after some time by emitting a photon of energy hf= E2 – E1, then it is
called spontaneous emission.

Induced emission:
When electron is at excited state “E2” and we send a photon of energy hf= E2 – E1.The excited electron
suddenly comes to ground state by emitting a photon of energy hf= E2 – E1 along incident photon. This is called
induced emission.

Chapter 21
Q1. What are isotopes? What do they have in common and what are their differences?
Ans:
Atoms of same element, which have same atomic numbers but different mass numbers are called isotopes. Isotopes
have same chemical properties but different physical properties.

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Q2. Why are heavy nuclei unstable?

Ans:
Heavy nuclei are unstable because their binding energy per nucleon is less than iron, the most stable element in the
periodic table. So they produce fission reaction.

Q3. Is a nucleus has a half-life of 1 year does this mean that it will be completely decayed after 2
year? Explain.
Ans:
No, it is not possible. This is because infinite time is required for complete decay. If “𝑁0 ” are total atoms then after 2
𝑁
years there will be 0 atoms.
4

Q4. What fraction of a radioactive sample decays after two half-lives have elapsed?
Ans:
Let the total number of atoms in the sample = 𝑁0
𝑁0
After first half life the no. of decay atoms =
2

𝑁0
After first half life the no. of decay atoms =
4

𝑁0 𝑁0 3𝑁0
Total decay atoms after two half-lives = + =
2 4 4

3
Fraction of decay atoms =
4

Q5. The radioactive element 𝟐𝟐𝟔 3

𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 has a half-life of 1.6×10 years. Since the Earth is about 5 billion
years old, how can you explain why we still find this element in nature?
Ans:
226
For complete decay infinite time is required. As 5 billion is limited time, so that’s why 88𝑅𝑎 is still present in nature.

Q6. Describe with a brief account of interaction of various types of radiations with matter.
Ans:
The main interaction of radiations with matter is ionization. α-particles are massive and produce intense ionization
along its straight path. The ionization ability of β-particles is 100 times less than α-particles. Since γ-rays are
uncharged so they cause little ionization.

Q7. Explain how α and β particles may ionize an atom without directly hitting the electrons? What is
difference in the action of the two particles for producing ionization?
Ans:
Both particles can ionize atom by exerting electrostatic force on electrons. α-particles are positively charged so they
exert electrostatic force of attraction. Β-particles being negatively charged exert electrostatic repulsion.

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Q8. A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. Why?

Ans:
A particle which produce more ionization is less penetrating because energy of particle is lost continuously during
ionization and it comes almost to rest. For example α-particles produce intense ionization but their penetration is less
than β-particles.

Q9. What information is revealed by the length and shape of the tracks of an
incident in Wilson cloud chamber?
Ans:
In Wilson cloud chamber, the length and shape of tracks describe the nature and penetrating
power of particles. α-particles leave thick, straight and continuous tracks. Β-particles form thin and
discontinuous tracks. While γ-rays leave no definite track.

Q10. Why must a Geiger Muller tube for detecting α-particles have a very thin end
window?Why does a Geiger Muller tube for detecting γ-rays not need a window at all?
Ans:
In Geiger Muller counter one incident particle produce one ionization. Since the ionization power of α-particles is high
so we use thin end window to reduce the energy of α-particles. If window is thick then α-particles may not pass
through it. As the ionization power of γ-rays is high so it does not require any glass window.

Q11. Describe the principle of operation of a solid state detector of ionizing radiation in terms of
generation and detection of charge carriers.
Ans:
In solid state detector ionizing radiation enters in depletion region through thin n-type region. It produce electron-hole
pair which move towards respective sides. Hence a voltage pulse is generated which is amplified and registered by
scalar unit.

Q12. What do we mean by the term critical mass?

Ans:
Such mass of uranium in which one neutron out of all the neutrons produced in fission reaction can produce further
fission is called critical mass.

Q13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power compared to the use of fossil
fuel generated power.
Ans:

Nuclear Power Fossil Fuel Power

Advantages: Advantages:
I. It produces a large amount of energy. I. It produces small amount of energy.
II. Its waste product can be reprocessed. II. Its waste product cannot be used.

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III. The cost of electricity is small. III. The cost of electricity is very high.

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
I. Its fuel is not easily available in market. I. Its fuel is easily available in market.
II. It is very dangerous. II. It is not dangerous.
III. Its waste product are dangerous to handle. III. Its waste product are not dangerous.

Q14. What factors make a fusion reaction difficult to achieve?

Ans:
To start fusion reaction large amount of energy and millions degree Celsius temperature is required. Since these
conditions are difficult to achieve, so we can’t be able to achieve controlled fusion reaction yet.

Q15. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fission power from the point of safety, pollution
and resources.
Ans:

Advantages Disadvantages
I. Fission reaction is easier to start than fusion I. It is harmful because of radioactive elements.
reaction. II. It produces less energy per nucleon as
II. Fission reaction is controllable. compared to nuclear fission reaction.
III. Fission reaction can produce electricity. III. The energy produced is costly.

Q16. What do you understand by “background radiation”? State two sources of this radiation.
Ans:
Background radiations are low intensity radiation present in the environment. The sources of these radiations are
natural occurring radioactive elements present in rocks, soil, water, air and vegetation.

Q17. If someone accidently swallows α-source and a β -source which would be the more dangerous
to him? Explain why?
Ans:
Since ionizing power of α-particles is greater than β-particles. So α-source will be more dangerous and will damage
tissues.

Q18. Which radiation dose would deposit more energy to the body (a) 10 mGy to the hand, or (b) 1
mGy does to the entire body.
Ans:
Since, Absorbed dose is defined as the energy absorbed per unit mass.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
i.e. 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 𝐷 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

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Since the mass of the whole body is very large as compared to the mass of hand. Therefore, the entire body absorbs
greater energy than the hand. It means that 1mGy dose given to the entire body deposits more energy than 10 mGy
given to hand.

Q19. What is a radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicine, agriculture and
industry.
Ans:
A radioactive isotope acts as an indicator or tracer that makes it possible to follow the course of a chemical or
biological process. The technique is to substitute radioactive atoms of the same kind in a substance and then to follow
the “tagged” atoms with the help of radiation detector in the process.

Application:

o In medical:
Tracers are used in medicine to detect malignant tumors.
o In agriculture:
Tracers are used in agriculture to study the uptake of a fertilizer by a plant.
o In industry:
Tracers are used in industry to detect the faults or leaks in underground pipes system.

Q20. How can radioactivity help in the treatment of cancer?

Ans:
It was observed that the cancerous cells absorb more radiation and can be destroyed by ionizing radiations e.g. 𝛾-rays
from cobalt-60 is often used in the treatment of cancer. Radioactive Iodine-131 is used to treat cancer of the thyroid
gland Phosphorus-32 or strontium-90 are used for skin cancers.

Chapter 21 (Within Chapter)

Atomic mass unit(µ):

Atomic mass unit(µ) is defined as exactly 1⁄12 𝑡ℎ the mass of carbon12 atom i.e. 1μ = 1.6606 × 10−27 kg.

Atomic Number:
The number of protons inside a nucleus is called the atomic number or the charge number of the atom. It is denoted
by Z.

Mass Number:
The combined number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is known as its number and is denoted by A.

Number of Neutrons:
The number of neutrons N present in a nucleus is given by, N=(A-Z).

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General Notation of Atom: 𝑨𝒁𝑿

Isotopes:
Isotopes are such nuclei of an element that have the same charge number Z, but have different mass number A, that
is in the nuclei of such an elements the number of protons are the same, but the number of neutrons are different.

⇒The chemical properties of all the isotopes of an element are alike but the physical properties differ.

Mass Defect:
When nucleons come close together to form nucleus then mass of the nucleus becomes less than total mass of
nucleons. This missing mass is called mass defect. Mathematically,

∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠

Binding Energy:
Energy released by nucleus when nucleons come close to form nucleus is called binding energy. If ∆𝑚 is mass defect
then binding energy is given by,

𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2

Mass Defect per Nucleon:

It is the ratio of mass defect "∆𝑚" and mass number “A” then mass defect per nucleon is given by,

∆𝑚 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠

=
𝐴 𝐴
Binding Energy per Nucleon:
It is the ratio of binding energy and mass number ‘A’.

∆𝑚𝑐 2 (𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 )𝑐 2

=
𝐴 𝐴

Radioactivity:
Elements having atomic number greater than 82 emit invisible radiating called radioactive rays. This phenomenon is
called radioactivity.

Half Life:
The half life 𝑇1⁄ of a radioactive element is that period in which half of the atoms decay.
2

Decaying Constant:
Fraction of decaying atoms per unit time is called decay constant. Mathematically,

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Δ𝑁⁄
𝜆=− 𝑁
Δ𝑡
Its unit is s-1

Fluorescence:
Fluorescence is the property of absorbing high energy invisible radiation and re-emitting radiations of low energy in
the visible region of electromagnetism.

Dead Time:
It is the time during which incoming particles cannot be counted after the entering of first particle to be counted. In
Geiger Muller counter dead time is 10-4sec.

Surface Barrier type Detector:

It is a specially designed p-n junction whose top and bottom surfaces are coated with thin layer of gold to make good
conducting contact with external circuit e.g solid state detector.

Necessary conditions for Nuclear Reactions:

For nuclear reactions to take place, certain conditions must be fulfilled:

1. Before and after any nuclear reaction the number of protons and neutrons must remain same.
2. A nuclear reaction can take place only when the total energy of the reactants including the rest mass
energy is equal to the total energy of the products.

Fission Reaction:
Such a reaction in which a heavy nucleus like uranium splits up into two nuclei of equal size along with emission of
energy during reaction is called fission reaction.

Types of Reactors:
There are two types of nuclear reactors:

1. Thermal Reactors:
 U-235 is used in thermal reactors
 The neutrons must be slowed down to “thermal energies”, to produce further fission.
2. Fast Reactors:
 U-238 is used in fast reactors.
 The core of the fast reactor consists of a mixtureof plutonium and uranium dioxide.

Fusion Reaction:
Such a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei merge to form a heavy nucleus along with the emission of energy is
called fusion reaction.

MCQ’s: Heat energy coming from the sun is due to fusion reaction.

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Becquerel (Bq):
Strength of radiation source is measured in Becquerel. It is defined as, “Time rate of disintegration.” One Becquerel is
equal to one disintegration per second.

Curie (Ci):
It is large unit of radiation.

1𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 × 1010

Absorbed dose (D):

It is defined as, “Radiant energy ‘E’ absorbed per unit mass ‘m’ of absorbing bod.” Mathematically,
𝐸
𝐷=
𝑚
S.I unit: Gray (Gy)
𝐽
1𝐺𝑦 = 1 ⁄𝑘𝑔 (New unit)

1𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.01𝐺𝑦 (Old unit)

Equivalent dose (De):

The equivalent dose De of any absorbed radiation is defined as the product of absorbed dose and RBE of the kind of
radiation being absorbed.

𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷 × 𝑅𝐵𝐸

S.I unit: Sievert (Sv)

1𝑆𝑣 = 1𝐺𝑦 × 𝑅𝐵𝐸 (New unit)

1𝑟𝑒𝑚 = 0.01 𝑆𝑣 (Old unit)

Prof. Tahir Aziz 30 ムシュタバ