SEMEN

and
SEMINAL STAIN
 SEMEN
A whitish fluid of the
male reproductive tract
consisting of spermatozoa
suspended in secretion of
accessory glad.

Volume is about1.5 to 3.5

ml per ejaculate.

No. of Spermatozoa= 400 to

500M of spermatozoa.
 Parts of the Semen
a. Seminal fluid – has a character alkaline odor, it is viscid,
gelatinous and sticky, becomes more liquid in character when
exposed to air for one and half-hour due to enzymatic reaction.
Slightly alkaline in reaction. The fluid is essential for spermatozoa
survival and their successful journey through the female
reproductive tract.
b. Formed cellular elements which includes;
1. spermatozoa ,or sperm cells – small object with a pear- shaped
head behind is a short neck and then a tail of about ten times as
long as the head.
2. Epithelial cells
3. Crystal of choline and lecithin
Cases where in ejaculation has no spermatozoa

1. Aspermia - a condition wherein males have no spermatozoa at all in

their seminal fluid.

2. Oligospermia - a condition whereby males have abnormally low sperm

counts or with few spermatozoa.
Where semen can be found
1. As Fresh - a. Vaginal contents of the victim
b. Rectal contents of the victim

2. As Wet or Dried Condition - a. Hair

b. skin around the genitals

3. As Dry Stains – a. underclothing

b. Bed clothing
Collection, preservation, packaging and transit semen
stained specimens

1. Seizure of wearing apparel must be done as soon as

possible.
2. In packing of wearing apparel there should be no
friction between the apparel and the stain .
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit .
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test
tube and corked.
5. Specimen must be thorough dried before packing.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube .
Examination of semen and seminal stain

a. Physical Examination
b. Chemical Examination
• Florence test
• Barberio’s test
• Acid phosphatase Test
c. Microscopic Examination
d. Biological Examination
 a. Physical Examination
1. Semen when dry gives stiff, starchy feeling to the cloth and
produces slight deepening of the color with the disappearance
of the odor.
2. Seminal Stain exhibits bluish fluorescence under the
ultraviolet light.
3. Grayish white, sometimes yellowish stain which is typical of
seminal fluid
4. Have appearance or outline of contour map.
5. May have a reddish tint in case of old man
 b. Chemical Examination
1. Florence test – it is known after the name Dr. Florence of Lysons. It is the only
preliminary test confirms the presence of seminal stain.
Reagent/Chemicals; 1.65 gram of Potassium iodide and 2.5
grams iodine in 30 cc of water
Visible result : Crystal of choline per iodine, which are dark brown,
rhombic or needle shaped that occur singly or in cross or even grouped in
cluster.
2. Barberios’ test – saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution of picric acid.
Positive result ; crystal that are slender yellow tinted, rhomboid
needles with obtuse angel or appear as ovoid crystals.
3. Acid phosphatase test – this test is best way to locate and at the same
time characterized a seminal stain.
Positive result ; purple color.
Acid phosphatase
 c. Microscopic examination
Determination of spermatozoa in fresh semen

1. Transfer a drop of specimen to a glass slide

2. Add drop of water or saline solution and cover
with slip
3. Examine under the high power objective
4. Observe the presence of spermatozoa
d. Biological examination

The sperma-precipitins are of value in the identification of seminal

fluids.
Other stain of medico legal interest

1. Obstetrical and gynecological

2. Excrements
3. Paints stains
4. Rust stains
5. Synthetic dyes
6. Mineral stains
7. Stains of vegetable
HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER
 HAIR
HAIR EXAMINATION IS ONE OF THE OLDEST FORMS OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE. ITS USE AS OLDER THAN FINGERPRINTS. IT IS VALUABLE
BECAUSE THE HAIR OF EACH KING OF ANIMAL IS DIFFERENT AND DISTINCT
FOR ALL OTHERS. LIKE FIBERS IT IS MOSTLY LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED IN
CONTACT BETWEEN THE VICTIM AND THE SUSPECT. MOST CRIMES CAUSE
CONTACT BETWEEN ONE PERSON AND ANOTHER AND THERE MAY BE
TRANSFER OF FIBERS AND HAIRS FROM THE VICTIM TO THE CRIMINAL AND
VICE-VERSA. THE SUCCESSFUL INVESTIGATION OF CRIMES OF VIOLENCE
SUCH AS RAPE, MURDER, ASSAULT, KIDNAPPING, HIT AND RUN. ETC. ARE
FREQUENTLY MATERIALLY ASSISTED BY THE RESULT OF THE EXAMINATION
OF THE HAIRS AND FIBERS. HAIRS ARE VERY RESISTANT TO
DECOMPOSITION AND PUTREFACTION THUS THEY OFTEN REMAIN AS A
MEANS OF IDENTIFICATION LONG AFTER OTHER SUCH AS FACIAL AND
FINGERPRINTS HAVE BEEN DESTROYED.
 HAIR

is a specific epithelial
outgrowth of the skin which
occur everywhere on the
human body except on the
palm of the hands and the
sole of the feet. It is an
appendage of the skin. Hair is
not completely round but
may be oval or flattened. Its
width is not always the same
along its length. It starts out
pointed and narrow and then
strays more of less the same.
 TWO KINDS OF HAIR
1. REAL HAIR – GENERALLY LONG AND STIFF
2. FUZZ HAIR – GENERALLY SHORT, FINE AT TIMES
CURLY AND WOOLY
 PARTS OF THE HAIR

1. ROOT – PORTION IN THE SKIN

2. TIP – SOMETIMES TERMS AS POINT. THE DISTAL
END OF AN UNCUT HAIR SHAFT.
3. SHAFT – PORTION ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE SKIN.
IT IS THE MOST DISTINCTIVE PART OF THE HAIR.
PARTS OF SHAFT

• CUTICLE
• CORTEX
• MEDULLA
 PARTS OF SHAFT
CORTEX - THE INTERMEDIATE AND THE THICKEST LAYER OF
THE SHAFT AND IS COMPOSED OF ELONGATED, SPINDLE
SHAPED FIBRILS WHICH COHERE. THEY CONTAIN PIGMENT
GRANULES IN VARYING PROPORTION DEPENDING ON THE
TYPE OF THE HAIR. THE COMPONENT THAT GIVES HAIR ITS
SPECIAL QUALITIES SUCH AS ELASTICITY AND CURL. THE
CORTEX IS PACKED WITH STRANDS OF KERATIN, LYING
ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE HAIR. THESE KERATIN FIBERS
ARE MADE OF THE LOW-SULPHUR KERATINS, AND ARE
COMPRESSED INTO BUNDLES OF LARGER FIBERS. THE
CORTEX ALSO CONTAINS GRANULES OF THE HAIR PIGMENT
MELANIN.
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF ONE-
SIDED PIGMENT DISTRIBUTION
 PART OF SHAFT
MEDULLA OR CORE – IS THE CENTRAL CANAL OF THE HAIR THAT
MAY BE EMPTY OR MAY CONTAIN VARIOUS SORTS OF CELLS MORE
OR LESS PIGMENTED AND BEGINS MORE OR LESS NEAR THE ROOT.

MEDULLA CAN BE CONTINUOUS OR INTERRUPTED. IT IS

CONTINUOUS IN LARGE NUMBER OF ANIMALS, VERY OFTEN
INTERRUPTED IN HUMAN MONKEY, HORSES. THE DIAMETER OF THE
MEDULLA IS VERY LITTLE IMPORTANCE BUT THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE DIAMETER OF THE MEDULLA AND THE DIAMETER OF
THE WHOLE HAIR IS THE GREAT OF IMPORTANCE
CLASSIFICATION OF MEDULLA
• PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF CONTINUOUS CLEAR
MEDULLA
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF CONTINUOUS
MEDULLA
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF WAFER
MEDULLA
TRACE MEDULLA
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF BUBBLY OR
CELLULAR MEDULLA
MEDULLA INDEX ( M.I ) – IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIAMETER
OF THE MEDULLA AND THE DIAMETER OF THE WHOLE HAIR.
1.HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA ( LESS THAN 0.5) BELONGS TO HUMAN
AND CERTAIN MONKEY HAIR.

2. HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA ( APPROXIMATELY 0.5 ) BELONG TO HAIR

OF COW, HORSE AND OTHER

3. HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA ( GREATER THAN 0.5 ) ALMOST ALL ANIMAL
BELONGS TO THIS.
BASED ON THE MEDULLA EXAMINATION IT CAN BE DETERMINED WHETHER
HAIR IS HUMAN OR ANIMAL ORIGIN. THE MEDULLA IS USUALLY
NARROWER IN WIDTH IN HUMAN HAIR WHEN PRESENT. HAS FINER AND
MORE NUMEROUS CROSS STRIATIONS. ANIMAL HAIRS USUALLY CONSIST
OF BOTH HEAVY GUARD AND FINER FUR HAIR.
HUMAN HAIR ANIMAL HAIR
 COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND
ANIMAL HAIR
HUMAN
1. MEDULLARY INDEX IS LESS THAN 0.5
2. MEDULLA MAY NOT BE PRESENT
3. SCALE PATTERN IS FINE
4. PIGMENT GRANULES ARE FINE
COARSE
ANIMAL
1. MEDULLARY INDEX IS MORE T
THAN 0.5
2. MEDULLA ALWAYS PRESENT
3. SCALE IS COARSE
4. PIGMENT GRANULES ARE
A COMPARISON OF THE MEDULLARY INDEX OF THE HAIR
FROM THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY.

Body parts Man Woman

Neck 0.115 0.163
Forehead 0.132 0.148
Eyebrows 0.236 0.233
Eyelashes 0.095 0.146
Beard 0.260 -
Genitals 0.153 0.114
Armpits 0.102 0.179
 HUMANS HAIR CYCLICAL PHASES
1. PHASES OF GROWTH (ANAGEN),- . DURING THE GROWTH
PHASE, THE CELLS OF THE FOLLICLE ACTIVELY DIVIDE AND
GROW UPWARD. THE AVERAGE ANAGEN PHASE LASTS
ABOUT 1,000 DAYS
2. TRANSITION (CATAGEN),
3. RESTING (TELOGEN).. DURING THE TELOGEN PHASE, THE
CELLS OF THE FOLLICLE ARE DORMANT AND HAIRS
NATURALLY FALL OUT. THIS PHASE USUALLY LASTS FOR 100
DAYS. AT ANY TIME, BETWEEN 10 AND 18% OF ALL THE
HAIRS ON A HUMAN HEAD ARE IN THE TELOGEN PHASE;
ABOUT 2% ARE IN THE CATAGEN PHASE AND THE REST,
BETWEEN 80 AND 90% ARE ACTIVELY GROWING. THERE IS
 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
OF HUMAN HAIR
1. COLOR – CAN BE OBSERVED IN
NAKED EYE OR UNDER THE
MICROSCOPE. MELANIN IS THE
BROWNISH-BLACK PIGMENT IN THE,
SKIN, ETC. IT IS THE CHEMICAL
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLOR OF THE
HAIR. BLACK AND BROWN HAIR DIFFERS
ONLY ON THE AMOUNT OF MELANIN.
RED HAIR IS THOUGHT TO BE DUE TO
IRON.
2. LENGTH BY ACTUAL MEASUREMENTS

3. CHARACTER OF THE HAIR – WHETHER

STIFF, WIRY OR SOFT.
4. CHARACTER OF THE HAIR TIP IF
PRESENT – TIP OF THE HAIR MAY SHOW
WHETHER A HAIR HAS BEEN CUT. TIPS OF
BODY HAIRS BECOME ROUNDED FROM
RUBBING AGAINST THE CLOTHS. HAIR OF
HUMAN USUALLY SHOWS A FINE TIP.
MEN’S HAIR IS APT TO BE CUTOFF
SQUARE. SPLITS END MAY CATEGORIZED
AS CRUSHED TIP/END. BURNED END OR
TIP WHICH MAY EVIDENCE OF ARSON
OR FIREARMS CASES.
5. MANNER BY WHICH HAIR HAD BEEN CUT-

A. CUT WITH SHARP TOOL- CLEAN AND

SMOOTH
B. CUT BY BLUNT/DULL TOOL - THE END SEVERAL
CORTIAL CELLS OF THE HAIR IS
ROUGH

C. CUT FOR SOMETIME

6. CONDITION OF ROOT, BASE, OR BULB OF HAIR

A. ROOT OF HAIR PULLED FORCIBLY – HAVE A PORTION OF THE

SHEATH CLINGING TO THE ROOT. ROOT IS
SHAPED LIKE A BULB.

B. ROOT OF HAIR THAT HAS FALLEN NATURALLY – THERE IS BULB

FORMATION AT THE ROOT END. HAS CLEAN APPEARANCE WITH
NOTHING ADHERING IT. ROOT IS DRY AND SMALL.
 TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

a. LIVING ROOTS – OFTEN ON

HAIR IN FULL
GROWTH

b. DRY ROOTS – DEAD ROOTS

7. CHARACTER OF CUTICLE – THE SIZE THE GENERAL
SHAPE AND THE IRREGULARITY OF THE SCALES ARE
OBSERVED.
8. CHARACTER OF CORTEX – CORTEX IS EMBEDDED WITH
THE PIGMENT GRANULES THAT PROVIDES THE
CRIMINALIST WITH IMPORTANT POINTS OF
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE HAIRS OF THE DIFFERENT
INDIVIDUALS.
CHARACTER OF CHARACTER OF
CUTICLE CORTEX
9. PRESENCE OF THE DYE IN HAIR – UNDER THE
MICROSCOPE DYED HAIR HAS A DULL APPEARANCE AND
THE COLOR TONE IS CONSTANT, WHEREAS NATURAL IS
NOT AND THE INDIVIDUAL PIGMENT GRANULES STAND
MORE SHAPELY. IF THERE HAS BEEN SUBSEQUENT
GROWTH OF THE HAIR SINCE DYEING, THE UNDYED
ROOT END PORTION WILL STAND OUT MARKEDLY.
BLEACHED HAIRS HAVE A ROUGH APPEARANCE, ARE
MORE UNIFORM IN SHADE AND CONTAIN LESS PIGMENT
DEPENDING ON THE AMOUNT OF BLEACHING.
Photomicrograph of Dyed Human Hair
10. DETERMINATION OF WHETHER NATURALLY OR
ARTIFICIALLY CURLED.

11. CHARACTER OF MEDULLA. MEDULLA AND CORTEX

YIELDS THE MOST RELIABLE CRITERIA IN THE DIAGNOSE
OF THE HAIR.
 OTHERS ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION

• DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERISTICS BY RACE

• DETERMINATION BY SEX

• THE REGION OF THE BODY FROM WHICH THE HUMAN HAIR HAS BEEN
REMOVED
Photomicrograph of Negroid Head Hair
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF CROSS-
SECTION OF NEGROID HAIR
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF CROSS-
SECTION OF MONGOLOID HAIR
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF CROSS-
SECTION OF CAUCASIAN HAIR
 DETERMINATION BY SEX

A. MALE HAIR IS GENERALLY LARGER IN DIAMETER SHORTER IN LENGTH

, MORE WIRY IN TEXTURE
B. MALE HAIR AVERAGE APPROXIMATELY 1 TO 350 OF AN IN INCH IN
DIAMETER
C. FEMALE HAS AVERAGE OF APPROXIMATELY 1 TO 450 OF AN INCH
IN DIAMETER.
D. IF THE HAIR IS SEX INCHES IN LENGTH AND HAS A SPLIT ENDS
INDICATION IS FOR FEMALE.
 DETERMINATION BY SEX

A. MALE HAIR IS GENERALLY LARGER IN DIAMETER SHORTER IN LENGTH

, MORE WIRY IN TEXTURE
B. MALE HAIR AVERAGE APPROXIMATELY 1 TO 350 OF AN IN INCH IN
DIAMETER
C. FEMALE HAS AVERAGE OF APPROXIMATELY 1 TO 450 OF AN INCH
IN DIAMETER.
D. IF THE HAIR IS SEX INCHES IN LENGTH AND HAS A SPLIT ENDS
INDICATION IS FOR FEMALE.
 THE REGION OF THE BODY FROM WHICH
THE HUMAN HAIR HAS BEEN REMOVED

A. SCALP HAIR –THEY ARE MORE MATURE THAN ANY OTHER KING OF HUMAN HAIR.
B. BEARD HAIR – COARSE, CURVED, VERY STIFF AND OFTEN TRIANGULAR IN CROSS
SECTION
C. MOUSTACHE- USUALLY TRIANGULAR IN SHAPE AND VERY STIFF.
D. HAIRS FROM EYEBROWS, EYELID, NOSE AND EAR – SHORT STUBBY AND HAVE WIDE
MEDULLA. EYEBROW AND EYELASHES ARE USUALLY VERY SHORT AND HAS A SHARP TIP.
E. TRUNK HAIR – VARY IN THICKNESS ALONG THE SHAFT AND ARE IMMATURE BUT ARE
SOMEWHAT SIMILAR TO HEAD HAIRS, THEY HAVE FINE LONG TIPS ENDS.
F. LIMB HAIR – SIMILAR TRUNK HAIRS BUT USUALLY ARE NOT SO LONG OR SO COARSE
AND USUALLY CONTAIN LESS PIGMENT.
G. AXILLARY HAIR – ARE FAIRLY LONG WITH UNEVENLY DISTRIBUTED
PIGMENT. THEY VARY CONSIDERABLY IN DIAMETER ALONG THE SHAFT
AND HAVE FREQUENTLY A BLEACHED APPEARANCE. IT HAS AN
IRREGULAR SHAPE AND STRUCTURE. LOOKS LIKE PUBIC HAIR BUT THE
ENDS ARE SHARPER AND THE HAIR IS NOT CURLY.

H. PUBIC HAIR – SIMILAR TO AXILLARY HAIR BUT ARE COARSER AND DO

NOT APPEAR BLEACHED. MORE WIRY, HAVE
MORE CONSTRICTION AND TWISTS AND USUALLY HAVE CONTINUOUS
BROAD MEDULLA. HAVE MANY BROKEN ENDS
BECAUSE THE CLOTHING RUBS OFF AGAINST IT.
 THE APPROXIMATE AGE OF AN INDIVIDUAL
THROUGH HAIR EXAMINATION

THE APPROXIMATE AGE OF AN INDIVIDUAL CANNOT BE DETERMINED

FROM HAIR EXAMINATION WITH ANY DEGREE OF CERTAINLY EXCEPT IN INFANTS
HAIRS. INFANTS HAIRS ARE FINE, SHORT IN LENGTH , HAVE THE FINE PIGMENT AND
ARE RUDIMENTARY IN CHARACTER.
CHILDREN’S HAIR THROUGH ADOLESCENCE IS GENERALLY FINER AND
MORE IMMATURE THAN ADULT HAIR BUT CANNOT BE DEFINITELY WITH CERTAINLY.
IF IT IS NOTED THAT THE PIGMENT IS MISSING OR STARTING TO
DISAPPEAR IN THE HAIR, IT CAN BE STATED THAT THE HAIR IS FROM ADULT. IT IS
COMMON FOR A RELATIVELY YOUNG PERSON TO HAVE PREMATURELY GRAY OR
WHITE HEAD HAIR BUT NOT BODY HAIRS. THE ROOT END OF HAIR FROM AN AGED
PERSON MAY SHOW A DISTINCTIVE DEGENERATION.
CAN WE SAY DEFINITELY THAT THE HAIR
CAME FROM A CERTAIN INDIVIDUAL?
THE IDENTIFICATION OF A SPECIMEN OF HAIR AS HAVING BEEN
DERIVED FROM A CERTAIN INDIVIDUAL IS ALWAYS DIFFICULT AND IN MOST
CASES IMPOSSIBLE. IF A NUMBER OF STRANDS ARE TAKEN FROM A
KNOWN SOURCE AND COMPARED WITH ANOTHER SPECIMEN, IT IS
IMPOSSIBLE TO SAY WITH ABSOLUTE CERTAINLY THAT THEY ARE IDENTICAL
IN ORIGIN NO MATTER HOW SIMILAR THEY MAY BE IN APPEARANCE,
BOTH GROSSLY AND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. MANY INDIVIDUALS HAVE
HAIR THAT WOULD PRESENT THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS ON
EXAMINATION AND COULD NOT BE DIFFERENTIATED. IT CAN BE STATED
WITH CERTAINLY THAT THE CRITERIA AVAILABLE FOR HAIR EXAMINATION
ARE TOO FEW AND ILL-DEFINED TO MAKE THIS PROCEDURE A RELIABLE
MEANS OF IDENTIFICATION. NEGATIVELY, THE TEST HAS VALUE TO
EXCLUDE AN INDIVIDUAL IF HIS HAIRS WERE FOUND DIFFERENT FROM THE
QUESTIONED SAMPLE.
CAN WE SAY DEFINITELY THAT THE HAIR
CAME FROM A CERTAIN INDIVIDUAL?
THE IDENTIFICATION OF A SPECIMEN OF HAIR AS HAVING BEEN
DERIVED FROM A CERTAIN INDIVIDUAL IS ALWAYS DIFFICULT AND IN MOST
CASES IMPOSSIBLE. IF A NUMBER OF STRANDS ARE TAKEN FROM A
KNOWN SOURCE AND COMPARED WITH ANOTHER SPECIMEN, IT IS
IMPOSSIBLE TO SAY WITH ABSOLUTE CERTAINLY THAT THEY ARE IDENTICAL
IN ORIGIN NO MATTER HOW SIMILAR THEY MAY BE IN APPEARANCE,
BOTH GROSSLY AND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. MANY INDIVIDUALS HAVE
HAIR THAT WOULD PRESENT THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS ON
EXAMINATION AND COULD NOT BE DIFFERENTIATED. IT CAN BE STATED
WITH CERTAINLY THAT THE CRITERIA AVAILABLE FOR HAIR EXAMINATION
ARE TOO FEW AND ILL-DEFINED TO MAKE THIS PROCEDURE A RELIABLE
MEANS OF IDENTIFICATION. NEGATIVELY, THE TEST HAS VALUE TO
EXCLUDE AN INDIVIDUAL IF HIS HAIRS WERE FOUND DIFFERENT FROM THE
QUESTIONED SAMPLE.
• * THE ONLY "LIVING PART OF A HAIR" IS THE ROOT, WHICH IS ANCHORED IN A
SMALL CUP-SHAPED STRUCTURE IN THE SKIN CALLED A FOLLICLE. THE HAIR (A
PROTEIN) YOU SEE ON YOUR BODY IS "DEAD" KERATIN TISSUE. IF YOU DAMAGE IT,
IT CANNOT BE REPAIRED, EXCEPT BY RE-GROWING IT. AS THE HAIR IS TRIMMED, THE
DAMAGED PART WILL BE REMOVED.

• * PROTEINS ARE IMPORTANT BUILDING BLOCKS FOR ALL BODY PARTS, INCLUDING
MUSCLES, BONES, HAIR, AND NAILS. HAIR IS COMPOSED MAINLY OF A PROTEIN
CALLED KERATIN. KERATIN IS A CLASS OF SULFUR-CONTAINING FIBROUS PROTEINS
THAT FORMS THE FOUNDATION OF OUTGROWTH TISSUE FROM THE EPIDERMIS,
SUCH AS HAIR, NAILS, FEATHERS, AND HORNS OF ANIMALS.

• * INCREASED HAIR GROWTH ON THE FACE, CHEST, STOMACH, BACK, THUMBS, OR

TOES IS CALLED HIRSUTISM, PRONOUNCED - HER-SUH-TIZ-UM. HAIR LOSS IS CALLED
ALOPECIA, PRONOUNCED - AL-OH-PEE-SHUH.
• * IN GERMANY, AS IN MOST OF EUROPE, WOMEN SHAVE THEIR
LEGS OR NOT. ARMPITS ARE NOT SHAVED. PRESUMABLY THIS IS
TO PLEASE MEN, WHO FIND IT EROTIC.

• * IN CANADA YOU ARE EXPECTED TO SHAVE YOUR LEGS.

• * REMOVING HAIR BY A RAZOR OR OTHER MEANS DOES NOT

CHANGE THE TEXTURE, COLOR, OR RATE OF HAIR GROWTH.

• * SKIN SHOULD NEVER BE SHAVED DRY. WET HAIR IS SOFT,

PLIABLE, AND EASIER TO CUT.
• A DEVELOPING FETUS (UNBORN BABY IN THE
MOTHERS WOMB), BY WEEK 22, HAS ALL OF IT'S HAIR
FOLLICLES FORMED. AT THIS TIME, THERE ARE 5
MILLION HAIR FOLLICLES ON THE BODY. ONE MILLION
OF THOSE HAIR FOLLICLES ARE ON THE HEAD, AND
100,000 ARE ON THE SCALP. THIS IS THE LARGEST
NUMBER OF FOLLICLES A PERSON WILL EVER HAVE.
HAIR FOLLICLES ARE NEVER ADDED DURING LIFE.
TEXTILE FIBER
 TEXTILE

IN GENERAL AND BROAD SENSE, THE WORD “TEXTILE” IS DERIVED FROM

THE LATIN WORD “ TEXTILIS” AND THE FRENCH “ TEXTERE”, TO WEAVE, HENCE
TEXTILE FIBER MEANS THAT CAN BE CONVERTED INTO YARN. FIBER IS A LONG AND
NARROW HAIR-LIKE COMPONENT OF PLANT OR ANIMAL TISSUE, AND BY
EXTENSION THE SMALLEST LINEAR COMPONENT (NATURAL OR MANUFACTURED),
USED TO CREATE YARN OR TEXTILE. USABLE TEXTILE FIBERS CAN BE EXTRACTED FROM
THE STEMS OR LEAVES OF MANY PLANTS, SOME WILD AND OTHERS DOMESTICATED.
EXAMPLES FROM THE LATTER INCLUDE LINEN WHICH COMES FROM THE STEMS OF
THE FLAX PLANT AND COTTON WHICH IS A SEED HAIR. LIKEWISE, THE HAIR OF
MANY ANIMALS, AS WELL AS THE SILK OF THE SILKWORM, CAN BE USED TO MAKE
TEXTILES.
 Textile of cloth is a flexible material consisting of a
network of natural or artificial fibers often referred to as
thread or yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw wool fibers,
flax, cotton, or other material on a spinning wheel to produce
long strands.[1] Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting,
crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibers together (felt).
The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly
trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for
textile. However, there are slight differences in these terms in
specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of
interlacing fibers. Fabric refers to any material made through
weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding. Cloth refers
to a finished piece of fabric that can be used for a purpose
such as covering a bed.
 Clothing fibers can be easily transferred simply by
physically brushing across another object, like a chair, or
another type of fabric. This type of transfer of fibers between
victim, suspect, and scene is not uncommon. During the
commission of violent crimes, especially, there is a great
likelihood that fiber evidence will be left behind.
Fibers can be identified as natural (such as cotton, wool,
or silk) or man- made (such as acrylic, nylon, or polyester), using
polarized light microscopy (PLM) and Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectrometry (FT- IR). Other fiber characteristics
examined include color and cross-sectional shape.
CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBER
 NATURAL FIBERS

ARE CREATED FROM FIBERS OF ANIMALS

COATS, SILKWORM COCOONS, AND
PLANTS' SEEDS, LEAVES, AND STEMS.
 VEGETABLE

Category Description

Seed fiber Fibers collected from seeds or seed cases. e.g. cotton and kapok

Leaf fiber Fibers collected from leaves. e.g. fique, sisal, banana and agave.

Bast fiber Fibers are collected from the skin or bast surrounding the stem of their
respective plant. These fibers have higher tensile strength than other
fibers. Therefore, these fibers are used for durable yarn, fabric,
packaging, and paper. Some examples are flax, jute, kenaf, industrial
hemp, ramie, rattan, and vine fibers.

Fruit fiber Fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g. coconut (coir) fiber

Stalk fiber Fibers are actually the stalks of the plant. E.g. straws of wheat, rice,
barley, and other crops including bamboo and grass. Tree wood is also
such a fiber.
 ANIMAL

WOOL REFERS TO THE HAIR OF THE DOMESTIC GOAT OR SHEEP, WHICH IS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER TYPES OF ANIMAL HAIR
IN THAT THE INDIVIDUAL STRANDS ARE COATED WITH SCALES AND TIGHTLY CRIMPED, AND THE WOOL AS A WHOLE IS COATED
WITH A WAX MIXTURE KNOWN AS LANOLIN (AKA WOOL GREASE), WHICH IS WATERPROOF .WOOLLEN REFERS TO A BULKIER
YARN PRODUCED FROM CARDED, NON-PARALLEL FIBRE, WHILE WORSTED REFERS TO A FINER YARN WHICH IS SPUN FROM
LONGER FIBRES WHICH HAVE BEEN COMBED TO BE PARALLEL. WOOL IS COMMONLY USED FOR WARM CLOTHING. CASHMERE,
THE HAIR OF THE INDIAN CASHMERE GOAT, AND MOHAIR, THE HAIR OF THE NORTH AFRICAN ANGORA GOAT, ARE TYPES OF
WOOL KNOWN FOR THEIR SOFTNESS.

OTHER ANIMAL TEXTILES WHICH ARE MADE FROM HAIR OR FUR ARE ALPACA WOOL, VICUÑA WOOL, LLAMA WOOL, AND CAMEL
HAIR, GENERALLY USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF COATS, JACKETS, PONCHOS, BLANKETS, AND OTHER WARM COVERINGS.
ANGORA REFERS TO THE LONG, THICK, SOFT HAIR OF THE ANGORA RABBIT.

WADMAL IS A COARSE CLOTH MADE OF WOOL, PRODUCED IN SCANDINAVIA, MOSTLY 1000~1500CE.

SILK IS AN ANIMAL TEXTILE MADE FROM THE FIBRES OF THE COCOON OF THE CHINESE SILKWORM. THIS IS SPUN INTO A SMOOTH,
SHINY FABRIC PRIZED FOR ITS SLEEK TEXTURE.
 ANIMAL

WOOL REFERS TO THE HAIR OF THE DOMESTIC GOAT OR SHEEP, WHICH IS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER TYPES OF ANIMAL HAIR
IN THAT THE INDIVIDUAL STRANDS ARE COATED WITH SCALES AND TIGHTLY CRIMPED, AND THE WOOL AS A WHOLE IS COATED
WITH A WAX MIXTURE KNOWN AS LANOLIN (AKA WOOL GREASE), WHICH IS WATERPROOF .WOOLLEN REFERS TO A BULKIER
YARN PRODUCED FROM CARDED, NON-PARALLEL FIBRE, WHILE WORSTED REFERS TO A FINER YARN WHICH IS SPUN FROM
LONGER FIBRES WHICH HAVE BEEN COMBED TO BE PARALLEL. WOOL IS COMMONLY USED FOR WARM CLOTHING. CASHMERE,
THE HAIR OF THE INDIAN CASHMERE GOAT, AND MOHAIR, THE HAIR OF THE NORTH AFRICAN ANGORA GOAT, ARE TYPES OF
WOOL KNOWN FOR THEIR SOFTNESS.

OTHER ANIMAL TEXTILES WHICH ARE MADE FROM HAIR OR FUR ARE ALPACA WOOL, VICUÑA WOOL, LLAMA WOOL, AND CAMEL
HAIR, GENERALLY USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF COATS, JACKETS, PONCHOS, BLANKETS, AND OTHER WARM COVERINGS.
ANGORA REFERS TO THE LONG, THICK, SOFT HAIR OF THE ANGORA RABBIT.

WADMAL IS A COARSE CLOTH MADE OF WOOL, PRODUCED IN SCANDINAVIA, MOSTLY 1000~1500CE.

SILK IS AN ANIMAL TEXTILE MADE FROM THE FIBRES OF THE COCOON OF THE CHINESE SILKWORM. THIS IS SPUN INTO A SMOOTH,
SHINY FABRIC PRIZED FOR ITS SLEEK TEXTURE.
 ANIMAL

WOOL REFERS TO THE HAIR OF THE DOMESTIC GOAT OR SHEEP, WHICH IS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER TYPES OF ANIMAL HAIR
IN THAT THE INDIVIDUAL STRANDS ARE COATED WITH SCALES AND TIGHTLY CRIMPED, AND THE WOOL AS A WHOLE IS COATED
WITH A WAX MIXTURE KNOWN AS LANOLIN (AKA WOOL GREASE), WHICH IS WATERPROOF .WOOLLEN REFERS TO A BULKIER
YARN PRODUCED FROM CARDED, NON-PARALLEL FIBRE, WHILE WORSTED REFERS TO A FINER YARN WHICH IS SPUN FROM
LONGER FIBRES WHICH HAVE BEEN COMBED TO BE PARALLEL. WOOL IS COMMONLY USED FOR WARM CLOTHING. CASHMERE,
THE HAIR OF THE INDIAN CASHMERE GOAT, AND MOHAIR, THE HAIR OF THE NORTH AFRICAN ANGORA GOAT, ARE TYPES OF
WOOL KNOWN FOR THEIR SOFTNESS.

OTHER ANIMAL TEXTILES WHICH ARE MADE FROM HAIR OR FUR ARE ALPACA WOOL, VICUÑA WOOL, LLAMA WOOL, AND CAMEL
HAIR, GENERALLY USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF COATS, JACKETS, PONCHOS, BLANKETS, AND OTHER WARM COVERINGS.
ANGORA REFERS TO THE LONG, THICK, SOFT HAIR OF THE ANGORA RABBIT.

WADMAL IS A COARSE CLOTH MADE OF WOOL, PRODUCED IN SCANDINAVIA, MOSTLY 1000~1500CE.

SILK IS AN ANIMAL TEXTILE MADE FROM THE FIBRES OF THE COCOON OF THE CHINESE SILKWORM. THIS IS SPUN INTO A SMOOTH,
SHINY FABRIC PRIZED FOR ITS SLEEK TEXTURE.
 MINERAL

• ASBESTOS AND BASALT FIBREARE USED FOR VINYL TILES, SHEETING, AND ADHESIVES, "TRANSITE" PANELS AND SIDING,
ACOUSTICAL CEILINGS, STAGE CURTAINS, AND FIRE BLANKETS.

• GLASS FIBRE IS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPACESUITS, IRONING BOARD AND MATTRESS COVERS, ROPES AND CABLES,
REINFORCEMENT FIBRE FOR COMPOSITE MATERIALS, INSECT NETTING, FLAME-RETARDANT AND PROTECTIVE FABRIC,
SOUNDPROOF, FIREPROOF, AND INSULATING FIBRES.

• METAL FIBRE, METAL FOIL, AND METAL WIRE HAVE A VARIETY OF USES, INCLUDING THE PRODUCTION OF CLOTH-OF-GOLD
AND JEWELERY. HARDWARE CLOTH IS A COARSE WEAVE OF STEEL WIRE, USED IN CONSTRUCTION.

• ALL SYNTHETIC TEXTILES ARE USED PRIMARILY IN THE PRODUCTION OF CLOTHING.

• POLYESTER FIBRE IS USED IN ALL TYPES OF CLOTHING, EITHER ALONE OR BLENDED WITH FIBRES SUCH AS COTTON.

• ARAMID FIBRE (E.G. TWARON) IS USED FOR FLAME-RETARDANT CLOTHING, CUT-PROTECTION, AND ARMOR.

• ACRYLIC IS A FIBRE USED TO IMITATE WOOLS, INCLUDING CASHMERE, AND IS OFTEN USED IN REPLACEMENT OF THEM.

• NYLON IS A FIBRE USED TO IMITATE SILK; IT IS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF PANTYHOSE. THICKER NYLON FIBRES ARE USED IN
ROPE AND OUTDOOR CLOTHING.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS

A. COTTON – UNICELLULAR FILAMENTS, FLAT, RIBBON-LIKE, TWISTED

SPIRALLY TO RIGHT OR LEFT ON ITS AXIS, CENTRAL
CANAL OR LUMEN BROAD UNIFORM IN DIAMETER; CELLS WALL THICK,
COVERED BY A THIN, STRUCTURE LESS, WAXY CUTICLE. FIBER TAPERS
GRADUALLY TO A BLUNT OR ROUNDED POINT AT END.
 COTTON MAGNIFIED 100X. SOME OF THE FIBERS
IN THE IMAGE SHOW THAT COTTON IS RATHER
FLAT AND LOOKS LIKE A RIBBON WHEN IT TWISTS.
This is a polarized view of cotton. cotton magnified 400x. This shows the twisting
of one fiber.
 LINEN
A MULTICELLULAR FILAMENT, STRAIGHT AND CYLINDRICAL, NOT
TWISTED AND FLATTENED, TAPERING TO A SHARP POINT. CELL WALL
THICK APPEARING AS A NARROW DARK LINE IN THE CENTER OF THE
FIBER. FILAMENTS MARKED BY TRANSVERSE LINES AT INTERVALS
CAUSING FIBER TO APPEAR JOINTED, RESEMBLING
BAMBOO.
Cross lines frequently interest
appearing like the letter x.
Linen magnified 100x when the
original photograph was taken. The
main fiber in this image is a fiber
taken from a piece of linen yarn. The
picture was taken with a camera
through the lens of a microscope. The
fiber was placed on a glass slide with
a drop of water, and a thin glass
coverslip was then placed over the
fiber and the water. This particular
picture was taken using cross
polarizing lenses. Polarizing
microscopy helps highlight the
structure of the fiber so that the lines
going across the fiber can be seen.
Linen magnified 400x in original photograph. When you enlarge this view you can
see columns within the fiber.
 CULTIVATED SILK

SMOOTH, CYLINDER, LUSTROUS THREADS, USUALLY SINGLE BUT OFTEN

DOUBLE, THE TWIN-FILAMENTS HELD TOGETHER BY AN ENVELOPE OF
GUM. MORE OR LESS TRANSPARENT WITHOUT DEFINITE STRUCTURE.
 WOOL

EASILY DISTINGUISH BY PRESENCE OF FLATTENED, OVERLAPPING

EPIDERMAL SCALES NOT FOUND ON SILK OR ANY OF THE VEGETABLE
FIBERS. FIBERS MANY CELLED, CYLINDRICAL, SHAFT COMPOSED OF
THREE LAYERS; CENTRAL CORE MEDULLA, CORTEX AND SCALY CUTICLE.
 .
GOTLAND SHEEP WOOL

This sample came from

a part of the fleece
that was fine, short
and crimpy, not like
the sample above.
Both samples had a lot
of grease, which is
probably what you
can see on one of the
fibers
Gotland, 400x original magnification.
 TEST FOR FIBERS

1. BURNING OR IGNITION TEST – IT IS PRELIMINARY MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION THAT DETERMINES WHETHER FIBER IS MINERAL,
ANIMAL OR VEGETABLE FIBERS.

PROCEDURE:

A SINGLE FIBER IS APPLIED WITH FLAME AT ONE END AND THE FOLLOWING ARE NOTED:

• MANNER OF BURNING

• ODOR OF FUMES

• APPEARANCE OF BURNT END

• ACTION OF FUMES ON MOISTEN RED AND BLUE LITMUS PAPER

• COLOR OF THE ASH

• EFFECT OF LITMUS ON PIECE OF FILTER PAPER MOISTENED WITH LEAD ACETATE

 INDICATION

ANIMAL FIBER – BURN SLOWLY AND GIVE ODOR LIKE THAT OF BURNING FEATHER. WHEN
REMOVED FROM THE FLAMED THEY DO NOT CONTINUE TO BURN READILY AND A
CHARRED BEAD REMAINS AT THE END OF THE FIBER. FUMES TURN RED LITMUS PAPER.
•WOOL – ODOR STRONG, DISAGREEABLE ; FUMES TURN LEAD ACETATE PAPER BLACK OR
BROWN
•SILK – ODOR NOT SO PUNGENT, FUMES HAVE NO EFFECT ON LEAD ACETATE

VEGETABLE – FIBERS BURN RAPIDLY WITH A FLAME AND GIVE OFF BUT LITTLE SMOKE OR
FUMES. CHARRED BEAD NOT PRESENT WHEN FIBER IS REMOVED FROM THE FLAME. FUMES
TURN LITMUS RED.
2. Fluorescent Test – frequently used to
determine the general group to which a
fiber belongs. It is not reliable for positive
identification of fibers. In general , the
vegetable fibers exhibit a yellow
fluorescence in ultra violet light, whereas
animal and fibers shows bluish fluorescence.
 The fluorescence of some common fibers is given in the following manner;

Material Color under ultraviolet Daylight color

1. unbleached wool Brilliant light blue Light yellow

2. beached wool Bluish-white to bluish yellow white
3. bleached cotton Light yellow white
4. mercerized cotton Light yellow white
5. bleached linen Brilliant yellowish-white white
6.cuprate silk Reddish white with blue-violet Brownish - white
shadow
7. Viscose silk Sulfur yellow with blue shadow Brownish - white
8. Nitro silk Brilliant flesh yellow yellowish
9. Acetate silk Bluish violet white
10. natural silk Very bright light blue, much white
brighter and whiter than
acetate silk
3. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION –

it is the most reliable and best means of identifying fiber.

The fiber is placed on a glass slide, teased and covered.
Fiber examination can identify the type of fiber such as
animal, vegetable, mineral and synthetic. Questioned fiber
can be compared to fibers from victims and suspect
clothing, carpeting and other textiles. A question,
construction and color can be compared. Impression on
fabric and from fabric can be examined. Clothing
manufacturer’s information can be determined by label
searches.
4. Chemical Test – if the sample
submitted for analysis if fairly
large, such as a piece of cloth or a
number or large threads, it is
suggested that a chemical analysis
be made to supplement the
microscopic examination and
confirm the results obtained from
that procedure.
a. Staining test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, millon’s
reagent, stannic chloride or iodine solution.

Test Result
Picric acid + silk dyed
Picric acid + wool dyed
Picric acid + cellulosic fibers unchanged
Millon’s reagent + silk brown
Millon’s reagent + wool brown
Millon’s reagent + cellulosic reagent nonreaction
Stannic chloride + cellulose black
b. Dissolution test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is with the following
chemicals. If dyed, the fibers is first decolorized by boiling in either 1%
hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or delute potassium hydroxide.

Reagents; 10% sodium hydroxide, 5% oxalic acid, half saturated oxalic acid,
concentrated sulfuric acid, dilute ammonium hydroxide, concentrated nitric acid.

Result; 10% NAOH + wool ______________Dissolve

10% NAOH + cultivated silk _______ dissolve
10% NAOH + Cotton, linen, silk ____ undissolve
b. Dissolution test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is with the following
chemicals. If dyed, the fibers is first decolorized by boiling in either 1%
hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or delute potassium hydroxide.

Reagents; 10% sodium hydroxide, 5% oxalic acid, half saturated oxalic acid,
concentrated sulfuric acid, dilute ammonium hydroxide, concentrated nitric acid.

Result; 10% NAOH + wool ______________Dissolve

10% NAOH + cultivated silk _______ dissolve
10% NAOH + Cotton, linen, silk ____ undissolve
4.Don’t mix known samples of hair from different parts of the
body.
5. The hairs should be placed in a folder paper or in a white
mailing envelope, but the corners of the
envelope should be sealed with scotch tape.
6. Do not secure the hair samples to a piece of paper with scotch
tape because this will damage the
hair.
7. All foreign fibous debris should be removed from the
submitted specimen.
8. Fragmentation hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable
for examination.
9. Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with
cellophane or paper tape over the area before wrapping the
object from transmittal laboratory.
GUNPOWDER AND
EXPLOSIVES
 GUNPOWDER

THE GUNPOWDER OR POWER CHARGE IN A CARTRIDGE IS THE

PROPELLANT WHICH, WHEN IGNITED BY THE PRIMER FLASH, IS
CONVERTED TO GAS UNDER HIGH PRESSURE AND PROPELS THE BULLETS
OR SHOT CHARGE THROUGH THE BARREL AND TO THE TARGET.
BASIC PARTS OF
THE CARTRIDGE
 THE THREE IMPORTANT PROBLEMS THAT
MAY ARISE IN CASES INVOLVING
FIREARMS;
1. DETERMINING WHETHER OR NOT A PERSON HAS FIRED A GUN WITH
BARE HANDS WITHIN THE PERTINENT PERIOD OF TIME.
2. DETERMINING THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE.
3. THE TIME OF THE FIRING OF THE GUN BECOMES AN ISSUE.
Basically, gunshot residue comes from the powder
component of bullet, elements from cartridge cases and
gun barrel where the bullet passes. When these
components, certain products of combustion are formed
which includes partially burned and unburned particles
These pattern depending upon the distance between the
muzzle of the gun and the target at the time of
discharge. Upon discharge of firearms, gunpowder
residue may be deposited on a person at close proximity,
so the interpretations as to who discharged the firearm
should be made with caution. Hand or body part or close
to the fire weapon. However, absence of gunpowder
residues on the persons hands or body parts does not
mean that he/she did not discharge a firearms.
 GUNPOWDER MAY FOUND ON;

• ON THE SKIN OR CLOTHING OF THE PERSON WHO DISCHARGE THE

GUN,
• ON THE ENTRANCE BULLET HOLE OF GARMENT OR WOUND OF THE
VICTIM ,
• ON THE TARGET MATERIALS AT THE SCENE.
 COMPONENTS OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE

. PRIMER OR LEAD RESIDUE

1

2. GUNPOWDER RESIDUE
3. ELEMENTS COMPONENTS FROM
CARTRIDGE CASES RESIDUES
 COMPOSITION OF PRIMER
Primer elements may be easier to detect in residues
because they do not get as hot as the powder.
a. major primer elemental composition: Lead,
Barium ,Antimony
b. Trace elements; Aluminum, sulfur, tin calcium,
potassium, chlorine, or silicon
c. inorganic compound ; mercury fulminates

In addition , these residue gradually adhere to the

discharge bullets. Thus primer residue can be found in
targets or wounds at considerable distance from the
muzzle up to 200 meters.
 COMPOSITION OF GUNPOWDER

A. CONTAIN UP TO 23 ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
B. NITROCELLULOSE IS VIRTUALLY ALWAYS
PRESENT ALONG NITRATE AND NITROGEN
CONTAINING COMPOUND AS
DIPHENYLAMINE OR DPA.
 2 TYPES OF TYPES OF GUNPOWDER

1. BLACK POWDER – THE OLDEST PROPELLANTS

2. SMOKELESS – MOST WIDELY USED PROPELLANT.
TYPES OF SMOKELESS
A. SINGLE BASE – WHEN THE BASIC INGREDIENTS IS NITROCELLULOSE.
B. DOUBLE BASE – NITROCELLULOSE PLUS 1 TO 40% NITROGLYCERINE
C. TRIPLE BASE – NITROCELLULOSE PLUS NITRO GLYCERINE PLUS NITRO
GUANIDINE.
SMOKELESS
BLACK POWDER
COMPOSITION OF CARTRIDGE CASE AND
BULLET

A. CARTRIDGE AND PRIMER CASE; BRASS AND

COPPER ZINC
B. BULLET CORES; LEAD ANTIMONY AND FEW IRON
ALLOY
C. BULLET JACKETED; BRASS(COPPER ZINC ) AND
SOME ARE IRON OR ALUMINUM ALLOY, SOME
CONTAIN NICKEL.
CARTRIDGE AND PRIMER CASE; BRASS
AND COPPER ZINC
B. BULLET CORES; LEAD ANTIMONY C. BULLET JACKETED; BRASS(COPPER ZINC
AND FEW IRON ALLOY ) AND SOME ARE IRON OR ALUMINUM
ALLOY, SOME CONTAIN NICKEL
THESE CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED USING A
MASS SPECTROPHOTOMETER OR SEM
 GUNSHOT RESIDUE EXAMINATIONS
PURPOSE:
TO HELP THE INVESTIGATION IN DETERMINING WHETHER A PERSON HAS DISCHARGE
A GUN OR NOT; WHETHER A FIREARMS WAS DISCHARGE OR NOT; AND THE
POSSIBLE GUNSHOT RANGE OR THE DISTANCE OF THE SHOOTER TO THE VICTIM.
OBJECTIVES;
TO DETERMINE THE PRESENCE OF GUNPOWDER NITRATES ON BOTH HANDS
OF THE SUSPECT, VICTIM, FIREARMS AND CLOTHING OF THE VICTIM
 CHEMICAL TEST FOR GUNPOWDER

1. PARAFFIN TEST (DIPHENYLAMINE TEST )

2. WALKER’S TEST
 1. PARAFFIN TEST
THIS TEST IS USED WHETHER A PERSON DISCHARGE A GUN. THE BASIS OF THIS
TEST IS THE PRESENCE OF NITRATES IN THE GUNPOWDER RESIDUE. WARM
MELTED PARAFFIN WAX APPLIED ON THE HANDS OF THE ALLEGED SHOOTER
WILL CAUSE THE PORES OF THE SKIN TO OPEN AND EXUDE THE PARTICLES OF
GUNPOWDER RESIDUE. THESE PARTICLES ARE EXTRACTED BY THE PARAFFIN CAST
AND WILL APPEAR AS BLUE SPECKS, WHEN DIPHENYLAMINE REAGENT IS ADDED
ON THE CAST. THE SPECKS ARE GENERALLY LOCATED ON THE AREA OF THE
THUMB AND FOREFINGERS.
NOTE:
THE BLUE COLOR THAT APPEARS INDICATES THE REACTION OF NITRATES
WITH DIPHENYLAMINE REAGENT. THUS, NITRATE FROM OTHER SOURCE LIKE
FERTILIZERS, WILL GIVE THE SAME REACTION. OTHER SUBSTANCE SIMILAR TO
NITRATE KNOWN AS OXIDIZERS WILL ALSO REACT IN THE SAME WAY.
 WHAT IS PARAFFIN TEST :

IT IS A WHITE, TRANSLUCENT, TASTELESS, ODORLESS SOLID CONSISTING

OF A MIXTURE OF SOLID HYDROCARBONS OF HIGH MOLECULAR
WEIGHT. THE MELTED PARAFFIN WAX PENETRATES THE MINUTE CERVICES
OF THE SKIN UPON APPLICATIONS, THUS, ADHERING IF THERE ARE
PARTICLES PRESENT. WHEN THE CASTS ARE PEELED, THE BURNED AND
PARTIALLY BURNED PARTICLES ARE EXTRACTED. A PERSON FIRING A GUN
WILL LIKELY HAVE THE PARTICLES LOCATED ABOVE THE THUMB AND
FOREFINGERS SINCE THESE ARE THE SURFACES EXPOSED TO THE GUN
 WHAT SHOULD BE NOTED IN THE
INTERPRETATION OF RESULT;
• TIME OF REACTION
• NUMBER AND CHARACTERISTIC OF BLUE AND MINUTE SPECKS
• THE LOCATION AND CHARACTER OF THE BLUE SPECKS
• DISTRIBUTION AND LOCATION
 OTHER NAMES OF THIS TEST;

LUNGE’S TEST
DIPHENYLAMINE TEST
DERMAL NITRATE TEST
GONZALES TEST
 WALKER TEST

THIS TEST IS USED IF THE POWDER PARTICLES ARE DEEPLY EMBEDDED. IT

IS BASED ON THE CONVERSION OF NITRATES TO A DYE.
PROCEDURE:
1. IMMERSE THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER IN A NEW HYPO SOLUTION
FOR 15 MINUTES SO THAT ALL THE SILVER SALT ARE DISSOLVED.
2. THE PAPER IS WASHED IN RUNNING WATER FOR ONE HOUR.
3.THE DESENSITIZED PAPER IS IMMERSE IN A 5 TO 10% AQUEOUS SOLUTION
OF C ACID FOR TEN MINUTES AND THEN DRY.
4. LAY A CLEAN TOWEL ON THE TABLE AND THE PREPARED C PAPER IS LAID
FACE UP ON THIS.
5. THE FABRIC TO BE EXAMINED IS THEN FACE-DOWN ON THE
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER.
6. PLACE A THIN DRY TOWEL OF COTTON CLOTH MOISTENED WITH 20 TO
25% ACETIC ACID.

VISIBLE RESULT: A NUMBER OF ORANGE RED SPOT ARE IMPRINTED ON THE

PHOTOGRAPHY PAPER.
QUESTION?
 IS THERE ANY MEANS OF REMOVING THESE
NITRATES FROM THE HANDS? HOW LONG WILL
THEY STAY IN THE PORES?
NONE. ORDINARY WASHING WILL NOT REMOVE THE NITRATES FROM THE
PORES OF THE SKIN. USUALLY , GUNPOWDER NITRATES THAT ARE
EMBEDDED ON THE SKIN STAY 72 HOURS. THAT IS WHY, PARAFFIN CASTING
SHOULD BE CONDUCTED WITHIN THE SPECIFIED PERIOD.
 SUBSTANCE GIVING FALSE POSITIVE
RESULT;
• A. FERTILIZERS
• B. EXPLOSIVES
• C. TOBACCO
• D. URINE
• D. CERTAIN COSMETICS
• E. FOOD SAMPLES
• F. CIGARETTE
 SUBSTANCE GIVING FALSE POSITIVE
RESULT;
• A. FERTILIZERS
• B. EXPLOSIVES
• C. TOBACCO
• D. URINE
• D. CERTAIN COSMETICS
• E. FOOD SAMPLES
• F. CIGARETTE
IS THERE A POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON
MAY BE FOUND NEGATIVE FOR NITRATES
EVEN IF HE ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN?
• USE OF AUTOMATIC PISTOL
• DIRECTION OF THE WIND
• WIND VELOCITY
• USE OF GLOVES
• KNOWLEDGE OF CHEMICALS THAT WILL REMOVE THE NITRATES.
 WILL NOT THESE GIVE POSITIVE FOR
PARAFFIN TEST?
IF THE HANDS OF THE SUBJECT PERSON IS CONTAMINATED WITH
NITRATES OTHER THAN FROM GUNPOWDER, ONE WILL EXPECT TO FIND
SMUDGES OR JUST A SMEAR OF BLUE COLOR OR A
CONGLOMERATION OF BLUE SPECKS. BUT NITRATES FROM
GUNPOWDER APPEAR AS BLUE SPECKS WITH TAILINGS, BECAUSE THESE
PARTICLES WERE EMBEDDED INTO THE HANDS WITH FORCE.
IS PARAFFIN TEST A EVIDENCE ? WHY?

NO. IT IS JUST A CORROBORATIVE EVIDENCE

WHICH INTENDS TO SUPPORT THE TESTIMONY
OF EYEWITNESS. THESE ARE INSTANCES
WHEREIN A PERSON WHO ACTUALLY
DISCHARGED A GUN WOULD STILL GIVE A
NEGATIVE RESULT TO THE PARAFFIN TEST
BECAUSE OF SEVERAL FACTORS.
 WHAT ARE THESE FACTORS?

1. TYPE OF CALIBER OF AMMUNITION

2. USE OF GLOVES
3. LENGTH OF THE BARREL
4. AGE OF THE GUN/EFFICIENCY OF MECHANISM
5. DIRECTION OF FIRING
6. WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY
7. HUMIDITY / PERCENTAGE MOISTURE IN AIR
8. WHEN 72 HOURS HAS ALREADY LAPSED
 TYPES OF CALIBER OF AMMUNITION

A HAND DISCHARGING A REVOLVER IS MORE LIKELY TO GIVE A

POSITIVE RESULT FOR GUNPOWDER NITRATES COMPARED TO THAT OF
A HAND DISCHARGING A PISTOL. IN AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL, THE
CHAMBER IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE BARREL, WHEREAS IN THE
REVOLVER THE CHAMBER IS LOCATED IN THE CYLINDER AND SEPARATED
FROM THE BARREL WITH AIRSPACE. THUS LEAKAGE OF POWDER IN
REVOLVER IS MORE LIKELY TO OCCUR.
 LENGTH OF THE BARREL

A WEAPON OF 2 INCH WILL DEPOSIT RESIDUE OVER A LARGER AREA

THAN A WEAPON OF 5 INCH BARREL. IN A LONGER BARREL, THE HAND
IS FARTHER WAY FROM THE MUZZLE END OF THE GUN. IT TAKES A
BULLET TO LEAVE A LONGER BARREL, THUS USING UP BURNING UP
MORE, IF NOT ALL, OF THE NITRATES. IN S SHORT BARREL, THE BULLET
TRAVELS THROUGH THE BARREL IN LESS TIME LEAVING BEHIND A
GREATER AMOUNT OF UNBURNED PARTICLES.
 AGE OF THE GUN/EFFICIENCY OF
MECHANISM

COMPLETE COMBUSTION OR THE CONVERSION OF

ALL NITRATES INTO ITS END PRODUCT IS MORE
LIKELY TO OCCUR IN A NEW WEAPON COMPARED
TO AN OLD ONE. BESIDES, LEAKAGE OF
GUNPOWDER IS MORE LIKELY TO HAPPEN IN THE
OLD WEAPON WHERE THE BREECH MECHANISM IS
NO LONGER TIGHTLY FITTED.
 DIRECTION OF FIRING

MORE POWDER RESIDUE WILL BE

OBTAINED WHEN THE GUN IS DISCHARGE
POINTING UPWARD THAN DOWNWARD.
GUNPOWDER RESIDUE HAVE WEIGHT
AND WILL NATURALLY FALL DOWN
BECAUSE OF GRAVITY.
 WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY
IN HIGH VELOCITY,(STRONG WIND),
THE POWDER IS RESIDUE WILL BE
BLOWN IN THE DIRECTION OF THE
WIND. ONE IS MORE LIKELY TO BE
POSITIVE FOR GUNPOWDER NITRATES
IF THERE IS NO WIND, OR THE WIND
DIRECTION IS TOWARD THE SHOOTER.
HUMIDITY/PERCENTAGE IN AIR

HUMIDITY LESSENS THE EXTENT OF COMBUSTION YIELDING MORE

GUNPOWDER NITRATES
 FALSE POSITIVE REACTION
SMEAR BLUE COLOR OR A CONGLOMERATION OF BLUE SPECKS ON BOTH
DORSAL AND PALM ASPECTS OF THE HAND. FAILURE TO FIND TRACES OF
NITRATES ON THE HAND OF THE PERSON DOES NOT PROVE THAT HE DID
NOT FIRE A GUN. BUT IT IS SUBMITTED THAT THE PARAFFIN TEST HAS SOME
VALUE DUE TO THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECT ON THE PERSONS WHOSE
HANDS WERE FOUND POSITIVE.

ALSO, THE FINDING OF ACTUAL TRACES OF GUNPOWDER NITRATES ON

THE HAND OF THE PERSON DOES NOT CONCLUSIVELY DETERMINE OR
ESTABLISH THAT HE HAS DISCHARGE A GUN. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE GSR
PARTICLE MAY HAVE BEEN BLOWN ON THE HAND DIRECTLY FROM THE
BARREL OF THE GUN BEING DISCHARGE BY ANOTHER PERSON.
 HISTORY OF PARAFFIN TEST/DISTAL
NITRATE OR DIPHENYLAMINE TEST
PARAFFIN TEST WAS ORIGINATED FROM CUBA WHEN DR.
GONZALO ITURRIOS FIRST USED PARAFFIN FOR COLLECTING
GUNPOWDER RESIDUE FROM DISCHARGE FIREARMS. IN 1933,
TEODORO GONZALES OF CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION LABORATORY,
MEXICO CITY INTRODUCES THE TEST IN THE UNITED STATES. IN THIS TEST,
THE HANDS WERE COATED WITH A LAYER OF MELTED PARAFFIN. AFTER
COOLING, THE CAST WERE REMOVED AND TREATED WITH
DIPHENYLAMINE 5% AND 60% SULFURIC
 WHAT IS THE PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE
PARAFFIN TEST?
WHILE THE RESIDUE IS DEPOSITED ON THE TARGET AND IN THE
BARREL OF THE GUN, SOME OF THESE BURNES PARTIALLY BURNED
PARTICLES MAY ESCAPE AROUND THE BREECH OF THE GUN AND SOME
MAY BE EMBEDDED ON THE EXPOSED SURFACE OF THE HANDS OF THE
PERSON DISCHARGING THE GUN. THUS, THE PRESENCE OF THESE
RESIDUE CAN BE DETECTED BY MEANS OF EXAMINATION
AS A RULE, IN THE PARAFFIN EXAMINATION, THE FORENSIC
CHEMIST/ CHEMICAL OFFICER SHOULD PERSONALLY CONDUCT THE
PARAFFIN CASTING ON THE ALLEGED OFFICER.
• PARAFFIN CASTING OF THE ALLEGED SHOOTER SHALL ONLY BE DONE
WITHIN 72 HRS FROM THE TIME OF THE ALLEGED SHOOTING INCIDENT. NO
PERSON SHALL BE SUBJECTED TO PARAFFIN CASTING AFTER THE LAPSE OF THE
SPECIFIED PERIOD.

• EMBALMED CADAVER WHO ALLEGEDLY DISCHARGED FIREARM SHALL NO

LONGER BE SUBJECTED TO PARAFFIN EXAMINATION BECAUSE OF THE
IMPOSSIBILITY OF EXTRACTING THE GUNPOWDER NITRATES FROM THE
FORMERS HANDS.
 2.GUNPOWDER RESIDUE TEST ON
FIREARMS
THE DIPHENYLAMINE REAGENT IS ALSO APPLIED TO COTTON
SWABBING OF THE BARREL AND CHAMBERS OF THE GUN TO DETERMINE
IF THE FIREARMS WAS DISCHARGED. A DEEP BLUE COLOR RESULTING
FROM THE REACTION OF NITRATES WITH THE REAGENT INDICATES
PRESENCE OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE.
 GUNSHOT RESIDUE

1. NITRATES – BY MEANS OF PARAFFIN CASTING

2. LEAD RESIDUE – DETECTION LIMIT UP TO 30 FT. AND ALWAYS
PRESENTS ON THE OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE PENETRATED TARGET.
3. GUNPOWDER RESIDUE EXAMINATION –DETECTION LIMIT HIGHLY
VARIABLE UP TO 20 CM, UP TO 21 INCHES IS COMMON.

Remember;
The amount of residue deposited decreases with increasing fire range.
 GUNSHOT RESIDUE

1. NITRATES – BY MEANS OF PARAFFIN CASTING

2. LEAD RESIDUE – DETECTION LIMIT UP TO 30 FT. AND ALWAYS
PRESENTS ON THE OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE PENETRATED TARGET.
3. GUNPOWDER RESIDUE EXAMINATION –DETECTION LIMIT HIGHLY
VARIABLE UP TO 20 CM, UP TO 21 INCHES IS COMMON.

Remember;
The amount of residue deposited decreases with increasing fire range.
3. ODOR OF THE BARREL ; IF THE GUN HAS NOT BEEN DISCHARGE AT ALL,
NO RUST CAN BE DETECTED INSIDE THE BARREL, BUT AFTER A GUN HAS BEEN
DISCHARGE , IRON SALTS ARE FORMED AND ARE FOUND INSIDE THE BARREL.
THESE IRON SALTS ARE FORMED AND ARE FOUND INSIDE THE BARREL. THESE
ION SALTS ARE SOON OXIDIZED RESULTING IN THE FORMATION OF RUST.
THE FORMATION OF RUST IS AFFECTED BY THE HUMIDITY OF THE AIR SO
THAT IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULT , THE FACTOR MUST ALWAYS
BE CONSIDERED.

4. PRESENCE OF NITRATES ( COTTON SWA BBING) – NITRATES DIMINISH

AFTER A LAPSE OF TIME. NITRATES CAN BE DETECTED BY SWABBING A
PORTION OF RESIDUE IN A BARREL AND MIX THE RESIDUE WITH
DIPHENYLAMINE SOLUTION (DPA).
5. DERMAL NITRATES TEST ; THE TEST IS DESIGNED TO DETERMINE THE
PRESENCE OF GUNPOWDER NITRATES ON THE HANDS OF THE ALLEGED
SHOOTER.
 COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND
TRANSIT OF SPECIMEN
A. CLOTHING REMOVED FROM THE VICTIM SHOULD BE CAUTIOUSLY
AND CAREFULLY HANDLED TO PREVENT POWDER RESIDUE FROM
BECOMING DISLODGED.
B. DO NOT WAD THE SPECIMEN OR PACK IT LOOSELY FOR SHIPMENT.
C. SECURE THE AREA TO BE TESTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF HEAVY
CARDBOARD FASTENED TOGETHER TIGHTLY TO PREVENT THE SPECIMEN
FROM BECOMING POSTLUDE ABOUT IN THE TRANSIT.
D. EACH SPECIMEN SHOULD BE WRAPPED TIGHTLY, AND MARKED
E. CLOTHING HEAVILY SMEARED WITH BLOOD SHOULD BE
DRIED THOROUGHLY BEFORE PACKING.
F. GUN RECOVERED FROM THE CRIME SCENE OF THE CRIME
AND AMMUNITION AVAILABLE SHOULD BE PRESERVED.
G. PERSON SUSPECTED TO HAVE DISCHARGE A FIREARMS
SHOULD BE SUBJECTED TO A PARAFFIN TEST. ( COVER HIS
HANDS WITH PAPER BAGS TO AVOID CONTAMINATION.)
EXAMINATION MUST BE PERFORMED IMMEDIATELY AND IN
NO CASE SHOULD IT BE POSTPONED 72 HOURS AFTER THE
SHOOTING.
 3. GUNSHOT RANGE (GSR )
DETERMINATION
WHEN A GUN IS DISCHARGED, GUNPOWDER RESIDUE MAY ALSO BE
DEPOSITED ON THE CLOTHING OF THE VICTIM. THE SIZE AND DENSITY
OF THE PATTERN OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE FOUND ON THE CLOTHING
ARE THE MAIN FACTORS CONSIDERED IN DETERMINING THE
APPROXIMATE DISTANCE OF THE SHOOTER TO THE VICTIM. AS THE
DISTANCE TO THE VICTIM DENSITY DECREASE AND VICE-VERSA.
 DISTANCE DETERMINATION

THE METHOD OF DETERMINING THE

DISTANCE BETWEEN THE FIREARMS AND
THE TARGET. THIS IS USUALLY BASED ON
THE DISTANCE OF THE POWDER PATTERNS
OR THE SPREAD OF THE SHOT PATTERN.
 IMPORTANCE OF DISTANCE
DETERMINATION
A. IN CONNECTION TO SELF-DEFENSE PLEAS.
B. IN THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN MURDER AND SUICIDE. IT IS POSSIBLE TO STATE
WITH CERTAINTY THE DISTANCE OF THE GUN FROM THE TARGET BY MEANS OF THE
PATTERNS AND RESIDUES LEFT ON THE TARGET. NOT ONLY THE TYPE OF GUN, BUT
THE ALSO THE CONDITION AND TYPE OF AMMUNITION THAT WILL AFFECT THIS
PATTERN. IN ASCERTAINING THE GUNSHOT RANGE THE EXAMINER SHOULD NOTE
AND OBSERVE THE FF.
A. ENTRANCE AND EXIT HOLE – CONTAINS GUNPOWDER RESIDUE ( BULLET WIPE
RESIDUE) AND IT IS SLIGHTLY BURNED. THE DIAMETER OF ENTRANCE IS SMALLER
THAN THE EXIT HOLE. THE EXIT HOLE IS FRAYED OUTWARD WHILE ENTRANCE
INWARD.
 CLASSIFICATION OF GUNSHOT
DISTANCE
THE DISTANCE OF THE MUZZLE OF THE GUN TO
THE TARGET IS CLASSIFIED INTO 3;
• DIRECT CONTACT (BURNING)
• 2 INCHES TO 36 INCHES AWAY
• 36 INCHES AWAY OR MORE
 CHARACTERISTIC OF GUNSHOT
WOUNDS
A. DIRECT/CONTACTS WOUNDS – THE PRINCIPALS DAMAGE IS MORE
VISIBLE DUE TO THE FLAME AND THE MUZZLE BLAST THAN TO THE
PENETRATION OF BULLET. THE FF. OBSERVATION MAY BE NOTED
1. GAPING HOLE WHERE FABRIC IS BADLY TORN
2. BLACKENED AREA SURROUNDING THE BULLET HOLE
3. THE PRESENCE OF PARTIALLY BURNED POWDER RESIDUES AROUND
THE ENTRANCE HOLE
(SCORCHING OR SINGEING)
A CONTACT GUNSHOT WOUND FROM
A 22-CALIBER HANDGUN
2. WOUNDS INFLICTED AT A DISTANCE FROM
2-36 INCHES; IF THE GUN IS DISCHARGE
CLOSELY TO THE BODY OF THE VICTIM, 2
TYPES OF DISCOLORATION WILL BE
OBSERVED AROUND THE HOLE OF THE
ENTRANCE NAMELY; SMUDGING AND
POWDER TATTOOING ( BLACK COARSELY
PEPPERED PATTERN.)
 SMUDGING

IS PRODUCED WHEN THE GUN IS HELD

FROM ABOUT 2 INCHES TO THE MAXIMUM
OF 8 INCHES. THE SMOKE AND SOOT
FROM THE BURNED PORES ARE DEPOSITED
AROUND THE HOLE OF THE ENTRANCE
PRODUCING A DIRTY APPEARANCE.
CLOSE-UP IMAGES SHOWING THE
TESTS MADE FROM A CLOSE (2
INCH/2.5CM) DISTANCE
 POWDER TATTOOING

BLACK COARSELY PEPPERED PATTERN. INDIVIDUAL SPECKS OF TATTOOING

AROUND THE HOLE ARE VISIBLE BY THE NAKED EYE.
THE AREA OF BLACKENING AROUND THE PERFORATION WILL BE FOUND TO
DIMINISH IN SIZE AS THE MUZZLE OF THE GUN IS HELD FURTHER AWAY
FROM THE TARGET. TAKE NOTE THAT THE SIZE OF THE AREA OF POWDER
TATTOOING WILL ALSO DEPEND ON THE FF;
CALIBER
POWDER CHARGE
DISTANCE OF FIRING
INDIVIDUAL SPECKS OF TATTOOING AROUND THE HOLE ARE VISIBLE BY THE
NAKED EYE.
THE AREA OF BLACKENING AROUND THE PERFORATION WILL BE
FOUND TO DIMINISH THE SIZE AS THE MUZZLE OF THE GUN IS HELD FURTHER
AND THE HOLE WILL COMPLETELY DISAPPEAR. A FEW
INDIVIDUAL SPECKS OF TATTOOING WILL BE VISIBLE WITH THE NAKED EYE.
 3. WOUNDS INFLICTED AT A DISTANCE OF MORE
THAN 36 INCHES
POWDER TATTOOING IS SELDOM PRESENT. NITRATES
FOUND WILL NOT BE SUFFICIENT FOR GSR.
 ENTRANCE AND EXIT WOUNDS

ENTRANCE WOUNDS – TYPICALLY HAVE MARGINS. THE DIAMETER OF

THE ENTRANCE MARK IS NOT AN ACCURATE HOLE OF THE CALIBER OF
THE BULLET. ENTRANCE HOLE MAY EXHIBITS BULLET WIPE RESIDUE, IT IS A
DARKENED RING AROUND MARGINS OF THE HOLE LITERALLY MADE BY
LEAD WIPED FROM THE BULLET AS IT PASSED.
 EXIT WOUNDS

HAVE IRREGULAR MARGINS AND ARE LARGELY FREE FROM BULLET

WIPES RESIDUE. EXIT HOLE MAY BE LARGER IN DIAMETER OF THE BULLET.
ENTRY AND EXIT WOUNDS FROM CLOSE-RANGE SHOT TO
THE HEAD. NOTE THE ELONGATED ENTRY HOLE WITH DARK
RESIDUE STAINING AROUND IT, AND THE TYPICAL STAR-
SHAPED EXIT WOUND
 MODERN METHOD OF DETECTION

• NAA – NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

• AAS – ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
• SEM-EDA – SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY WITH ENERGY
DISPERSIVE ANALYSIS
• ICP-MS – INDUCTIVE COUPLED PLASMA WITH MASS
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY.
 BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE

A TYPE OF EXAMINATION USING MICROSCOPE WHICH IS COMMONLY

USED IN COMPARISON OF EMPTY SHELL CONTAINING CHARACTERISTIC
MARKS FROM GROVES OF THE GUN BARREL AND FIRING PIN OF
SPECIFIC FIREARMS USED.
 OTHER EXAMINATION

–TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE VICTIM WAS HOLDING A FIREARMS, ONE

METHOD USED IS BY SPRAYING THE HANDS OF VICTIM WITH
FERROZINE SPRAY USED TO DETERMINE THE PRESENCE OF IRON
TRACES.

HYDROXYGUINOLINE TEST WITH FLUORESCENT CAN ALSO BE USED.

EXPLOSIVES
 DEFINITION

IS ANY SUBSTANCE THAT MAY CAUSE AN EXPLOSION BY ITS SUDDEN

DECOMPOSITION OR COMBUSTION. A MATERIAL EITHER A PURE SINGLE
SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE OF SUBSTANCE WHICH IS CAPABLE OF
PRODUCING AN EXPLOSION BY ITS OWN ENERGY. WHEN EXPLODED
ALWAYS ACCOMPANIED WITH THE LIBERATION OF HEAT AND ALMOST
WITH THE FORMATION GAS.
 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES FROM
THE VIEWPOINT OF CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION.
a. INORGANIC COMPOUND – LEAD AZIDE PB (N) AND AMMONUIM
NITRATE NH NO
b. ORGANIC COMPOUND – TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT);PICRIC ACID
(TRINITROPHENOL; MERCURY FULMINATE (HG (ONC)
c. MIXTURE OF OXIDIZING MATERIAL AND OXIDIZING AGENTS.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES WITH
RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING
CHARACTERS
1. PROPELLANT/LOW EXPLOSIVES – ARE
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS CONTAINING
WHICH BURN BUT DO NOT EXPLODE
AND FUNCTION BY PRODUCING GAS
WHICH PRODUCES EXPLOSION.
2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVES/INDICATORS –
EXPLODE OR DETONATE WHEN THEY ARE
HEATED OR SUBJECTED TO SHOCK. THEY DO
NOT BURN. SOMETIMES THEY DO NOT EVEN
CONTAIN THE ELEMENTS NECESSARY FOR
COMBUSTION. THE MATERIALS THEMSELVES
EXPLODE AND THE EXPLOSION RESULT
WHETHER THEY ARE CONFINED OR NOT.
EX. MERCURY FULMINATE AND LEAD AZIDE
3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES – EXPLODE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE SHOCK OF
THE EXPLOSION OF A PRIMARY EXPLOSIVES. THEY DO NOT FUNCTION BY
BURNING, IN FACT NOT ALL OF THEM CAN BE IGNITED BY A FLAME AND IN
SMALL AMOUNT GENERALLY BURN TRANQUILLY AND CAN BE EXTINGUISHED
EASILY.
EX. AMMONIUM NITRATE – MOST READILY AVAILABLE AND CHEAPEST SALT
OF NITRIC ACID.
DYNAMITE – NITROGLYCERINE WITH POWDER OF SAWDUST.
 EX OF HIGH EXPLOSIVE

TNT – THE MOST WIDELY USED EXPLOSIVES USED IN MILITARY

EXPLOSIVES.
NITROGLYCERINE (NG)- USED IN INDUSTRIAL EXPLOSIVE, OILY LIQUID
THAT IS VERY DANGEROUS BECAUSE THE SLIGHTEST SHAKE WILL CAUSE
EXPLODE.
PLASTIC EXPLOSIVES - MILITARY EXPLOSIVES,
PICRIC ACID- ALSO CALLED TRINITROPHENOL
C-4, or composition 4, is one variety of plastic explosive. The basic idea of plastic
explosives, also called plastic bonded explosives (PBX), is to combine explosive
chemicals with a plastic binder material. The binder has two important jobs: